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The ethic of care development: A longitudinal study of moral reasoning among practical‐nursing, social‐work and law‐enforcement students
Abstract
The study investigated changes in care-based moral reasoning, in the context of justice development over the 2-year period among practical-nursing, bachelor-degree social-work and law-enforcement students (N = 59). Main measures were Skoe's Ethic of Care Interview and Colby et al.'s Moral Judgment Interview. Of the participants 34% progressed in care reasoning, and 48% in justice reasoning. Social-work and nursing students progressed in care reasoning, and all groups progressed in justice reasoning. One participant (1.7%) regressed in care reasoning. Care and justice reasoning were parallel in terms of internal consistency, and they were positively related to each other. Findings suggest that care reasoning follows a developmental sequence, involving three main and two transitional levels, as suggested by Gilligan (1982). Main levels include self-concern (Level 1), caring for others (Level 2), and balanced caring for self and others (Level 3).
... There was no mention of virtue ethics and consequentialism discussed explicitly or implicitly together in an article in the literature sample. Separately, the moral theory known as the ethics of care (n = 5, 9%) appeared in the literature sample and, in one instance, examined care-based moral reasoning in the context of the ethic of care and justice development, which has the potential to have an impact on ethical decision-making [23]. The following excerpts highlight several prominent occurrences of implicit discussions of normative ethical theories from the scoping review sample. ...
... However, law enforcement organizations can change their culture to better address the different moral risks encountered by their officers. Therefore, it is imperative for policymakers and law enforcement agencies to understand the social forces and multi-level factors that influence the likelihood for officers in a given situation to make unethical decisions in the course of their work and to accept or condone the deviant behaviors of others [23,27,68]. The end-state would be to responsibly educate the general public in order to foster community relationship-building with law enforcement and to create informed policies built upon public consensus. ...
... In addition, there is an empirical gap in the research on moral injury in policing, necessitating empirical study on the effects of moral suffering on law enforcement professionals based on anecdotal evidence and psychological disorders [23]. The review reveals that the research lacks granularity on the specifics of interventions when applied to ethical decision-making. ...
Decision-making in uncertain and stressful environments combined with the high-profile cases of police violence in the United States has generated substantial debates about policing and created challenges to maintaining public confidence and trust in law enforcement. However, despite the manifestations of reactions across the ideological spectrum, it is unclear what information is available in the literature about the convergence between ethical decision-making and policing. Therefore, an interdisciplinary scoping review was conducted to map the nature and extent of research evidence, identify existing gaps in knowledge, and discuss future implications for ethical decision-making in law enforcement. This review investigates the interaction between the job complexities of policing (psychological and normative factors) and aspects of ethical decision-making, synthesizing three distinct themes: (1) socio-moral dimensions impact the job complexities of police work, (2) lethal means and moral injury influence intuitive and rational decision-making, and (3) police wellness and interventions are critical to sustaining police readiness. Gaps in recruiting, training, and leadership and managerial practices can be broadly transformed to fundamentally emphasize officer wellness and a holistic approach to ethical practices, enabling police officers to uphold the rule of law, promote public safety, and protect the communities they serve.
... The ethic of care is related to age, identity, and ego development (Skoe, 1998;Juujärvi, 2006). Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the MJI) correlated strongly positively. ...
... The ethic of care is related to age, identity, and ego development (Skoe, 1998;Juujärvi, 2006). Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the MJI) correlated strongly positively. Studies using the DIT have shown from modest to moderate correlations . ...
... Studies using the DIT have shown from modest to moderate correlations . It seems that individuals at higher care levels show a greater variance of justice reasoning, suggesting that these developmental paths are independent though interrelated, and obviously sharing at least perspective-taking as a common element (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2010). They both are also based on the underlying constructs of differentiation and integration. ...
Moral judgment and value priorities affect both people's attitudes and behavior, and their interconnection in particular may be essential in promoting cooperation between individuals and societies. This article reviews this interconnection from the moral psychological viewpoint, focusing on cognitive-developmental approaches to the ethics of justice and the ethics of care, but also on moral foundations. The personal and cultural values are conceptualized by Schwartz's value theory. The research findings are discussed from the point of view of maintaining cooperation as well as promoting conflict resolution.
... The ethic of justice sees a moral conflict as conflicting claims arising from rights and duties between individuals, whereas the ethic of care sees them arising from disturbances and ruptures in relationships. In solving moral conflicts, the ethic of justice seeks to maintain obligation, equity, and fairness through the application of moral principles, rules, and established standards, whereas the ethic of care seeks to sustain and restore good relationships through responding to the needs of others (Gilligan, 1982;Juujärvi, 2006). The ethic of care thus represents particularistic moral reasoning and the ethic of justice univer salistic moral reasoning. ...
... Studies with the ECI so far have involved over 1500 participants, ranging from 10 to 85 years of age and involving several nationalities from North-America and Scandinavian countries (Skoe, 2014). Cross-sectional studies and three longitudinal studies have unanimously supported the suggested developmental sequence of the levels originally proposed by Gilligan (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2012;Pratt, Skoe, & Arnold, 2004). Care reasoning among adults seems to vary across all levels. ...
... The construct validity of the levels of care reasoning is supported by findings of positive relations to volunteer helping (Pratt et al., 2004), affective empathy and perspective-taking (Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2010), complexity of reasoning, and consultation with others (Skoe, Pratt, Matthews, & Curror, 1996). Furthermore, 51 forensic psychiatric patients who had committed serious violent crimes scored at the lowest ECI levels with two exceptions (Adshead, Brown, Skoe, Glover, & Nicholson, 2008), whereas 25% of social work students had achieved the highest level at the end of their studies (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2012). ...
... The ethic of justice sees a moral conflict as conflicting claims arising from rights and duties between individuals, whereas the ethic of care sees them arising from disturbances and ruptures in relationships. In solving moral conflicts, the ethic of justice seeks to maintain obligation, equity, and fairness through the application of moral principles, rules, and established standards, whereas the ethic of care seeks to sustain and restore good relationships through responding to the needs of others (Gilligan, 1982;Juujärvi, 2006). The ethic of care thus represents particularistic moral reasoning and the ethic of justice univer salistic moral reasoning. ...
... Studies with the ECI so far have involved over 1500 participants, ranging from 10 to 85 years of age and involving several nationalities from North-America and Scandinavian countries (Skoe, 2014). Cross-sectional studies and three longitudinal studies have unanimously supported the suggested developmental sequence of the levels originally proposed by Gilligan (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2012;Pratt, Skoe, & Arnold, 2004). Care reasoning among adults seems to vary across all levels. ...
... The construct validity of the levels of care reasoning is supported by findings of positive relations to volunteer helping (Pratt et al., 2004), affective empathy and perspective-taking (Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2010), complexity of reasoning, and consultation with others (Skoe, Pratt, Matthews, & Curror, 1996). Furthermore, 51 forensic psychiatric patients who had committed serious violent crimes scored at the lowest ECI levels with two exceptions (Adshead, Brown, Skoe, Glover, & Nicholson, 2008), whereas 25% of social work students had achieved the highest level at the end of their studies (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2012). ...
Modern democratic societies provide their members with latitude for choice
regarding values and moral codes, in interpersonal relations, professional life, as
well as political views on a fair society. This chapter examines two research
traditions in moral psychology which view adult moral thinking in terms of
reflective problem solving aroused by moral conflicts. The Piaget-inspired cognitive-developmental theory founded by Lawrence Kohlberg laid emphasis on the conceptions of justice as a core of moral reasoning and development across lifespans. This view was challenged by Carol Gilligan (1982), who
argued that justice does not capture the essence of interpersonal moral conflicts women encounter in their everyday lives and suggested an alternative mode of moral reasoning, the ethic of care, to increase understanding of the essential nature of moral thought. The chapter describes justice and care as specific modes of moral reasoning that follow developmental trajectories of their own and equip individuals with cognitive tools to solve moral conflicts they encounter in their lives.
... and r2(59) =.53, all ps < .001 (Juujärvi, 2006). Similarly, in a sample of middle-aged and older Canadian adults, the correlation between the ECI (calculated on the basis of two real-life dilemmas) and MJI scores was r(33) = .55, ...
... Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data show that care reasoning levels as tested with the ECI are positively related to age in adolescents and young adults, but relatively stable in mid-to late adulthood. This is congruent with findings on justice-based moral thinking (e.g., Juujärvi, 2006;Pratt et al., 2004;Skoe et al., 1996), and thereby provide some construct validity for the ECI as a developmental measure. ...
... Although there has been less research on care than on justice aspects of moral thought, there is a growing body of work on pro-social concerns in moral conflicts (e.g., Carlo, 2006;Eisenberg et al., 2005) and on care-based moral development (e.g., Juujärvi, 2005Juujärvi, , 2006Juujärvi et al., 2010;Skoe, 2010Skoe, , 2013. Most of this research has been conducted on children, adolescents and young academic populations. ...
