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Bushfires and tank rainwater quality: A cause for concern?

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In early 2003, after a prolonged drought period, extensive bushfires occurred in the east of Victoria affecting 1.5 million hectares of land. At the time, smoke and ash from bushfires, settling on roofs, contained pollutants that could potentially contaminate rainwater collected and stored in tanks for domestic use. The major concerns include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from incomplete combustion of organic matter and arsenic from burnt copper chrome arsenate (CCA) treated wood. An increase in microbial contamination through altered nutrient levels was also hypothesised. A pilot study of 49 rainwater tank owners was undertaken in north-east Victoria. A rainwater tank sample was taken and analysed for a variety of parameters including organic compounds, microbiological indicators, metals, nutrients and physico-chemical parameters. A survey was administered concurrently. A number of results were outside the Australian Drinking Water Guideline (ADWG) values for metals and microbiological indicator organisms, but not for any tested organic compounds. PAHs and arsenic are unlikely to be elevated in rainwater tanks as a result of bushfires, but cadmium may be of concern.
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Bushfires and tank rainwater quality: A cause for
concern?
Jean Spinks, Suzanne Phillips, Priscilla Robinson and Paul Van Buynder
ABSTRACT
Jean Spinks
Suzanne Phillips
Environmental Health Unit, Department of Human
Services,
17/120 Spencer Street,
Melbourne, VIC 3000,
Australia
Priscilla Robinson
School of Health Sciences,
LaTrobe University,
Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
Paul Van Buynder (corresponding author)
School of Population Health, University of Western
Australia,
227 Stubbs Terrace, Shenton Park,
WA 6008, Australia
Ph: 08 93884971
Fax: 08 93884975
E-mail: paul.vanbuynder@health.wa.gov.au
In early 2003, after a prolonged drought period, extensive bushfires occurred in the east of
Victoria affecting 1.5 million hectares of land. At the time, smoke and ash from bushfires, settling
on roofs, contained pollutants that could potentially contaminate rainwater collected and stored
in tanks for domestic use. The major concerns include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
from incomplete combustion of organic matter and arsenic from burnt copper chrome arsenate
(CCA) treated wood. An increase in microbial contamination through altered nutrient levels was
also hypothesised. A pilot study of 49 rainwater tank owners was undertaken in north-east
Victoria. A rainwater tank sample was taken and analysed for a variety of parameters including
organic compounds, microbiological indicators, metals, nutrients and physico-chemical
parameters. A survey was administered concurrently. A number of results were outside the
Australian Drinking Water Guideline (ADWG) values for metals and microbiological indicator
organisms, but not for any tested organic compounds. PAHs and arsenic are unlikely to be
elevated in rainwater tanks as a result of bushfires, but cadmium may be of concern.
Key words
|
arsenic, Australia, bushfires, cadmium, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
rainwater tanks
INTRODUCTION
During the first two months of 2003, the regions of north-
east Victoria and East Gippsland were subject to bushfires
likened in severity to the ‘Black Friday’ fires of 1939 (CRC
Catchment Hydrology, www.catchment.crc.org.au/bush-
fire/background_preamble.html, 2003). Over 1.5 million
hectares were fire-affected and at least 41 houses and 200
other buildings were lost (DSE 2003). The fires coincided
with one of the longest droughts on record.
During the fires, concerns were raised about the
possible effect of smoke and ash contaminants on the
quality of private drinking water supplies, particularly
contaminants which settle on roofs and then are washed
into storage tanks after rains or hosing of roofs to put out
burning embers. Of particular concern was the possibility of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from incomplete
combustion of organic matter and arsenic from burnt
copper chrome arsenate (CCA) treated wood.
PAHs are a group of more than 100 compounds,
including benz(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene which
are classified as probable human carcinogens by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC
1973a,b). PAHs can be formed during the incomplete
burning of materials such as wood, garbage, coal and gas
and would be expected as a result of bushfires. They are also
present in petroleum and coal based products, including
roofing tar. PAHs can exist as vapours or attached to small
solid particles such as dust, and can travel significant
distances before settling on roofs and being washed into
tanks after rainfall. Most PAHs are not readily soluble in
water and break down over a period of weeks to months
(ATSDR 1995).
Wood treated with CCA has been used in fence posts,
furniture and other structures such as outdoor huts. When
CCA treated wood is burnt, arsenic can be found in the
doi: 10.2166/wh.2005.059
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resultant ash, much of which is in the water-soluble form
(Dobbs & Grant 1976). This ash again may settle on roofs
used as catchments for rainwater stored in tanks. Over time,
exposure to arsenic by ingestion in both its organic and
inorganic forms can result in a wide range of deleterious
systemic health effects, including cancer (ATSDR 2000).
In addition to the above concerns, it was thought that
an increase in burnt organic material being washed into
tank water might lead to increased levels of microbial
growth.
To review the extent of the bushfire related water
quality issues, a pilot study was undertaken by the Public
Health Division, Department of Human Services, Victoria.
The aim of the study was to investigate whether contami-
nants from the bushfires had affected the quality of
rainwater collected from roofs and stored in tanks for
domestic use.
METHODS
Recruitment
Rural areas of north-east Victoria were selected as the study
region based on fire severity data and an expected reliance
on rainwater for a potable supply (Heyworth et al. 1998).