This paper presents a recently developed instrument of care-based moral development: The Ethic of Care Interview (ECI) (Skoe, 1998, 2008). Based on Carol Gilligan's (1982) theory, the ECI measures five levels of care-based moral thought. These range from an initial position of self-concern, through questioning of self-concern as a sole criterion; to a position of primarily other-concern, questioning of other-concern as a sole criterion; and finally balanced self and other concern. The stages involve a progressively more complex understanding of human interdependence and an increasing differentiation of self and other. The semi-structured ECI interview consists of a real-life moral conflict generated by the participant and three standardized dilemmas. Administration and scoring as well as reliability and validity are described. A series of studies has shown that balanced consideration of the needs of self as well as others appears to develop gradually across childhood into young adulthood. Research findings point to the importance of care-oriented morality for human growth, especially identity and personality development. Further research with the ECI is suggested.
... Care reasoning has been found to be closely related to identity and ego development (Skoe & Marcia, 1991;Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002). Two longitudinal studies, one with a four-year interval and 32 adolescents (Pratt, Skoe & Arnold, 2004), and another with a two-year interval and 59 young adults (Juujärvi, 2006), have supported the proposed sequence. In particular, Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and few number of regressed cases, having a positive correlation of 0.63. ...
... Two longitudinal studies, one with a four-year interval and 32 adolescents (Pratt, Skoe & Arnold, 2004), and another with a two-year interval and 59 young adults (Juujärvi, 2006), have supported the proposed sequence. In particular, Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and few number of regressed cases, having a positive correlation of 0.63. Studies using the Defining Issues Test, measuring tacit understanding of justice concepts, have shown from modest to moderate correlations (Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;. ...
... Studies using the Defining Issues Test, measuring tacit understanding of justice concepts, have shown from modest to moderate correlations (Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;. Detailed analysis shows that individuals at higher care levels can display a greater variance of justice reasoning, suggesting that these developmental paths are independent though interrelated, obviously sharing at least perspective-taking as a common element (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2010). It is also worth noting that studies with samples of young adults from North America and North Europe have not detected the originally proposed gender difference (Skoe, 1998;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;Juujärvi, 2006), paralleling findings on justice reasoning (e.g., Walker, 1991). ...
The aim of this study was to clarify the relationships between empathy variables, personal values and moral reasoning. The impact of empathic concern, perspective taking and personal values measured by the Portrait Value Questionnaire on moral schemas measured by the Defining Issues Test was investigated among 599 students from a university of applied sciences. The results revealed that perspective taking contributed to the post‐conventional schema, even after values were added on the hierarchical regression model, and that the personal interest schema was predicted by both individualist values (hedonism) and collectivist values (benevolence and tradition). Conformity and security predicted positively the maintaining norms schema whereas universalism and self‐direction served as negative predictors for the maintaining norms schema but positive predictors of the post‐conventional schema. Implications for professional ethics education are discussed.
... The ethic of justice sees a moral conflict as conflicting claims arising from rights and duties between individuals, whereas the ethic of care sees them arising from disturbances and ruptures in relationships. In solving moral conflicts, the ethic of justice seeks to maintain obligation, equity, and fairness through the application of moral principles, rules, and established standards, whereas the ethic of care seeks to sustain and restore good relationships through responding to the needs of others (Gilligan, 1982;Juujärvi, 2006). The ethic of care thus represents particularistic moral reasoning and the ethic of justice univer salistic moral reasoning. ...
... Studies with the ECI so far have involved over 1500 participants, ranging from 10 to 85 years of age and involving several nationalities from North-America and Scandinavian countries (Skoe, 2014). Cross-sectional studies and three longitudinal studies have unanimously supported the suggested developmental sequence of the levels originally proposed by Gilligan (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2012;Pratt, Skoe, & Arnold, 2004). Care reasoning among adults seems to vary across all levels. ...
... The construct validity of the levels of care reasoning is supported by findings of positive relations to volunteer helping (Pratt et al., 2004), affective empathy and perspective-taking (Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2010), complexity of reasoning, and consultation with others (Skoe, Pratt, Matthews, & Curror, 1996). Furthermore, 51 forensic psychiatric patients who had committed serious violent crimes scored at the lowest ECI levels with two exceptions (Adshead, Brown, Skoe, Glover, & Nicholson, 2008), whereas 25% of social work students had achieved the highest level at the end of their studies (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2012). ...
This article examines real‐life moral conflicts from the perspective of the ethic of care. Fifty‐six (Time 1) and 57 (Time 2) real‐life dilemmas provided by students representing different fields of study were analysed in terms of level of care reasoning according to Skoe's Ethic of Care Interview. The results showed that antisocial temptation and transgression dilemmas tended to invoke lower levels of care reasoning than conflicting‐demands and social‐pressure dilemmas. Participants reporting temptation dilemmas had the least developed care reasoning. The results suggest that subjects identified at different care levels perceive different types of real‐life moral conflict, and that the function of care reasoning varies according to the type of moral conflict.
... Based on Gilligan's stages, Eva Skoe (1993) constructed and validated a developmental measure of care-based moral reasoning, the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI). Studies with cross-sectional data (see Skoe, 1998) and two longitudinal studies (Pratt et al., 2004;Juujärvi, 2006a) have supported the proposed developmental sequence. Juujärvi (2006a) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and small number of regressed cases. ...
... Studies with cross-sectional data (see Skoe, 1998) and two longitudinal studies (Pratt et al., 2004;Juujärvi, 2006a) have supported the proposed developmental sequence. Juujärvi (2006a) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and small number of regressed cases. With regard to the controversial issue of sex differences, they have not been found among young academic adults in North America (see Skoe, 1998) or North-Europe (Skoe & von der Lippe, 2002;Juujärvi, 2006a). ...
... Juujärvi (2006a) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and small number of regressed cases. With regard to the controversial issue of sex differences, they have not been found among young academic adults in North America (see Skoe, 1998) or North-Europe (Skoe & von der Lippe, 2002;Juujärvi, 2006a). However, a difference favouring women has been found in a middle-aged Canadian sample (Skoe et al., 1996) and in a Canadian early adolescent sample (Skoe & Gooden, 1993), indicating that if sex differences exist, they seem to be bound with cultural factors. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between care and justice reasoning, dispositional empathy variables and meta‐ethical thinking among 128 students from a university of applied sciences. The measures were Skoe’s Ethic of Care Interview, the Defining Issues Test, Davis’s Interpersonal Reactivity Index and Meta‐Ethical Questionnaire. The results showed that levels of care reasoning were positively related to the post‐conventional schema and negatively related to the personal interest schema in justice reasoning. Age, meta‐ethical thinking, the post‐conventional schema and perspective taking predicted care reasoning. Sympathy was positively related to both modes of moral reasoning among men and predicted their care reasoning. The results point out common elements for care and justice reasoning, underscore the importance of perspective taking for moral reasoning and indicate that the relationship between affective‐based empathy and moral reasoning is gender‐specific and far more complex than previous theories suggest.
... Care reasoning has been found to be closely related to identity and ego development (Skoe & Marcia, 1991;Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002). Two longitudinal studies, one with a four-year interval and 32 adolescents (Pratt, Skoe & Arnold, 2004), and another with a two-year interval and 59 young adults (Juujärvi, 2006), have supported the proposed sequence. In particular, Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and few number of regressed cases, having a positive correlation of 0.63. ...
... Two longitudinal studies, one with a four-year interval and 32 adolescents (Pratt, Skoe & Arnold, 2004), and another with a two-year interval and 59 young adults (Juujärvi, 2006), have supported the proposed sequence. In particular, Juujärvi (2006) found that care and justice reasoning (measured by the Moral Judgement Interview) were parallel in terms of internal consistency and few number of regressed cases, having a positive correlation of 0.63. Studies using the Defining Issues Test, measuring tacit understanding of justice concepts, have shown from modest to moderate correlations (Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;. ...
... Studies using the Defining Issues Test, measuring tacit understanding of justice concepts, have shown from modest to moderate correlations (Skoe & Diessner, 1994;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;. Detailed analysis shows that individuals at higher care levels can display a greater variance of justice reasoning, suggesting that these developmental paths are independent though interrelated, obviously sharing at least perspective-taking as a common element (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2010). It is also worth noting that studies with samples of young adults from North America and North Europe have not detected the originally proposed gender difference (Skoe, 1998;Skoe & Lippe, 2002;Juujärvi, 2006), paralleling findings on justice reasoning (e.g., Walker, 1991). ...
Juujärvi, S., Myyry, L. & Pesso, K. (2012). Empathy and values as predictors of care development. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 53, 413–420.
This study investigates values and affective empathy as predictors for care-based moral development. Fifty-three students from a university of applied sciences were interviewed with Skoe’s Ethic of Care Interview at the beginning of their studies and two years later. Value priorities were measured by Schwartz et al.’s Portrait Value Questionnaire, empathy variables by Davis’ Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and feelings of sympathy were rated using a real-life moral conflict. The results showed that students in care-oriented fields progressed in care reasoning. Real-life sympathy and the value of self-direction positively predicted development in care reasoning, whereas personal distress was a negative predictor. The results indicate that care-based moral development is more closely connected with affective empathy than personal values. Individuals who feel empathy for others, and who prefer independent thinking and action, achieve the greatest gains in care development. In conclusion, educators should encourage students’ empathy and moral reasoning in authentic moral conflicts.
... The ethic of justice sees a moral conflict as conflicting claims arising from rights and duties between individuals, whereas the ethic of care sees them arising from disturbances and ruptures in relationships. In solving moral conflicts, the ethic of justice seeks to maintain obligation, equity, and fairness through the application of moral principles, rules, and established standards, whereas the ethic of care seeks to sustain and restore good relationships through responding to the needs of others (Gilligan, 1982;Juujärvi, 2006). The ethic of care thus represents particularistic moral reasoning and the ethic of justice univer salistic moral reasoning. ...
... Studies with the ECI so far have involved over 1500 participants, ranging from 10 to 85 years of age and involving several nationalities from North-America and Scandinavian countries (Skoe, 2014). Cross-sectional studies and three longitudinal studies have unanimously supported the suggested developmental sequence of the levels originally proposed by Gilligan (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2012;Pratt, Skoe, & Arnold, 2004). Care reasoning among adults seems to vary across all levels. ...
... The construct validity of the levels of care reasoning is supported by findings of positive relations to volunteer helping (Pratt et al., 2004), affective empathy and perspective-taking (Juujärvi, Myyry, & Pesso, 2010), complexity of reasoning, and consultation with others (Skoe, Pratt, Matthews, & Curror, 1996). Furthermore, 51 forensic psychiatric patients who had committed serious violent crimes scored at the lowest ECI levels with two exceptions (Adshead, Brown, Skoe, Glover, & Nicholson, 2008), whereas 25% of social work students had achieved the highest level at the end of their studies (Juujärvi, 2006;Juujärvi et al., 2012). ...
Moral reasoning of 57 (Time 1) and 59 (Time 2) nursing, social-work and law-enforcement students was investigated in terms
of care and justice reasoning about hypothetical and real-life dilemmas. The analysis methods were the Ethic of Care Interview,
the Moral Judgment Interview, Lyons' Moral Orientation Scheme and Wark and Krebs' classification of real-life dilemmas. The
type of dilemma predicted moral orientation usage. Prosocial dilemmas pulled for care and antisocial dilemmas for justice
orientation. Level of justice reasoning varied according to the type of dilemma. Real-life care reasoning was consistent with
participants' competence, with the exception of transgression-type dilemmas at Time 2. Levels of care and justice reasoning
were highly correlated with each other. These results underscore the importance of the dilemma type and suggest that care
reasoning is a significant part of real life morality. The study recommends the ECI as a new model to account for real-life
care reasoning.
... Studies with cross-sectional data (Skoe 1998) and two longitudinal studies (Pratt et al. 2004, Juujarvi 2006) have supported the proposed developmental sequence. Care development has been found to be related to justice reasoning (Skoe & Diessner 1994, Juujarvi 2006, identity and ego development (Skoe & Marcia 1991, Skoe & Diessner 1994, Skoe & von der Lippe 2002, and perspective-taking (Skoe et al. 1996). ...
... Studies with cross-sectional data (Skoe 1998) and two longitudinal studies (Pratt et al. 2004, Juujarvi 2006) have supported the proposed developmental sequence. Care development has been found to be related to justice reasoning (Skoe & Diessner 1994, Juujarvi 2006, identity and ego development (Skoe & Marcia 1991, Skoe & Diessner 1994, Skoe & von der Lippe 2002, and perspective-taking (Skoe et al. 1996). With regard to gender differences, these are not found among young adults, neither in North America nor in Northern Europe. ...
... With regard to gender differences, these are not found among young adults, neither in North America nor in Northern Europe. With regard to nursing, the only study to date (Juujarvi 2006) showed that nursing students progressed in care development over a 2-year study period. ...
This paper is a report of a study conducted to describe nursing and social services students' ethical reasoning at the start of their studies.
Gilligan argued that there are two modes of moral reasoning - the ethic of justice, focusing on individuals' rights, and the ethic of care, focusing on responsibilities in relationships. Recent research has established the ethic of care as a developmental phenomenon. It has been widely argued that the ethic of care is crucial for nursing, but there has been little international research in this area.
Participants were first-year nursing and social services students in Finland (N =112). Their care-based moral reasoning was measured using the Ethic of Care Interview, and their ethical reasoning on an abortion-related dilemma was analysed by content analysis. Expressed ethical codes and principles were calculated according to levels. The data were collected over a 5-month period in 2007-2008.
Students' level of care reasoning was varied. Their current level of care reasoning was reflected in their responses to the ethical dilemma. Ethical reasoning at each level and its specific premises constituted a distinct entity. Use of the principle of self-determination was positively related to levels of care development. Care-based moral reasoning constitutes the bedrock for ethical reasoning among these novice students.
Educators should be sensitive to the variation in students' current developmental levels in care reasoning. Reflective discussion on real-life ethical conflicts should be an explicit part of education and clinical practice in caring professions.
... Care and reasoning for justice have been found to be highly correlated. 25 This implies that a nurse with high ethical qualifications can play the role of caregiver rather well. Gastmans 26 also argued that ethical concepts such as virtues and emotions should be taught during ethics education classes. ...
... While it is unreasonable to compare the results of our ethical qualification measurement with those of other studies, it was still shown in other studies that the lower the grade level of nursing students, the higher the level of ethical qualification for justice and moral reasoning. 25 This probably reflects that younger students tend to have higher nursing synchronization and motivation. However, it is important to maintain the current level of ethical qualifications among future generations. ...
The role of nursing faculty members in charge of ethics education is important. Although all nursing students receive the same bioethics education, their experiences differ, related to ethical qualification, which depends on the personal socialization process. This Korean study aimed to provide nursing faculty members with the basic data to help them develop as bioethics experts and provide nursing students with knowledge to improve their ethical decision-making abilities. We used a survey design to assess recognition of bioethical issues and ethical qualification in nursing students and faculty members. A total of 1225 undergraduate students and 140 faculty members participated in this study. The results revealed that nursing students and nursing faculty members generally understood the seriousness of various bioethical issues and both considered the most serious issue to concern abortion. Ethical behavior can be improved by education, and accordingly, nursing ethics should be a mandatory subject, rather than an elective one.
... these conflicts were not captured by the academic research of that time centred on issues of justice. Since In her dissertation study, Juujärvi (2006) showed that nursing and social services students followed the developmental path, and two-thirds of them progressed in care development across a two-year period. In their longitudinal study, Juujärvi, Myyry and Pesso (2012) pointed out that the capacity of affective empathy predicted students' care development. ...
This publication is intended for everyone interested in ethics professionally: research, development and innovation (RDI) actors, educational agents, funders and higher education institutions. The publication will offer insights into ethics work within RDI activities and development of education. With this publication we also want to showthat ethics is a vivid part of everyday life of Laurea University of Applied Sciences in RDI and education.
... It is maintained that higher education per se promotes moral reasoning development through general intellectual stimulation and advanced role-taking opportunities, but exposure to effective ethics education can also accelerate development (Rest 1994). Consistent with this claim, it has been found that higher education also tends to promote moral reasoning development (Mayhew et al. 2015;Myyry et al. 2013;O'Flaherty and Gleeson 2014) in nursing and social services programmes (e.g., Duckett and Ryden 1994;Juujärvi 2006) even though progress in general seems to remain modest (see Molloy et al. 2016;Numminen and Leino-Kilpi 2007). In addition to dilemma discussions (Boss 1994;Bunch 2005;Keefer and Ashley 2001), a variety of methods have proven effective, including courses focusing on raising the awareness of diversity (Hurtado et al. 2012;Parker et al. 2016) or others in need (Lies et al. 2012), and interactive methods (Auger and Gee 2016; Saat et al. 2012). ...
Dilemma discussions have been proven to be one of the most effective methods to enhance students’ moral reasoning in ethics education. Dilemma discussions are increasingly arranged online, but research on the topic has remained sparse, especially in the context of continuing professional education. The aim of the present paper was to develop a method of dilemma discussions for professional ethics. The method was based on asynchronous discussions in small groups. Health and social care students raised work-related dilemmas from their experiences and discussed them in terms of professional values, ethical guidelines and theories. Participants in this quasi-experimental study were 87 first-term graduate students at a Finnish university of applied sciences. Health and social care students in two consecutive ethics courses constituted two experiment groups, whereas health and social care students and business students in other programmes served as control groups. Students filled in a Defining Issues Test (DIT2) at the beginning of their studies and three months apart. Statically significant increase in moral reasoning was evidenced for experiment group 2, when discussion groups were purportedly composed to maximise differences in initial levels of moral reasoning. Findings suggest that online dilemma discussions can advance students’ moral reasoning development, especially when students’ exposure to higher-level arguments is ensured through complementary means, such as instructions, examples and plenary discussions. Online real-life dilemma discussions may also serve other important goals of ethics education, especially acquiring ethical concepts, and they can promote other components of ethical decision making: ethical sensitivity and motivation, and acquisition of implementation skills.