Local maps were used to select properties (CFA 1998).
Property numbers in the areas of interest were randomly
selected and telephone numbers for these properties were
acquired from local telephone directories. A telephone
‘recruitment interview’ was used to identify willing and
eligible participants from the prepared lists. Eligibility
criteria included the presence of an intact, undamaged,
above ground water tank, and use of the water from this
tank for drinking or food preparation. A total of 49
participants were recruited.
Survey
A survey was administered by a public health officer when
the water tank was sampled. Information was collected on
confounders such as tank construction materials and
maintenance practices as well as estimates of the severity
of smoke and ash contamination locally during the
bushfires.
Rainwater tank testing
Water samples were collected and preserved in accordance
with Standard Methods (1995). One complete sample set
was taken from the household tap used to source drinking
water. In the absence of a household tap connected to the
water tank, the sample was taken directly from the tap on
the tank where water was normally sourced. Five litres of
water was discarded before the sample was collected. The
parameters tested are shown in Table 1.
The water sample test results were communicated to
each participant individually by mail, and a help line was
established to provide further information if required by the
participant regarding management of their private drinking
water supply.
Table 1
|
Parameters tested in water samples
Category Indicator
Microbiological E. coli, coliforms, faecal streptococci
Organic compounds PAHs, including benzo(a)pyrene; VOCs including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
and xylene (BTEX); total organic carbon
Heavy metals Lead (Pb), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn)
Physico-chemical pH, colour (true and apparent), turbidity, total dissolved solids (tds), alkalinity
Nutrients Total nitrogen (N), NH
3
, nitrate, total phosphorus (P)
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Data analysis
Data were analysed in Epi-Info software, Version 6.
1
After
simple descriptive analyses, key independent variables were
stratified into two or more levels. Microbiological quanti-
fications were grouped into three levels and other par-
ameters grouped above and below the Australian Drinking
Water Guideline (ADWG). Mantel-Haenszel chi-square
analyses at the 95% significance level were performed
when more than two samples returned parameter results
above the ADWG.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The primary characteristics of the tanks sampled are shown
in Table 2. Participants confirmed the presence of smoke;
48 participants reported the smoke on their property as
being very bad (could not see more than 1 km into the
distance) for an average of 7.1 days, and 45 participants
reported the smoke as being bad (could not see more than
3 km into the distance) for an average of 18.6 days. Only
two participants reported the smoke as being not bad.
Many participants were aware of the correct mainten-
ance procedure for collecting and storing rainwater, but
most did not adhere to these guidelines. None disinfected
the rainwater in their tanks, and only nine respondents used
some type of first flush or diversion system to divert
potentially contaminated water away from their collection
tanks.
The results of the rainwater tank samples are tabulated
against the Australian Drinking Water Guideline Standards
(ARMCANZ 1996) (ADWG) in Tables 3–6.
The physico-chemical results for the samples were
found to be compliant with the ADWG, with the exception
of pH. The range for pH was found to be 5.210.2 units. Of
the samples tested, 31 tanks (63.3%) fell inside the
recommended value of 6.58.5 units. The physico-chemical
results did not indicate any demonstrable risk. The ADWG
advise only extreme values, , 4or. 11, may adversely affect
health. In addition, values ,6.5 may be corrosive and . 8.5
may cause scale and taste problems. Values less than 8 may
Table 2
|
Characteristics of rainwater tanks
Total number of tanks
sampled 49
Roof material
p
Galvanised iron 26 (53%)
Colourbond 20 (41%)
Tiles 4 (8%)
Zincalume 3 (6%)
Age of roof Mean 21.2 years
Median 16 years
Range 3 mths 126 years
Tank material† Concrete 35 (71%)
Galvanised iron 7 (14%)
Plastic 6 (12%)
Fibreglass 3 (6%)
Gutter material‡ Colourbond 12 reports
Galvanised iron 9 reports
Zincalume 6 reports
Painted metal 2 reports
Aluminium 1 report
Age of tank‡ Mean 13.4 years
Median 14.5 years
Range 3 mths30 years
Trees overhanging roof Yes 12 (25%)
No 37 (75%)
Solid fuel heater in home Yes 41 (84%)
No 8 (16%)
Disinfection agent used in
water; e.g. chlorine
No 100%
p
Four participants reported more than one material
Participants could report more than one material due to interconnected tanks made of
different materials
Not fully reported
1
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), USA, and World Health Organisation
(WHO), Geneva, Switzerland: EpiInfo 6, a word processing, database and statistics
program for public health, Version 6.04d, January 2001.
23 J. Spinks et al.
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decrease the efficiency of chlorination; however none of the
respondents was disinfecting their tank.