... Following Lawrence Kohlberg (1984), who established the developmental stages for the ethic of justice, Gilligan (1982) also proposed developmental stages for the ethic of care. Eva Skoe (1993) In her dissertation study, Juujärvi (2006) showed that nursing and social services students followed the developmental path, and two-thirds of them progressed in care development across a two-year period. In their longitudinal study, Juujärvi, Myyry and Pesso (2012) pointed out that the capacity of affective empathy predicted students' care development. ...
The ethics of care and justice provide two complementary viewpoints on everyday ethics in human services and healthcare professions. The ethic of care is centred on maintaining relationships through responding to needs of other people and avoiding hurt, whereas the ethic of justice is centred on maintaining duties, equity and fairness through the application of ethical principles, rules and standards (Gilligan, 1982). The aim of this article is to describe how the ethics of care and justice can be integrated into the
education of nurses to promote a holistic approach to everyday ethics. We wish to elaborate upon the role of ethics of justice and care in nurses’ ethical decision-making and training based on the results from the COPE project, one aim of which was to develop a new pedagogical model for ethics education.
... Taking care of the customer produces quality in any service profession. The ethic of care includes development stages that describe an increasing understanding of the dynamics and responsibilities of human relationships, such as the relationship between customer and employee (Juujärvi 2006a;2006b;2006c). Without knowledge and application of the ethic of care, ethical problems related to assistance and nursing tasks cannot be solved fully. ...
In August 2006, Laurea concluded an extensive curriculum reform, which led to the creation of a shared competence-based core curriculum for the whole university. During the reform, a core curriculum model was created, which produces service innovations and competence, safeguards and facilitates the fulfilment ofLaurea’s strategies. All degree programme curricula were revised according to
this jointly created model. This chapter describes ethical competence as one of the core competences.
... 8 However, few empirical studies explicitly employing Gilligan's theory have pointed out that nurses use both care and justice considerations in ethical decision-making. 9,10 Moreover, longitudinal studies among social and healthcare students have shown that they follow a developmental path of the ethic of care proposed by Gilligan 11,12 and their level of care reasoning is reflected in their ethical decision-making. 13 The present article examines nurses' ethical decisionmaking in clinical settings specifically in the context of primary nursing of elderly care. ...
While the ethic of care has generally been regarded as an appropriate attitude for nurses, it has not received equal attention as a mode of ethical problem solving. The primary nursing model is expected to be aligned with the ethic of care because it emphases the nurse–patient relationship and enables more independent role for nurses in decision-making. The aim of this study was to examine nurses’ ethical decision-making in the context of primary nursing. Participants were seven nurses, and one physiotherapist from a geriatric rehabilitation unit of a public hospital in Finland. Data were collected through focus group interviews and qualitatively analyzed through Lyons’ coding scheme for moral orientations. The results showed that primary nurses employ empathic understanding and particularistic thinking when building relationships with patients and their families, and when assessing their needs for coping at home after discharge. Most ethical conflicts were related to discharge and were solved through balancing the ethics of care and justice considerations. It is concluded that care and justice are integrated in nurses’ everyday ethical decision-making. The ethic of care nurtures good patient–nurse relationships, while the ethic of justice is needed to address the fair delivery of care in the context of an aging population and diminishing public resources. Both ethics should be acknowledged in clinical practices and included in ethics education.
... Encara que moltes de les investigacions sobre el desenvolupament del judici moral s'han basat en els treballs de Kohlberg d'orientació cognitiva, l'evolució de l'interès de la Psicologia per l'estudi dels fenòmens morals es va començar a sustentar en diverses tendències com el desenvolupament de la Psicologia cognitiu-evolutiva i humanista; convergint a afirmar l'especificitat de l'àmbit moral i la rellevància dels components cognitius, afectius que l'integren i l'estructura evolutiva de la moral en la seva dimensió psicològica. Seguint aquesta tradició, hi ha en els darrers anys un creixent nucli de treballs sobre la prosocialitat en conflictes morals (Eisenberg i al., 2005;Carlo, 2006) i sobre desenvolupament moral basat en l'emoció de l'estima (Skoe i von der Lippe, 2002;Pratt, Skoe i Arnold, 2004;Juujärvi, 2006) i d'empatia i desenvolupament moral orientat per afecte (Skoe, 2010). En educació moral, el model desenvolupat per Rest (Rest, 1986, Bebeau, Rest i Narváez, 1999, presenta quatre components relativament independents que poden interactuar en l'acció moral. ...
... 54) to one's clients is based not on a sense of pity but on one's moral obligation as an ethical professional. Other scholars (Barnes & Brannelly, 2008;Juujarvi, 2006) suggest that public institutions shaped by ethical caring help us collectively move towards a society that is ultimately more just and equitable. ...
This study examined what students in three professional programs – Nursing, Social Work, and Early Childhood Studies – could learn about working with immigrant families using narrative inquiry as a heuristic device. Data collected from the students in focus groups demonstrated their capacity for ethical caring by recognizing individual characteristics of immigrant families, becoming more self-aware in interactions with them, and noticing institutional practices from the families’ perspectives. The students also began to realize the uncertainties of professional practice, which could help promote the habit of reflection. Findings suggest that the experiment was worthwhile, albeit limited by self-reported data, a small sample, and a short duration.
Dans cette étude, nous examinons ce que les étudiants inscrits dans trois programmes professionnels – soins infirmiers, travail social et études de la petite enfance – pourraient apprendre sur le travail avec des familles d’immigrants par le biais de l’enquête narrative en tant qu’instrument heuristique. Les données recueillies auprès des étudiants réunis en groupes de discussion ont indiqué que ceux-ci avaient prouvé leur aptitude à l’empathie éthique en reconnaissant les caractéristiques individuelles des familles d’immigrants, en devenant davantage conscients de leurs interactions avec ces familles et en prenant conscience des pratiques institutionnelles à partir du point de vue de ces familles. Les étudiants ont également commencé à comprendre les incertitudes de la pratique professionnelle, ce qui pourrait favoriser de meilleures habitudes de réflexion. Les résultats suggèrent que l’expérience était appréciable, bien qu’elle ait été limitée par des données auto-déclarées, un échantillon limité et une courte durée.
... The sequence goes from egocentric care for self (level 1) to care for others (level 2) to a balanced consideration of both self and others (level 3). The developmental nature of this sequence was confirmed in Finland by a two-year longitudinal study by Juujärvi (2003Juujärvi ( , 2005Juujärvi ( , 2006. Participants reported a real-life dilemma of their own as part of the Ethic of Care Interview and were also given the Kohlberg interview. ...
... Aunque muchas de las investigaciones sobre desarrollo del juicio moral se han basado en los trabajos de Kohlberg, de orientación cognitiva, señalan Cerezo, Aparisi y Pérez-Delgado (1991) que la evolución del interés de la psicología por el estudio de los fenómenos morales se empezó a sustentar en varias tendencias como el desarrollo de la psicología cognitiva, humanista y evolutiva, convergiendo en afirmar la especificidad del ámbito de lo moral y la relevancia de los componentes cognitivos, afectivos que lo integran y la estructura evolutiva de lo moral en su dimensión psicológica. Hay actualmente un creciente núcleo de trabajos sobre prosocialidad en conflictos morales (Eisenberg, Cumberland, Guthrie, Murphy & Shepard, 2005;Carlo, 2006) y sobre desarrollo moral basado en la emoción de la estima (Juujärvi, 2006) y de empatía y desarrollo moral orientado por cariño (Skoe, 2010). ...
La denominada Responsabilidad Social Universitaria (RSU) ha tenido un recorrido en aumento desde mitades del siglo XX hasta el momento acutal en el cual nuevos términos como "valor compartido" o Responsabilidad Social Organizacional (RSO) tienden a proponer nuevas formas de comprender acerca de la gestión de impactos que tiene la actividad humana en la sociedad y el medio. Las universidades no han permanecido ajenas a tratar la Responsabilidad Social (RS), bien en forma de formación (postgrados en RS), en investigación (propuestas de indicadores, definiciones) o extensión (actividades con la comunidad).
El presente capítulo aborda la RSU desde la psicología, dado que cualquier responsabilidad derivada del quehacer de una organización tiene su inicio en el ser humano quien, en grupo o de forma individual, toma decisiones que implican efectos en el entorno social y ambientas. El énfasis en la realidad iberoamericana viene dado por la importancia concedida en la última década por universidades en países de latinoamérica y España para comprender cómo la educación superior contribuye a formar profesionales socialmente responsables
... The sequence goes from egocentric care for self (level 1) to care for others (level 2) to a balanced consideration of both self and others (level 3). The developmental nature of this sequence was confirmed in Finland by a two-year longitudinal study by Juujärvi (2003Juujärvi ( , 2005Juujärvi ( , 2006. Participants reported a real-life dilemma of their own as part of the Ethic of Care Interview and were also given the Kohlberg interview. ...