The results of the heavy metal testing are summarised in
Table 4. Some cadmium, iron and zinc results were above
the ADWG. Additionally one arsenic result was at the upper
ADWG guideline level of 0.007 mg l
21
although below the
World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline for arsenic in
drinking water of 0.01 mg l
21
(WHO 2001). The next highest
Table 5
|
Characteristics of tanks with elevated cadmium levels
Cd mg l
21
(0.002)
p
Zn mg l
21
(3)
p
pH units
(6.58.5)
p
Tank material Tank age Roof material Roof age
Filter
on tank
Fuel burning
stove
First flush
system
Smoke
very bad Smoke bad
0.0067 7.4 6.7 Plastic 1 year Galvanised
iron
50 years No Yes No 7 days 14 days
0.0034 5.4 6.4 Fibreglass 25 years Galvanised
iron
50 years No No No 6 days 28 days
p
Australian Drinking Water Guideline
Table 3
|
Physico-chemical results
Parameter ADWG
p
Significance Number of tanks outside ADWG
p
Range
p
Colour (filt), Pt/Co units 15 HU Aesthetic 3 (6.1%) , 2–25HU
pH, units 6.58.5 Aesthetic 18 (36.7%) 5.210.2 units
Total dissolved solids, 1058C 500 mg l
21
Aesthetic 0 24130 mg l
21
Turbidity, NTU 5 NTU Aesthetic 2 tanks had 5 NTU , 0.5 5 NTU
HU, Hazen units; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; Pt/Co, platinum cobalt units
Table 4
|
Heavy metal results
Parameter ADWG
p
Significance Number of tanks outside ADWG
p
Range
p
Arsenic, as As (ICP-MS) 0.007 Health 0 , 0.001 0.007
Cadmium, as Cd (ICP-MS) 0.002 Health 2 (4.1%) , 0.00020.0067
Chromium, as Cr (ICP-MS) 0.05 Health 0 , 0.001 0.008
Copper, as Cu (ICP-MS) 2 Health 0 0.0050.58
Iron, as Fe (ICP-MS) 0.3 Aesthetic 5 (10.2%) , 0.050.78
Lead, as Pb (ICP-MS) 0.01 Health 0 , 0.001 0.006
Zinc, as Zn (ICP-MS) 3 Aesthetic 7(14.3%) 0.00317
p
Results in mg l
21
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arsenic value recorded was 0.003 mg l
21
, and the majority of
results (41 tanks, 83.7%) recorded values that fell below
detectable levels (, 0.001 mg l
21
). It is unclear if the arsenic
result that fell on the upper guideline value was due to air
contamination from the bushfires, or some other source.
The property in question was subject to significant air
pollution during the fires (10 days of visibility less than 1 km
into the distance, followed by 14 days of visibility less than
3 km into the distance), and the owners did hose down the
roof during the bushfires with water obtained from the
reticulated supply; however no obvious CCA treated
structures burnt in the near vicinity. As the ‘maximum
tolerable daily intake value for arsenic includes adequate
safety factors’ (ADWG 1996) this result is not considered to
pose any health risk. The overall arsenic levels suggest that
the contamination of collected rainwater by arsenic from
CCA treated wood during bushfires is not likely.
Two cadmium samples results were above the ADWG
health guideline of 0.002 mg l
21
(0.0067 mg l
21
,
0.0034 mg l
21
), and one value (0.0018 mg l
21
) was just
below. The next highest value recorded was 0.0005 mg l
21
and the majority of results (39 tanks, 80.0%) fell below
detectable levels (, 0.0002 mg l
21
).
Long-term exposure to cadmium can cause kidney
dysfunction and osteomalacia (ADWG 1996). Bushfires can
release some cadmium into the air (ATSDR 1999).
Cadmium is also found naturally in water, and elevated
levels may result from industrial or agricultural contami-
nation or from impurities in galvanised (zinc) fittings,
solders or brasses (ADWG 1996). Cadmium metal is used
as an anti-corrosive coating for steel.
The characteristics of the collection systems for the two
properties with elevated cadmium are shown in Table 5.
In both, the results for zinc were also above the ADWG, the
catchment roof was made of galvanised iron, and was over
50 years old. This may indicate that the corrosion of the roof
was the source of both the cadmium and zinc in the
samples. While contamination from bushfire smoke and ash
may have contributed to the elevated cadmium levels found
in the samples, the smoke exposure described at these two
properties was similar to overall averages. Further investi-
gation is warranted and repeat sampling is planned later in
the year.
The ADWG for iron, 0.3 mg l
21
, is a taste threshold and
an aesthetic guideline only. Five samples were found to
have levels of iron above this value, the highest of which
Table 6
|
Microbial testing results
Parameter ADWG
p
Significance Result
p
Percentage of tanks in range
Coliforms MPNColilert 0 Health 0 10.2
199 49.0
100999 20.4
1000 þ 20.4
E. coli MPNColilert 0 Health 0 67.3
199 32.7
Faecal streptococci 0 Health 0 26.5
199 59.2
100999 12.2
1000 þ 2.0
p
Results in organisms per 100 ml
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was 0.78 mg l
21
. Iron occurs naturally in water, usually at
, 1mgl
21
(ADWG 1996) and the levels of iron recorded
were not considered to be a health risk. No relationship was
found in the study between iron levels greater than the
ADWG and galvanised iron tanks or roof materials.
The ADWG for zinc is 3 mg l
21
and is an aesthetic
guideline only. Seven samples were found to contain zinc
levels higher than this value, the highest of which was
7.4 mg l
21
. Elevated zinc levels may result from the
corrosion of galvanised iron roof or tank material, or
galvanised pipes and fittings, leading to taste concerns. A
significant association was found between having a galva-
nised iron tank and a zinc level above the ADWG (RR 3.33,
1.0310.78, p ¼ 0.0002). Similarly, the association between
having a galvanised iron roof and an elevated zinc level was
almost significant (RR 3.67, 0.5823.03, p ¼ 0.06). Con-
versely, concrete tanks were associated with having zinc
levels below the ADWG (RR 0.30, 0.140.63, p ¼ 0.02).