... Another problem that was salient in Cambridge, MA, in the late seventies, is the relation of justice and care. In our research group Soile Juujärvi (2003Juujärvi ( , 2005Juujärvi ( , 2006) has focused on this issue in her doctoral and postdoctoral work. Her longitudinal findings suggest that those two approaches are more closely related than one would expect, and the underlying factor is role- taking. ...
“I could easily say, what a timely book, but the truth is that Kohlberg is for the ages, which means any time is worthwhile to revisit his work. So, in that sense, let us ask, what aspects of his work in Moral Development and Moral Education are timely today? One answer can be found in the Kohlberg Lounge on the sixth floor of Larsen Hall, which I have the privilege to visit every day. Placed there in 1987, a plaque in his honor states: In memory of Lawrence Kohlberg: In this room where ideas are born through discussion and tested through debate Let us listen and speak with the same respect that he gave to all In 2015, the emphasis on discussion and debate has reached beyond moral development to all aspects of pedagogy, from literacy to history education and beyond. And, in an era of fast and slow thinking, this book reminds us that ethical reflection, self-awareness, and a social conscience are the three malleable developmental skills that allow us all to be truly human. Kohlberg then, Kohlberg now, Kohlberg forever.” - Robert L. Selman, Harvard University (Roy Edward Larsen Professor of Education and Human Development, Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychiatry)
“This book about one of the giants of psychology is very timely. There is a whole generation of students and scholars that is growing up with a knowledge about moral development without learning about the roots of the field. This is not a matter of nostalgia or ‘attributional justice, ’ but one of missing out on a fountain of knowledge and insight that has not been surpassed in its depth and breadth. This book should become required reading for students in the social sciences that should begin to ask the questions that would require their teachers to ‘read up.’” - Gil Noam, Harvard Medical School (Founder and Director of the Program in Education, Afterschool & Resiliency (PEAR)) “Kohlberg’s theory of moral developmental might be more relevant today than ever, given increasing worries about the fragmentation and declining solidarity in modern Western society. But does the theory hold up in light of old criticisms and new questions and methods? The chapters, by leading scholars in the field of moral development, introduce new generations of moral psychologists, philosophers, and educators to Kohlberg’s work, by addressing strengths and weaknesses and suggesting ways to move forward. A must read for anyone interested in moral education.” - Jan Boom, Utrecht University (Chair of the Kuhmerker Dissertation Award Committee).
... Ello, según señala el documento, implica redefinir las políticas públicas y universitarias para que la responsabilidad social sea uno de los elementos más importantes de la educación, con una importante labor de lobby para reforzar este cambio de paradigma. A raíz de dichos estudios sobre la educación moral se dio un creciente núcleo de trabajos sobre prosocialidad en conflictos morales (Carlo, 2006), desarrollo moral basado en la emoción de la estima (Juujärvi, 2006) y de empatía y desarrollo moral orientado por el apego (Skoe, 2010). Colby et al. (2003) consideran que los centros educativos deben aplicar estrategias pedagógicas como el aprendizaje-servicio, proyectos basados en aprendizaje, trabajos de campo, tesis de grado y otros, ya que el trabajo colaborativo junto a otro alumnado empodera al estudiante a sentirse parte de una comunidad más amplia y con significado para el aprendizaje moral. ...
This paper offers a review of basic and higher education in relation to social responsibility in Latin-American countries, in order to formulate an approach to the state of art. Taking this objective into account, a brief exploratory study is completed on education policy documents from multilateral organisms such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the Organization of Latin-American Countries. The paper highlights that after the discourse, education must land skills, amongst others, related to being a responsible citizen, and a psychology-based foundation is presented.. The paper refers to some experiences in which education and the evaluation of citizenship education are compatible. The conclusion argues the suitability of establishing a policy of international assessment of education in the values of social responsibility to be carried out by citizens throughout the entire educational process.
El artículo presenta una revisión acerca de la educación básica y superior en materia de responsabilidad social en los países iberoamericanos, con el fin de obtener una aproximación al estado del arte. Teniendo en cuenta este objetivo, se realiza un breve estudio exploratorio sobre los documentos de política de educación de organismos multilaterales como la United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization y la Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos. El documento destaca que, después de los discursos, la educación debe aterrizar las habilidades como las relacionadas con ejercer una ciudadanía responsable, y se ofrece una fundamentación desde la psicología. También se hace referencia a algunas experiencias en las que la enseñanza y la evaluación de la educación ciudadana son compatibles. En la conclusión se argumenta la conveniencia de establecer una política de evaluación internacional de la educación en valores de responsabilidad social para el ejercicio de la ciudadanía durante todo el proceso formativo.
... Ello, según señala el documento, implica redefinir las políticas públicas y universitarias para que la responsabilidad social sea uno de los elementos más importantes de la educación, con una importante labor de lobby para reforzar este cambio de paradigma. A raíz de dichos estudios sobre la educación moral se dio un creciente núcleo de trabajos sobre prosocialidad en conflictos morales (Carlo, 2006), desarrollo moral basado en la emoción de la estima (Juujärvi, 2006) y de empatía y desarrollo moral orientado por el apego (Skoe, 2010). Colby et al. (2003) consideran que los centros educativos deben aplicar estrategias pedagógicas como el aprendizaje-servicio, proyectos basados en aprendizaje, trabajos de campo, tesis de grado y otros, ya que el trabajo colaborativo junto a otro alumnado empodera al estudiante a sentirse parte de una comunidad más amplia y con significado para el aprendizaje moral. ...
Resumen El artículo presenta una revisión acerca de la educación básica y superior en materia de responsabilidad social en los países iberoamericanos, con el fin de obtener una aproximación al estado del arte. Teniendo en cuenta este objetivo, se realiza un breve estudio exploratorio sobre los documentos de política de educación de organismos multilaterales como la United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization y la Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos. El documento destaca que, después de los discursos, la educación debe aterrizar las habilidades como las relacionadas con ejercer una ciudadanía responsable, y se ofrece una fundamentación desde la psicología. También se hace referencia a algunas experiencias en las que la enseñanza y la evaluación de la educación ciudadana son compatibles. En la conclusión se argumenta la conveniencia de establecer una política de evaluación internacional de la educación en valores de responsabilidad social para el ejercicio de la ciudadanía durante todo el proceso formativo. Abstract This paper offers a review of basic and higher education in relation to social responsibility in Latin-American countries, in order to formulate an approach to the state of art. Taking this objective into account, a brief exploratory study is completed on education policy documents from multilateral organisms such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the Organization of Latin-American Countries. The paper highlights that after the discourse, education must land skills, amongst others, related to being a responsible citizen, and a psychology-based foundation is presented.. The paper refers to some experiences in which education and the evaluation of citizenship education are compatible. The conclusion argues the suitability of establishing a policy of international assessment of education in the values of social responsibility to be carried out by citizens throughout the entire educational process.
... Juujärvi in his longitudinal study observed accelerated increase more than proper for age among some professions, but not among nurses. They evolved their morality independently on moral training intervention [29]. The difference with our study consists on stratification, there is probably other target subgroup who benefit from moral training more than the rest of the group. ...
Introduction and objectives:
Human's life as well as medical professions consist of many moral dilemmas. The aim of our study was to evaluate moral competences of midwifery students during their whole university education (3 year course) based on their moral competences C-index.
Material and method:
We performed randomized single blinded 3-year follow-up trial of 72 midwifery students. Standard Moral Judgment Test (MJT) By Georg Lind was used accompanied by own questionnaire. Moral competences were calculated (C-index) according to Lind's methodology. Subjects were also divided into active and passive ethics training to search for differences.
Results:
C-index varied during studies insignificant (p=0.14). Randomized groups were equal at the beginning point, no significant differences were noticed. Active ethics teaching did not increase C-index compared to controls in all measuring points (P1-P4, respectively p=0,41 and p=0,38).
Conclusions:
During 3 year studies at medical university moral competences measured by C-index varied insignificantly, but simultaneously the change in C-index was dependent on its value at the beginning of the trial. There was not statistically significant influence of active ethic's teaching compared to controls. Among social factors parents have strongest influence on students' morality, but growing role of Medical University in this hierarchy raises hopes for improvement in effectiveness of training in ethics.
Purpose
The aim of this study was to develop a tool to analyze the ethical dimensions during dental students' decision making, by using case-based learning (CBL).
Methods
Five clinical scenarios involving ethical aspects addressing different moral dilemmas were selected. The cases were then administered to students during a course on ethics, and the students responded using a narrative technique. To analyze the responses, a criterion inspired by Kohlberg's theory of moral development was used. Subsequently, the data were analyzed statistically, and possible associations between the answers and other variables, such as the student's gender and theoretical knowledge of ethics, were evaluated.