Although five samples returned iron levels above the
ADWG, and seven samples returned zinc levels above the
ADWG, the presence of both these metals has been
associated with roof and tank materials in previous studies
(Thomas & Greene 1993; Banister et al. 1997) and it is
thought unlikely that the elevated results are associated
with the bushfires.
The nutrient results were unremarkable. The ADWG for
nitrate is 50 mg l
21
which will protect bottle-fed infants
under 3 months from methaemoglobinaemia. None of the
sample results was outside this guideline value. Apart from
nitrogen and nitrate there are no specified ADWG levels for
nutrient levels in drinking water. Higher nutrient levels are
not a stand-alone health risk, and may promote the growth
of microbiological contamination but nutrient levels were
not elevated in these samples.
All the samples returned results for benzo(a)pyrene,
benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene that were below
the detectable level of 1 mgl
21
. Additionally, all total
polyaromatic hydrocarbons results were below the detect-
able level of 8 mgl
21
.
Concern had been expressed that organic compounds
such as PAHs and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
would be found at higher than expected levels in rainwater
tank samples after the fires but this was not demonstrable in
this study. The possible reasons for this include that the
compounds were not found owing to the timing of the
testing in relation to rain events (either too early or too
late), the sample size was not big enough to detect samples
with elevated levels of these compounds or the areas chosen
for the study were not representative of other areas affected
by bushfires. It is likely however that the hypothesis that
these compounds may be washed into tanks was
unfounded.
Testing of nearby water from catchments in the same
geographical location was conducted both before and
after the first significant post-bushfire rainfall recorded in
the area. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were not
found at elevated levels (Department of Human Services,
Victoria, unpublished results) in these waterways either.
The results of microbiological indicator testing are
summarised in Table 6. No significant relationship was
found between the levels of microbiological indicator
organisms found in the samples and the maintenance
procedures of using a first flush system, cleaning the gutters
or cleaning the holding tank. A high percentage of samples
tested had significant levels of microbiological indicator
organisms. The presence of E. coli and faecal streptococci
may be indicators of faecal contamination and a potential
health risk.
Many studies have shown significant microbiological
contamination in rainwater stored in tanks for domestic
use has (Appan 1997; Banister et al. 1997; Verrinder &
Keleher 2001). Microbiological contamination may be a
result of many factors including animal droppings on the
catchment roof, dead animals and insects or organic
material on the roof or in gutters, soil, agricultural or
industrial waste or human sewage being washed into
tanks. The level of microbiological contamination found
in a rainwater tank sample is the result of a complex and
dynamic set of parameters. Factors involved include
physico-chemical properties of the water such as dis-
solved oxygen, pH and temperature, and the typ
e of tank, roof and guttering materials used to catch and
store rainwater. Overhanging trees, treatment of roofs, ash
from solid fuel burning stoves, dust, moss and lichen on
roofs and gutters, pesticides and other agricultural waste
can also contribute.
The microbiological results of studies conducted in Victoria
and South Australia when air contamination from bushfires
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was not a consideration are summarised in Table 7. The results
of this study did not vary greatly from previous studies.
It was hypothesised that ash, embers and burnt organic
material from the bushfires would increase the turbidity
thus reducing disinfection effect and increase nutrient
levels. Although we cannot exclude air contamination
from the bushfires as a contributor to the number of
indicator organisms found in the samples, the results are not
dissimilar to previous work.
The presence of indicator organisms in rainwater stored
in tanks is not necessarily indicative of pathogens being
present. Verrinder & Keleher (2001) report that ‘exceeding
the numerical guidelines for the microbiological content
might not necessarily be a threat to the health of the public’. In
part this may be due to enhanced immunity in a population
regularly exposed to this water source. Participants in this
study were offered advice on tank water maintenance and
disinfection procedures.
CONCLUSION
The aim of this study was to explore possible deleterious
effects of bushfires on the quality of rainwater captured
from roofs and stored in tanks for private supply. Of greatest
concern was the possibility of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) from burnt organic matter and
arsenic from burnt treated pine in the form of ash being
washed into storage tanks from roofs. None of these
parameters fell outside the ADWG, and even allowing for
the small number of tanks in this study, it is unlikely that
these compounds pose a threat to public health via water
following bushfires.
As with previous studies iron and zinc were found in
some samples at levels above those of the ADWG and this is
thought to be related to tank and roof materials. It is likely
that the elevated cadmium levels were also related to tank
or roof materials; however as cadmium is released into the
air during bushfires, contamination from this source cannot
be ruled out.
Elevated levels of microbiological indicator organisms
were found in a significant portion of the samples tested
confirming previous Australian studies. Given the similarity
with previous studies and the poor levels of tank mainten-
ance described by the respondents, these results are
probably not due to the effects of the bushfires, although
it cannot be ruled out as a contributing factor.
As a significant rainfall event occurred before the collec-
tion of baseline samples, the results were compared with the
Table 7
|
Microbiological contamination in the samples in comparison with previous Australian tank water studies
Study No. of tanks in study Positive for faecal coliforms/ E. coli Positive for faecal streptococci Positive for coliforms
Fuller et al. 1991 41 20% (tanks) 26% (samples) No data
South Australia 1981
Lightbody 1993 60 18% (samples) 82% (samples) 71% (samples)
Victoria 1993
Bannister et al. 1997 20 28% No data 57%
Victoria 1997
Verrinder & Keleher 2001 100 38% No data 52%
Victoria 2001
This study 49 32% 73% 90%
Victoria 2003
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ADWG alone. A study comparing the parameters of rainwater
in the same tanks before and after bushfires would provide a
more meaningful comparison, as a large number of confound-
ing factors can cause samples to fall outside the ADWG.
The small sample size (49), has limited the generalisa-
bility of the study results; however, the health risk
associated with drinking rainwater stored in tanks following
bushfires appears to be low. Further investigation of how
best to communicate maintenance procedures for private
drinking water supplies to the public remains a public
health priority. In addition, as a precautionary measure, the
recommendation is to use first-flush or diversion systems for
tanks especially following times of significant air pollution
such as during and following bushfires.
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Available online January 2006
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2006
... Similarly, Townsend and Douglas (2004) observed increased post-fire loads of annual Fe (1.2 kg ha −1 ) and Mn (0.22 kg ha −1 ) transport in a Savanna forest catchment in Kakadu National Park in Australia. The possible deleterious effects of the Eastern Alpine Fire (2003) on the quality of rainwater captured from roofs and stored in tanks for private supply were studied by Spinks et al. (2006). They found that concentrations of Cd (in two sample results; 0.0034 and 0.0067 mg L −1 ), Fe (five sample results) and Zn (seven sample results) were above the Australian Drinking Water Guideline of 0.002, 0.03 and 3 mg L −1 respectively (ADWG, 2011) and there are indications that the forest fire smoke and ash may have contributed to these increases. ...
... Forest fires and peat bogs increased metal amounts in the aquatic environment. Metals were released into the atmosphere through volatilzation and were trapped in smoke particles or distributed as fly ash after combustion Spinks et al. (2006) East Gippsland Fire, 2003 Victoria, Australia Hg Loss of Hg in the freshly burned soil was observed. Four-fold increase in surface Hg concentrations were observed in the Day Fire area. ...
Article
Forest catchment supply high quality water to a number of communities around the world. • Forest fire release sequestered metals from soil organic matter and vegetation. • Post-fire erosion rapidly transports these metals to downstream soil and water bodies. • Their deposition in the water bodies affects the water quality and aquatic biota. • This metal contamination may reach to human being as a consumer. One of the significant economic benefits to communities around the world of having pristine forest catchments is the supply of substantial quantities of high quality potable water. This supports a saving of around US$ 4.1 trillion per year globally by limiting the cost of expensive drinking water treatments and provision of unnecessary infrastructure. Even low levels of contaminants specifically organics and metals in catchments when in a mobile state can reduce these economic benefits by seriously affecting the water quality. Contamination and contaminant mobility can occur through natural and anthropogenic activities including forest fires. Moderate to high intensity forest fires are able to alter soil properties and release sequestered metals from sediments, soil organic matter and fragments of vegetation. In addition, the increase in post-fire erosion rate by rainfall runoff and strong winds facilitates the rapid transport of these metals downslope and downstream. The subsequent metal deposi-tion in distal soil and water bodies can influence surface water quality with potential impacts to the larger ecosystems inclusive of negative effects on humans. This is of substantial concern as 4 billion hectares of forest catchments provide high quality water to global communities. Redressing this problem requires quantification of the potential effects on water resources and instituting rigorous fire and environmental management plans to mitigate deleterious effects on catchment areas. This paper is a review of the current state of the art literature dealing with the risk of post-fire mobilization of the metals into surface water resources. It is intended to inform discussion on the preparation of suitable management plans and policies during and after fire events in order to maintain potable water quality in a cost-effective manner. In these times of climate fluctuation and increased incidence of fires, the need for development of new policies and management frameworks are of heighted significance.
... For example, Ahmed et al. [15] report a median level of prevalence of 57% (percent of samples reporting positive detections of E. coli) for nine studies from a range of countries. Spinks et al. [45] summarise five previous Australian tank water studies and report prevalence rates of 18%-38% E. coli detections. ...
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The greater Wellington region, New Zealand, is highly vulnerable to large earthquakes because it is cut by active faults. Bulk water supply pipelines cross the Wellington Fault at several different locations, and there is considerable concern about severe disruption of the provision of reticulated water supplies to households and businesses in the aftermath of a large earthquake. A number of policy initiatives have been launched encouraging householders to install rainwater tanks to increase post-disaster resilience. However, little attention has been paid to potential health hazards associated with consumption of these supplies. To assess health hazards for householders in emergency situations, six 200-litre emergency water tanks were installed at properties across the Wellington region, with five tanks being allowed to fill with roof-collected rainwater and one tank being filled with municipal tapwater as a control. Such tanks are predominantly set aside for water storage, and once filled, feature limited drawdown and recharge. Sampling from these tanks was carried out fortnightly for one year, and samples analysed for E. coli, pH, conductivity, a range of major and trace elements, and organic compounds, enabling an assessment of the evolution of water chemistry in water storage tanks over time. Key findings were that the overall rate of E.coli detections in the rain-fed tanks was 17.7%, which is low in relation to other studies. We propose that low incidences of E.coli may be due to biocidal effects of high zinc concentrations in tanks, originating from unpainted galvanised steel roof cladding. Lead concentrations were high compared to other studies, with 69% of rain-fed tank samples exceeding the World Health Organisation’s health-based guideline of 0.01 mg/L. Further work is required to determine risks of short-term consumption of this water in emergency situations.