Results
A total of 260 students participated (182 women and 78 men), and 1300 narratives were analyzed. The reliability of the construct, as tested by the Cronbach's alpha and the homogeneity index, was acceptable (0.7). The validity of the construct was also assessed, suggesting a component analysis. The descriptive analysis suggests a certain tendency to solve moral problems by referring to established norms and laws. Furthermore, the correlation anaylysis suggests the interrelation between dimensions linked to patient integrity and respect for the truth, even though this conclusion is not reflected in the component analysis, which only detects a generic component of moral sensitivity. No significant differences by gender were found in the narratives, nor a strong correlation of the responses with theoretical knowledge on ethics.
Conclusion
CBL through the narrative method on ethical dilemmas is an effective tool for assessing dental students' moral competencies and their possible interactions with other variables.
On January 14, 1987, I was in a Brattle Street bookshop. The sounds of Bach’s Musikalisches Opfer filled the air. The weather in Cambridge, Mass., was cloudy and misty. I had returned from the Mount Auburn Hospital, where I had seen Larry Kohlberg for the last time, even though I did not yet know it. I felt depressed, ashamed, and guilty.
This exploratory study examined older rural women's health decision making. Thirty-three rural women were recruited to participate in semistructured qualitative interviews. Major themes emerged that focused on rural women's comments regarding their concerns about not worrying or bothering their children with personal health matters. Themes were discussed in the context of an ethic of care. Results suggest that it is important for mental health professionals, family physicians, social workers, and other practitioners to be aware of the sense of worry and concern for others that older rural women bring to bear in decision making about personal health issues.
Seventeen social educator students were taught to analyze their work activity by means of a Vygotsky-inspired method, drawing on Engeström's notion of an activity system. The method aimed at increasing the consciousness of the students of the structure of work activity system. The participants wrote two accounts of their field-work practice experiences in child welfare institutions, six months apart. The accounts were blind scored for Kohlberg moral judgment stage and for the ethic of care level. While few instances of care reasoning were identified, most of the accounts could be coded for moral judgment stage. Stage 4 (or higher) reasoning increased from 22% at Time 1 to 59% at Time 2. It was interpreted as due to increasing reflection of one's activity, induced by use of the tools provided by the teaching. We also present evidence of socio-cognitive conflicts that involved a normative orientation attributed to the permanent staff of the institutions and a more flexible orientation of the students.
Evidence-based practice suggests the best approach to improving professionalism in practice is ethics curricula. However, recent research has demonstrated that millennium graduates do not advocate for patients or assert themselves during moral conflicts. The aim of this article is the exploration of evaluation techniques to evaluate one measurable outcome of ethics curricula: moral reasoning. A review of literature, published between 1995 and 2013, demonstrated that the moral orientations of care and justice as conceptualized by Gilligan and Kohlberg are utilized by nursing students to solve ethical dilemmas. Data obtained by means of reflective journaling, Ethics of Care Interview (ECI) and Defining Issues Test (DIT), would objectively measure the interrelated pathways of care-based and justice-based moral reasoning. In conclusion, educators have an ethical responsibility to foster students' ability to exercise sound clinical judgment, and support their professional development. It is recommended that educators design authentic assessments to demonstrate student's improvement of moral reasoning.
This study examined the link between care‐based moral reasoning and three different aspects of empathy—perspective taking, sympathy and personal distress. Participants were 30 female and 28 male students, ranging in age from 20 to 42 years. As expected, results showed that perspective taking uniquely predicted care‐based moral reasoning levels (positively), as assessed by Skoe’s Ethic of Care Interview (ECI). Personal distress, in contrast, was uniquely negatively related to the ECI. There was a curvilinear relationship between sympathy and the ECI for women only; women at ECI Level 2 (self‐sacrificing care for others) scored higher on sympathy than did all others. Moreover, women scored significantly higher than did men on the emotional aspects of empathy (i.e. sympathy and personal distress) but not on cognitive perspective taking or on the ECI. These findings support the theory that empathy plays a significant (and positive) role in adults’ moral reasoning. They also highlight the complexity of sex differences in the area of moral affect and cognition. Implications for moral education are discussed.
L'objectif principal de cette recherche est de déterminer l'approche relationnelle que le client préfère utiliser dans sa relation avec son auditeur financier. De connaître cette préférence relationnelle est important puisque l'auditeur requiert la coopération de son client afin de combler l'asymétrie d'information existant entre les deux parties. De plus, de mieux connaître la préférence relationnelle de son client permettrait à l'auditeur d'aligner son approche marketing sur celle de son client, lui permettant d'être plus efficient quant à ses ressources et de mieux satisfaire les besoins de ce client. L'objectif secondaire est de déterminer l'influence de certaines caractéristiques personnelles du client sur sa préférence relationnelle avec son auditeur. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, nous avons développé une théorie sur la base de modèles existant dans la littérature en marketing, mais adaptée au contexte particulier qui est celui de l'audit. Conséquemment, nous avons défini les variables permettant de mesurer les relations entre les clients (acheteurs) et leurs auditeurs (vendeurs) suivant celles qui, dans la littérature en marketing, ont été théoriquement définies et empiriquement validées (Fink et al., 2007; Kaufmann and Dant, 1992; Macneil, 1980; Paulin et al., 1997; Rokkan et al., 2003). En effet, les approches relationnelles sont définies par deux construits: l'approche relationnelle (RA) et l'approche transactionnelle (TA). RA est une approche où l'objectif du vendeur est d'établir et maintenir des relations, tandis que TA est une approche économique à court terme où l'objectif du vendeur est de gagner des clients et d'augmenter sa part du marché (Gronroos, 1994; 2000; Gummesson, 2002; Paulin et al., 1997). L'hypothèse principale de notre étude spécifie que le client préférera davantage une approche relationnelle qu'une approche transactionnelle avec son auditeur financier. Trois hypothèses secondaires vérifient l'influence de l'aversion au risque, de l'éthique de l'attention et du locus de contrôle du client sur sa préférence relationnelle. Pour tester les hypothèses nous avons effectué un sondage par questionnaire auprès de 1090 participants travaillant pour des sociétés privées canadiennes. 306 questionnaires ont été complétés et retournés. L'analyse des données indique que l'hypothèse principale, à savoir que le client préfère davantage une approche relationnelle (RA) avec leur auditeur qu'une approche transactionnelle (TA), est supportée. Les résultats portant sur les facteurs individuels des mesures des approches relationnelles confirment que le client préfère la coopération et le partage d'information avec son auditeur, de même qu'un haut niveau de confiance vis-à-vis de celui-ci, tous des facteurs relatifs à l'approche relationnelle (RA). Cependant, nonobstant la préférence du client pour une approche relationnelle avec son auditeur, le client préfère également demeurer à une certaine distance de celui-ci (Arm 's length). Ce facteur est pourtant relatif à une relation transactionnelle (TA) plutôt que relationnelle (RA). Les hypothèses secondaires, quant à elles, ne sont pas supportées. Sur la base des résultats, un nouveau modèle conceptuel des relations entre le client et l'auditeur est présenté, modèle qui diffère sensiblement de ceux qui existent dans la littérature en marketing. Notre étude présente des contributions significatives tant théoriques que pratiques. Cette étude permet de mieux comprendre la relation entre le client et son auditeur, selon la perspective du client. De fait, un nouveau modèle est présenté afin de mieux comprendre la relation entre le client et son auditeur, modèle pouvant servir de base à des recherches futures. De plus, d'un point de vue pratique, si l'auditeur peut mieux connaître et comprendre les préférences relationnelles de ses clients, il pourrait être à même de mieux définir ses stratégies de marketing. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : approche relationnelle (RA), approche transactionnelle (TA), auditeurs, vérificateurs, clients, acheteurs, vendeurs.
This research was conducted to examine experiences of nursing students in administering medication in the clinical setting. Grounded theory was utilized, involving in-depth interviews with 28 final-year students. In this article, we examine the importance participants attached to conforming to the prevailing culture, and their responses when offered what they considered inadequate supervision. Three main categories emerged: norming for the survival of self, conforming and adapting for benefit of self and others; and performing with absolute conscience. Subsequently, the model of contingent reasoning was developed to explain the actions of students. Contingent reasoning was influenced by the relationship with the registered nurse and individual characteristics of the students. Contingent reasoning was validated by participants and is discussed in relation to Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and other relevant nursing literature. This model has the potential to enhance understanding of how students make decisions, and ultimately to positively influence this process.
Nous menons une étude de l'impact de combinaisons de messages éthiques sur la décision de deux types d'auditeur légal (commissariat aux comptes et certification aéronautique) et des praticiens en gestion des ressources humaines. En s'appuyant sur une définition de l'éthique, et sur un paradoxe en psychologie morale, nous présentons le rôle des messages éthiques dans le contexte de décision. Le protocole quasi expérimental montre une différence de perception et comportement entre les populations étudiées. Les messages explicites et de la difficulté de décider sont les éléments les plus importants lors de la prise de décision. Il paraît alors nécessaire de réviser certains modèles de décision et d'audit pour y introduire les concepts de messages éthiques et d'indépendance interne.