... Other scholars have previously reported on the high detection of E. coli from roof-harvested rainwater (2 to 986 CFU/100 mL; 1 to 99 MPN/100 mL and 0 to 41 CFU/100 mL) [1,30,31]. None of the tanks monitored in this study met the guidelines for drinking-water quality, as the E. coli amounts exceeded the South African drinking-water quality guidelines of 0 CFU/100 mL. The considerable amounts of E. coli in the harvested rainwater samples indicate possible faecal contamination. ...
Article
Full-text available
Although many developing countries use harvested rainwater (HRW) for drinking and other household purposes, its quality is seldom monitored. Continuous assessment of the microbial quality of HRWwould ensure the safety of users of such water. The current study investigated the prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected weekly between June and September 2016 from 11 tanks in various areas of the province. Enumeration of E. coli was performed using the Colilert®18/Quanti-Tray® 2000 method. E. coli isolates were obtained and screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated harvested rainwater for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli.
... Other scholars have previously reported on the high detection of E. coli from roof-harvested rainwater (2 to 986 CFU/100 mL; 1 to 99 MPN/100 mL and 0 to 41 CFU/100 mL) [1,30,31]. None of the tanks monitored in this study met the guidelines for drinking-water quality, as the E. coli amounts exceeded the South African drinking-water quality guidelines of 0 CFU/100 mL. The considerable amounts of E. coli in the harvested rainwater samples indicate possible faecal contamination. ...
Article
Full-text available
Although many developing countries use harvested rainwater (HRW) for drinking and other household purposes, its quality is seldom monitored. Continuous assessment of the microbial quality of HRW would ensure the safety of users of such water. The current study investigated the prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected weekly between June and September 2016 from 11 tanks in various areas of the province. Enumeration of E. coli was performed using the Colilert ® 18/Quanti-Tray ® 2000 method. E. coli isolates were obtained and screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated harvested rainwater for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli.
... For example, Ahmed et al. [15] report a median level of prevalence of 57% (percent of samples reporting positive detections of E. coli) for nine studies from a range of countries. Spinks et al. [51] summarise five previous Australian tank water studies and report prevalence rates of 18%-38% E. coli detections. ...
Article
Full-text available
The greater Wellington region, New Zealand, is highly vulnerable to large earthquakes because it is cut by active faults. Bulk water supply pipelines cross the Wellington Fault at several different locations, and there is considerable concern about severe disruption of the provision of reticulated water supplies to households and businesses in the aftermath of a large earthquake. A number of policy initiatives have been launched encouraging householders to install rainwater tanks to increase post-disaster resilience. However, little attention has been paid to potential health hazards associated with consumption of these supplies. To assess health hazards for householders in emergency situations, six 200-litre emergency water tanks were installed at properties across the Wellington region, with five tanks being allowed to fill with roof-collected rainwater and one tank being filled with municipal tapwater as a control. Such tanks are predominantly set aside for water storage and, once filled, feature limited drawdown and recharge. Sampling from these tanks was carried out fortnightly for one year, and samples were analysed for E. coli, pH, conductivity, a range of major and trace elements, and organic compounds, enabling an assessment of the evolution of water chemistry in water storage tanks over time. Key findings were that the overall rate of E. coli detections in the rain-fed tanks was 17.7%, which is low in relation to other studies. We propose that low incidences of may be due to biocidal effects of high zinc concentrations in tanks, originating from unpainted galvanised steel roof cladding. Lead concentrations were high compared to other studies, with 69% of rain-fed tank samples exceeding the World Health Organisation’s health-based guideline of 0.01 mg/L. Further work is required to determine risks of short-term consumption of this water in emergency situations.