The assessment of ethical problem solving in medicine has been controversial and challenging. The purposes of this study were: (i) to create a new instrument to measure doctors' decisions on and reasoning approach towards resolving ethical problems; (ii) to evaluate the scores generated by the new instrument for their reliability and validity, and (iii) to compare doctors' ethical reasoning abilities between countries and among medical students, residents and experts.
This study used 15 clinical vignettes and the think-aloud method to identify the processes and components involved in ethical problem solving. Subjects included volunteer ethics experts, postgraduate Year 2 residents and pre-clerkship medical students. The interview data were coded using the instruments of the decision score and Ethical Reasoning Inventory (ERI). The ERI assessed the quality of ethical reasoning for a particular case (Part I) and for an individual globally across all the vignettes (Part II).
There were 17 Canadian and 32 Taiwanese subjects. Based on the Canadian standard, the decision scores between Taiwanese and Canadian subjects differed significantly, but made no discrimination among the three levels of expertise. Scores on the ERI Parts I and II, which reflect doctors' reasoning quality, differed between countries and among different levels of expertise in Taiwan, providing evidence of construct validity. In addition, experts had a greater organised knowledge structure and considered more relevant variables in the process of arriving at ethical decisions than did residents or students. The reliability of ERI scores was 0.70-0.99 on Part I and 0.75-0.80 on Part II.
Expertise in solving ethical problems could not be differentiated by the decisions made, but could be differentiated according to the reasoning used to make those decisions. The difference between Taiwanese and Canadian experts suggests that cultural considerations come into play in the decisions that are made in the course of providing humane care to patients.
Research into education in ethical decision-making in nursing is scarce. This review is an overview of empirical literature published between 1980 and September 2006. The literature was retrieved from the Medline and CINAHL databases. The focus is on the methodology and findings of these studies for identifying knowledge gaps for further research. The methodological approaches and foci of the studies varied rendering the comparison and generalization of the findings difficult. The findings indicate that education has a positive impact on students' moral development. Future research should focus on educators and clinical instructors, and on the cooperation between theoretical and clinical instruction. A review of the theoretical scientific literature would provide valuable knowledge as well. Research in this area might also benefit from more context appreciating qualitative research as well as from the use of longitudinal research designs. Research projects at national and international level should be considered.
The Kohlberg Gilligan Controversy has received intermittent but inconclusive attention for many years, perhaps reflecting
the difficulty of bridging the two positions. This article explores the published evidence for Gilligan’s claims of gender
difference, gender identity difference, and role of caring in people’s ethics. It seems that the evidence for pronounced gender
differences in ethical attitudes within business is weak, even if gender identity is used instead of physical gender. The
main propositions of Care Theory and recent advances in its thinking are discussed. Special focus emerges on the notion of
Attachment which seems to be the Care Theory ingredient both most able to survive critical scrutiny and most promising for
bridging the divide between the Kohlberg and Gilligan paradigms. The Social Bonding Model and other possible bridge building
conceptual structures are introduced. Finally, Max Weber’s division between ethics of conviction and ethics of responsibility
provides an overarching perspective both of the gap still to be bridged and the need to keep trying to bridge it.
This article reviews 172 studies that used the Defining Issues Test to investigate the moral development of undergraduate college students and provides an organisational framework for analysing educational contexts in higher education. These studies addressed collegiate outcomes related to character or civic outcomes, selected aspects of students' collegiate experiences related to moral judgement development and changes in moral reasoning during the college years as they related to changes in other domains of development. Findings suggest that dramatic gains in moral judgement are associated with collegiate participation, even after controlling for age and entering level of moral judgement. Although many studies used gross indicators of collegiate context (e.g. institutional type or academic discipline), studies that examine specific collegiate characteristics and educational experiences are better suited to identifying factors that contribute directly or indirectly to changes in moral judgement during the college years. Implications for student development practice and future research are discussed.
This long‐term study found that moral reasoning as conceptualised by Kohlberg (1981, 1985) can develop into adulthood. Predominantly white, well‐educated, middle‐class participants were interviewed four times at 4‐year intervals (N = 44). Stage development was sequential and continued throughout the life span, although its occurrence decreased with advancing age in a curvilinear fashion. Post‐conventional reasoning was demonstrated by seven adults. Stage of moral reasoning correlated with age strongly in children and moderately in adults, and was moderately correlated with education in all age groups. Additionally, advance in moral reasoning stage was correlated with increase in education in adults. Although no systematic gender differences were found across age groups, men in the younger adult group had significantly higher scores than women.
The authors investigated the effects of gender, gender role, and type of moral dilemma on moral maturity and moral orientation. Fifty-five female and 55 male university students were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (J. T. Spence & R. L. Helmreich, 1978), L. Kohlberg's test of moral judgment, and instructions to discuss a personal and impersonal real-life moral dilemma. Moral stage, moral orientation, and the relation between them varied across dilemmas. Females were more consistent than males in moral stage; males were more consistent in moral orientation. Females made higher stage and more care-based moral judgments than males made on personal real-life dilemmas. The observed variations occurred primarily because males reported more Stage 2, justice-pulling antisocial dilemmas than females, and females reported more Stage 3, care-pulling prosocial dilemmas than males. A more interactional model of moral judgment than the models of L. Kohlberg and C. Gilligan is recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
One of the central assumptions of Kohlberg's theory of moral development--that moral judgment is organized in structures of the whole--was examined. Thirty men and 30 women were given 2 dilemmas from Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Interview, a 3rd involving prosocial behavior, and a 4th involving impaired driving. Half the Ss responded to the prosocial and impaired-driving dilemmas from the perspective of a hypothetical character, and half responded from the perspective of the self. No sex or perspective differences in moral maturity were observed. Ss scored highest in moral maturity on Kohlberg's dilemmas, intermediate on the prosocial dilemma, and lowest on the impaired-driving dilemma. In partial support of Kohlberg's contention that his test assesses moral competence, there was a negative linear relationship between scores on his test and the proportion of Stage 2 judgments on the 2 other dilemmas. An interactional model of moral judgment is advanced.
This article examines the development of Gilligan's care ethic and its correlates in mature adults. Two studies showed that women scored significantly higher on the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI) than did men. More women than men generated interpersonal real-life dilemmas, and more men than women generated impersonal ones. In Study 2, longitudinal data indicated that care levels were moderately stable in mid- to late adulthood. The ECI was negatively related to authoritarianism and positively related to justice levels, role taking, and cognitive complexity. People scoring higher in care also felt more positively about their physical health and experience of aging. These results support the construct validity of the ECI and point to its potential role in adults' personal adaptation.
C. Gilligan's (1982) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d = -.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d = .19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men.
The authors investigated the effects of gender, gender role, and type of moral dilemma on moral maturity and moral orientation. Fifty-five female and 55 male university students were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (J. T. Spence & R. L. Helmreich, 1978), L. Kohlberg's test of moral judgment, and instructions to discuss a personal and impersonal real-life moral dilemma. Moral stage, moral orientation, and the relation between them varied across dilemmas. Females were more consistent than males in moral stage; males were more consistent in moral orientation. Females made higher stage and more care-based moral judgments than males made on personal real-life dilemmas. The observed variations occurred primarily because males reported more Stage 2, justice-pulling antisocial dilemmas than females, and females reported more Stage 3, care-pulling prosocial dilemmas than males. A more interactional model of moral judgment than the models of L. Kohlberg and C. Gilligan is recommended.
Sixty‐three American and 52 Japanese adults were interviewed to identify their moral stages. They were further interviewed with both the original and situationally modified versions of the Heinz dilemma, to study their attitudes to situational factors. Analysis of their responses revealed: (1) 16 American and 15 Japanese subjects were postconventional reasoners, providing substantial evidence of postconventional stages as adult stages and (2) the majority of American postconventional subjects consistently chose Heinz’ stealing the drug for his dying wife. In contrast, most Japanese postconventional reasoners were consistently against that option. Although both American and Japanese postconventional reasoners were well aware of the fundamental value and preciousness of human life, the ways to secure that preciousness differed: the former trying to make it longer, the latter trying to make it purer and cleaner. Such cultural differences in action choices, and their supporting reasoning, suggest a need for examination of the conception of postconventional stages.
This paper first examines Carol Gilligan's thesis that men and women use different moral languages to resolve moral dilemmas; women speak a language of caring and responsibility and men speak a language of rights and justice. Gilligan's statements about women's moral language can be interpreted in three different ways. Each one of these is analysed. Then it is questioned whether Gilligan's thesis about men's and women's moral languages can be grounded with adequate philosophical assumptions. It is argued that three main moral theories cannot undergird this dichotomy and further, that it is unacceptable to divide morality on the basis of gender. Instead, Gilligan's thesis can provide a criticism of the quality of public moral life and thus be a means to develop a rather different moral theory for both men and women.
A sample of 23 female and 23 male early adolescents, 11 through 12 years of age, was assessed on the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI), a new care-based morality measure. In addition, content analyses of the children's real-life moral dilemmas were conducted. As expected, girls scored significantly higher on the ECI than boys, and more girls than boys scored at ECI Level 2 (conventions of goodness, caring for others). The hypothesis that more girls than boys would generate "personal" real-life dilemmas and that more boys than girls would generate "impersonal" ones was also confirmed. Analysis of the central issues in the real-life dilemmas indicated that girls tended to be concerned about hurting others and maintaining friendships, whereas boys tended to be concerned about leisure activities, such as sports, and avoiding trouble. Possible explanations for these gender differences as well as directions for future research are discussed.
Part I. Particularity: 1. Introduction 2. Iris Murdoch and the domain of the moral 3. Moral perception and particularity Part II. Moral Excellence: 4. Moral exemplars: reflections on Scindler, the Trocmes, and others 5. Vocation, friendship, community: limitations of the personal/impersonal framework 6. Altruism and the moral value of rescue: Resisting persecution, racism, and genocide 7. Virtue and community Part III. The Morality of Care: 8. Compassion 9. Moral development and conceptions of morality 10. Gilligan and Kohlberg: implications for moral theory 11. Gilligan's two voices and the moral status of group identity.
A sample of 79 Norwegians, 11 through 13 years of age, was assessed on a care-based morality measure, the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI). Content analyses of the adolescents’real-life moral dilemmas also were conducted. The Norwegian scores were compared with those of 46 Canadians of the same age. No gender differences on the ECI or in real-life moral conflict content were found in Norway. In contrast, in Canada, girls scored significantly higher on the ECI than did boys, and more girls than boys generated relational real-life dilemmas, whereas more boys than girls generated nonrelational dilemmas. Furthermore, more Canadian than Norwegian girls scored at ECI Level 2 (conventions of goodness, caring for others). Norway and Canada might differ in female gender role expectations, which probably is associated with girls’moral reasoning. The results indicated that North American findings should not be viewed necessarily as representative even of other similar Western societies.
Investigated the relationship between identity and moral reasoning in 76 female and 58 male students (aged 16–30 yrs). A newly developed care-based measure of moral reasoning, the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI), was found to be significantly related to age, identity, and Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Interview (MJI). The relationship between identity and the ECI was significantly higher for women than for men. Furthermore, only for women was the ECI more strongly related to identity than was the MJI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A care-based measure of levels of moral thought, based on C. Gilligan's (1982) theorizing, was developed to investigate the relationship between moral reasoning and identity in women. Ss were 86 female students, aged 17–26 yrs. Interrater reliabilities for the new ethic of care interview measure (ECI), using 3 independent raters, ranged from
r = .78 to
r = .96, and kappas ranging from .63 to .94 were obtained. Scores on the ECI were found to increase with age as predicted. Also, as hypothesized, women high on the ECI were higher in identity status than were women low on the ECI. One conclusion is that women's development of moral reasoning and concept of self are intricately linked. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents interview data from 2 8-yr-olds, 2 14-yr-olds, a 36-yr-old male, and a 46 yr-old-female. Data support C. Gilligan's (see record
1979-03624-001) assertions that there are 2 distinct modes of describing the self in relation to others (separate/objective and connected) as well as 2 kinds of considerations used by individuals in making moral decisions (justice and care). The author describes a methodology, developed from the data, for systematically and reliably identifying these modes of self-definition and moral judgment through the use of 2 coding schemes. An empirical study testing Gilligan's hypotheses of the relationship of gender to self-definition and moral judgment is presented, in which 36 Ss, the majority aged 8–60 yrs, were interviewed. Results support the thesis that there are 2 different orientations to morality: one toward rights and justice and another toward care and response to others in their own terms. Although the findings suggest separate developmental shifts for men and women (with men favoring the former orientation and women the latter), these differences were not absolute. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
To evaluate the extent to which the models of moral judgment advanced by Kohlberg (1984) and by Gilligan (1982, 1988) are
able to account for real-life moral judgment, we investigated the relation of sex and type of moral dilemma to moral stage
and moral orientation. Eighty young adult men and women made moral judgments about two hypothetical Kohlberg dilemmas, two
real-life antisocial dilemmas, and two real-life prosocial dilemmas. We failed to find any sex differences in moral judgment.
Moral stage and moral orientation varied across the three types of dilemma. Kohlberg's dilemmas pulled for justice-oriented
Stage 4 moral judgments, real-life prosocial dilemmas pulled for care-oriented Stage 3 moral judgments, and real-life antisocial
dilemmas pulled for justice-oriented Stage 2 moral judgments. The content of moral judgments was related to their structure.
There was a positive relation between stage of moral judgment on Kohlberg dilemmas and on real-life dilemmas. The implications
of these findings for a new, more interactional, model of real-life moral judgment are discussed.
The possibility that sex role orientation was a better predictor of care-oriented moral development than gender for both men and women was investigated in this study. Also, the relationship between care-oriented moral reasoning and prosocial behavior was examined. Subjects were university students with the majority being Caucasian (97%) and single (86%). Using pre-selected groups of sex role stereotyped and androgynous individuals (45 females, 45 males), the relationship between sex role orientation and care-oriented moral reasoning was found to be stronger than that between gender and moral reasoning. However, this finding was accounted for largely by differences among women. Although moral reasoning did not relate to prosocial behavior as expected, there were significant gender differences in prosocial behavior. Two implications are that the Ethic of Care Interview may need to be re-designed to be more applicable for men and that sex role subscription may be a more important psychological variable than gender.
Bibliogr. na konci kapitol
Sammandrag: Strukturen i yrkestolkningar inom den sociala sektorn. Abstract: In what ways are the social care workers' professional interpretations constructed? Väitösk. -- Tampereen yliopisto.
Discusses the current formulation of the moral stage theory and reviews key criticisms emerging in the past decade. Major philosophical and psychological assumptions relevant to the theory and the 1st author's current thinking on crucial topics are discussed, including distinctions made between "hard" and "soft" stages, form and content, A and B substages, and the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior. The evolution of methods for scoring moral reasoning, as developed by the 1st author and colleagues, is also described. The main criticisms of the moral stage theory are summarized: Specific criticisms range from challenges of normative-ethical, cross-cultural claims to arguments that the theory and method are sex-biased and fail to adequately describe and document a theoretically complete conception of the moral domain. While acknowledging constructive criticisms, the present authors defend the moral stage theory on points where criticism is judged to be confused or unjustified. The present discussion is of interest to professionals in philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, and anthropology who are familiar with the moral stage theory and its implications. (159 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several issues concerning Gilligan's model of moral orientations and Kohlberg's models of moral stages and moral orientations were examined in a longitudinal study with 233 subjects (from 78 families) who ranged in age from 5 to 63 years. They participated in 2 identical interviews separated by a 2-year interval. In each interview, they discussed hypothetical dilemmas and a personally generated real-life dilemma, which were scored for both moral stage and moral orientation (both Gilligan's and Kohlberg's typologies). Results revealed few violations of the stage sequence over the longitudinal interval, supporting Kohlberg's moral stage model. Sex differences were almost completely absent for both Gilligan's and Kohlberg's moral orientations, although there were clear developmental trends. Hypothetical and real-life dilemmas elicited different moral orientations, especially in terms of Kohlberg's typology. The interrelations between the 2 models of moral orientations were generally weak, indicating that they are not synonymous.
This paper examined the links among sex role orientation, ego identity development and moral reasoning. 76 female and 58 male students were assessed on Bem's sex role inventory, ego identity, care-based and justice-based moral thought. For women, identity was negatively related to femininity and positively related to androgyny. Also, high levels of care-based moral reasoning, i.e., a balanced concern for the welfare of self and others, was related to androgyny for women. There were no significant findings for men. No significant relationships were found between sex role orientation and justice-based moral reasoning. Thus, the results suggested that for women in particular, relinquishing the stereotyped sex role definition and becoming more androgynous is important for their ego identity as well as care-based moral development.
This essay critically assesses two strategies of accommodation used by defenders of impartialism in ethics to argue that the care orientation represents no genuine challenge to impartialist theoretical paradigms. One strategy focuses on impartiality as a constraint on moral deliberation, the other as a constraint on moral justification. While highlighting respects in which the commitment to impartiality is more consonant with the care orientation than many advocates of care have acknowledged, this essay attempts to clarify crucial ways in which each accommodationist strategy fails, thus locating some of the more important contributions and challenges the care orientation offers to moral theory.
This study examined the links among ego development and the ethics of care and justice in 144 Norwegian men and women, 15 to 48 years old, taking into consideration age, sex, education, and verbal intelligence. As expected, the relationship between Loevinger's model of ego development and care-based moral reasoning as measured with Skoe's Ethic of Care Interview (ECI) was significantly stronger than the one between ego development and justice as measured with Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT). Both ethics correlated significantly with verbal ability. Analyses showed that beyond its overlap with verbal intelligence, the variance shared between the ECI and ego development was substantial. By contrast, when verbal intelligence was controlled, the DIT was not significantly related to ego development or to the care ethic.
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