Article
Roof runoff has the potential to serve as an important local water source in regions with growing populations and limited water supply. Given the scarcity of guidance regulating the use of roof runoff, a need exists to characterize the microbial quality of roof runoff. The objective of this 2-year research effort was to examine roof runoff microbial quality in four U.S. cities: Fort Collins, CO; Tucson, AZ; Baltimore, MD; and Miami, FL. Seven participants, i.e., homeowners and schools, were recruited in each city to collect roof runoff samples across 13 precipitation events. Sample collection was done as part of a citizen science approach. The presence and concentrations of indicator organisms and potentially human-infectious pathogens in roof runoff were determined using culture methods and digital droplet polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR), respectively. The analyzed pathogens included Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Cryptosporidium parvum. Several factors were evaluated to study their influence on the presence of potentially human-infectious pathogens including the physicochemical characteristics (total suspended solids, volatile suspended solids, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, and turbidity) of roof runoff, concentrations of indicator organisms, presence/absence of trees, storm properties (rainfall depth and antecedent dry period), percent of impervious cover surrounding each sampling location, seasonality, and geographical location. E. coli and enterococci were detected in 73.4% and 96.2% of the analyzed samples, respectively. Concentrations of both E. coli and enterococci ranged from <0 log10 to >3.38 log10 MPN/100 mL. Salmonella spp. invA, Campylobacter spp. ceuE, and G. duodenalis β – giardin gene targets were detected in 8.9%, 2.5%, and 5.1% of the analyzed samples, respectively. Campylobacter spp. mapA and C. parvum 18S rRNA gene targets were not detected in any of the analyzed samples. The detection of Salmonella spp. invA was influenced by the geographical location of the sampling site (Chi-square p-value < 0.001) as well as the number of antecedent dry days prior to a rain event (p-value = 0.002, negative correlation). The antecedent dry period was negatively correlated with the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. ceuE as well (p-value = 0.07). On the other hand, the presence of G. duodenalis β–giardin in roof runoff was positively correlated with rainfall depth (p-value = 0.05). While physicochemical parameters and impervious area were not found to be correlated with the presence/absence of potentially human-infectious pathogens, significant correlations were found between meteorological parameters and the presence/absence of potentially human-infectious pathogens. Additionally, a weak, yet significant positive correlation, was found only between the concentrations of E. coli and those of Giardia duodenalis β-giardin. This dataset represents the largest-scale study to date of enteric pathogens in U.S. roof runoff collections and will inform treatment targets for different non-potable end uses for roof runoff. However, the dataset is limited by the low percent detection of bacterial and protozoan pathogens, an issue that is likely to persist challenging the characterization of roof runoff microbial quality given sampling limitations related to the volume and number of samples.
Article
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Introduction Roof-harvested rainwater held in domestic tanks is used for a variety of purposes in Australia, including drinking and irrigation. There is limited evidence about the quality of rainwater after bushfires. Current health guidelines can be interpreted that landholders need to drain their rainwater tanks to avoid the risk of contamination. Anecdotal reports indicate that following such advice caused additional distress to landowners affected by bushfires in South Australia. Sustainable water management is important for future resilience and more evidence on water quality following bushfires is needed. Aim This project investigated whether there is contamination of roof-harvested rainwater after bushfires, and if so, whether such water was safe for various purposes. Methods In 2017 we tested artificially contaminated water spiked with chemicals associated with bushfires (chromated copper arsenate-treated ash and firefighting foam) and conducted a pilot field study using two purposely built roofs during a pre-fire season burn off. A field validation is planned for the summer of 2018/19 (December 2018 - March 2019), i.e., we plan to obtain 200 samples from 50 households affected by bushfire – two samples immediately after the fire event and another two after the first rain. Results The artificially created contaminated water fell within guidelines for non-potable uses such as irrigation and stock watering, but was found unsuitable for drinking even after being filtered through two commercially available water filtration systems. We also plan to present results from our field study of 50 households. Discussion Contaminant concentrations, even in artificially spiked water samples, are low and acceptable for non-potable uses. Bottled water should be used for drinking. Landholders should be encouraged to use their water for recovery purposes. Such advice may assist with decreasing the stress experienced by affected landholders and help with recovery efforts through the availability of a greater body of water.
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A total of 285 water samples were collected from 71 roof harvested rainwater tanks from four villages in different provinces over a two-year (2013–2014) period during the early (October to December) and late (January to March) rainy season. Water quality was evaluated based on Escherichia coli, faecal coliforms and Enterococcus spp. prevalence using the IDEXX Quanti-Tray quantification system. Real-Time PCR was used to analyse a subset of 168 samples for the presence of Shigella spp., Salmonella spp. and E. coli virulence genes (stx1, stx2 and eaeA). Escherichia coli were detected in 44.1% of the samples, Enterococcus spp. in 57.9% and faecal coliforms in 95.7%. The most prevalent E. coli concentrations in harvested rainwater were observed in 29.1% of samples and 22.5% for Enterococcus spp. and, were within 1–10 cfu/100 ml and 10–100 cfu/100 ml, respectively, whereas those for faecal coliforms (36.6%) were within 100–1000 cfu/100 ml. On average 16.8% of the samples had neither E. coli nor Enterococcus spp. detected, while 33.9% had only Enterococcus spp. and 23.7% had only E. coli. E. coli and Enterococcus spp. were detected together in 25.5% of the samples. Evaluation of samples for potential pathogenic bacteria showed all tested samples to be negative for the Shigella spp. ipaH gene, while five tested positive for Salmonella ipaB gene. None of the samples tested positive for the stx1 and stx2 genes, and only two tested positive for the eaeA gene. These findings are potentially useful in the development of a simplified risk assessment strategy based on the concentrations of indicator bacteria.
Article
This review examines the prospects of a decentralised hybrid rainwater-greywater system to simultaneously alleviate water scarcity and address technical, environmental, and cost constraints. This includes (1) a review on the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of rainwater and greywater to determine the necessary treatment options; (2) a review of individual components and potential treatment trains for hybrid systems; and (3) an evaluation of configurations for hybrid systems. The literature review reveals that both untreated rainwater and greywater are highly variable in quality and quantity, and so an equalisation basin is proposed to normalise influent into a hybrid system. Both rainwater and greywater should not be reused without treatment due to the presence of pathogens such as Aeromonas, Salmonella, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus. Based on the literature, hybrid systems are categorised under three configurations: (a) separate treatments of rainwater and greywater; (b) rainwater reused in washing machines prior to reuse as greywater; and (c) combined treatment of rainwater and greywater. In all three designs, rainwater requires only first-flush diversion and disinfection. Combined rainwater-greywater mixtures should be treated as greywater. Greywater requires chemical, biological, and physical treatment to meet non-potable reuse standards. Chemical processes are effective at removing solids, organics, and surfactants in light greywater, whereas aerobic biological processes are effective at organics removal in mixed and dark greywaters with high organic strength. Physical processes, particularly membrane filtration, are recommended for polishing effluents from chemical or biological treatment as membranes foul frequently and are costly. Subsequently, a combination of ozone or UV with chlorine is recommended to eradicate chlorine-resistant Cryptosporidium oocysts from hybrid rainwater-greywater systems and prevent microbial regrowth.
Chapter
The popularity of rainwater harvesting has increased in recent years due to increasing demands on strained water supplies and infrastructure and increasing awareness of the benefits of green stormwater infrastructure. Active rainwater harvesting systems, in which the water is captured and stored in a tank or similar container, can be a major source of water in urban areas supplying non-potable end uses such as irrigation, toilet flushing, and cooling towers. Harvested rainwater is also used for potable uses commonly in developing nations and rarely in developed nations. The benefits of rainwater harvesting systems extend beyond water conservation to include alleviating the impact of stormwater runoff on surface waters, contributing to groundwater preservation, and reducing dependency on utility potable water and consequently energy conservation. This chapter focuses on active rainwater harvesting systems design and discusses environmental impacts and economic and life cycle assessment of rainwater harvesting systems. The chapter concludes with recommendations on future research needs.
Article
The aim of the research was to gain a better understanding of the relationship between drinking water quality, householders' knowledge and maintenance practices of private water supplies and drinking water-related public health risk on farms. Samples of drinking water were taken from 100 farming households. The Colilert-18 method was used for the detection of total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli) as indicators of water quality. Each household completed a questionnaire about their knowledge and practices relating to a safe water supply. Coliforms were present in 52 water samples and E. coli was present in 38. Seven households reported minor illnesses in the previous three months and two households reported gastroenteritis. Some tank maintenance occurred in 86 households, but tank maintenance activities varied considerably. Four of the households had published guidelines on water quality. None of the participating households had their drinking water tested regularly. There was no obvious relationship between drinking water quality, householder knowledge, maintenance practices and drinking water-related health risk on farms.
Article
A water quality analysis of rainwater collected from different roof catchments in rural, urban and industrial areas was conducted to determine its suitability for domestic purposes. Examination of the collected rainwater samples indicated that the bacterial quality was poor, and the physical and chemical qualities varied between each area and between each site. Rainwater from industrial area roof catchments had lead concentrations averaging two-fold higher than the WHO drinking water guidelines and also had high levels of turbidity, suspended solids and zinc. Water collected from rural area roof catchments had a higher concentration of nitrates and a slightly higher pH. Although lead was detected in urban area roof catchments, concentrations were not as high as the concentrations in the industrial area. The different roof types had an influence on the rainwater quality with zinc concentrations higher in galvanised iron roof catchments, while pH, conductivity and turbidity levels were higher in concrete tile roof catchments. The pollution of rainwater collected from roof catchments was mainly due to the diffused pollution from atmospheric deposition, and the number of dry days preceding a rainfall event affected the collected rainwater quality.
Article
Recent studies which have implicated mains supply water as a source of gastroenteritis (Payment et al, 1991; 1997), have ramifications for water supplies in Australia. This is particularly so for those water supplies in rural or semi -rural communities where the source water is often of a lower quality and its treatment limited. Rainwater collected and stored in tanks on domestic premises is an important source of potable water in South Australia. However knowledge about the risk to health from drinking tank rainwater is limited. Potential sources of contamination include faecal material from birds, rodents, possums and other animals; accumulated fallout from air pollutants; breakdown products from roofing material, and organic debris from overhanging trees. The focus of this study is the microbiological quality. A number studies of tank rainwater have indicated the water quality to be below guideline values for indicator organisms (Fuller et al. 1981; Thomas and Greene 1993; Edwards 1994). Cryptosporidium and Giardia cysts have been detected in tank rainwater in the Virgin Islands (Crabtree et al, 1996). Tank rainwater has also been implicated as a cause of an outbreak of gastroenteritis in Trinidad (Koplan et al 1978).
Article
There is extensive use of simple and inexpensive roof water collection systems in some Southeast Asian countries. The collected runoff which flows off different types of roofs is affected not only by the inherent quality of the roofing material but also by the contamination of roofs by rodents, birds, etc. Consequently, bacteriological quality levels are excessive though the collected rainwater is still used extensively for potable purposes. From samples collected in most locations, there were positive Total and Faecal Coliform counts though, in terms of physico-chemical parameters, roof water appears to be of a higher quality. Various causes have been attributed to the frequent presence of Faecal Coliform but, mostly, pollution is of animal origin as the Faecal Coliform/Faecal Streptococci ratio is less than unity. It is proposed that the collected roof water be boiled, disinfected with household bleach or be subjected to radiation from sunlight which appears to have good potential to be an effective bactericide. It is recommended that simple testing methods be developed and health education imparted to the various aspects of utilising roof water collection systems.
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