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Foot odor due to microbial metabolism and its control
Abstract
To characterize foot odor, we analyzed its components by sensory tests, isolated microorganisms that produce it, and evaluated the mechanism of the occurrence of foot odor. As a result, foot odor was found to be derived from isovaleric acid, which is produced when Staphylococcus epidermidis, a resident species of the normal cutaneous microbial flora, degrades leucine present in sweat. In addition, Bacillus subtilis was detected in the plantar skin of subjects with strong foot odor, and this species was shown to be closely associated with increased foot odor. Therefore, we screened various naturally occurring substances and fragrant agents that inhibit microbial production of foot odor without disturbing the normal microbial flora of the human skin. As a result, we identified citral, citronellal, and geraniol as fragrant agents that inhibit the generation of isovaleric acid at low concentrations.
Supplementary resources (4)
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... Foot odour is known to be triggered by the secretion of glands such as eccrine and sebaceous glands. The secretion contains various amino acids, including serine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine [1]. Amongst these amino acids, valine, leucine, and isoleucine are accountable for forming foot odour; serine and alanine are considered basic amino acids responsible for moistening sweat [1,2]. ...
... The secretion contains various amino acids, including serine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine [1]. Amongst these amino acids, valine, leucine, and isoleucine are accountable for forming foot odour; serine and alanine are considered basic amino acids responsible for moistening sweat [1,2]. The amino acids such as leucine, valine, and isoleucine are broken down by microorganisms present on the skin surface into lower fatty acids, which are volatile in nature. ...
... Amoore and Kanda et al., [3,4] found that isovaleric acid appears to be a crucial odorant. Further, Sawano [5] and Ara et al. [1] found that foot odour consists of isovaleric acid and various free fatty acids such as propionic, isobutyric, and butyric acids. Further, a mild foot odour was observed in sensory tests in human-being by utilizing cultures of S. epidermis, C. minutissiumum and S. hominis, a mild foot odour was observed [3]. ...
... The secretion contains various amino acids, including serine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine. 1 Amongst these amino acids, valine, leucine and isoleucine are accountable for the formation of foot odor and serine and alanine are considered basic amino acids responsible for moistening sweat. 1,2 The amino acids such as leucine, valine, and isoleucine are broken down by microorganisms present on skin surface into lower fatty acids, which are volatile in nature. ...
... The secretion contains various amino acids, including serine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine. 1 Amongst these amino acids, valine, leucine and isoleucine are accountable for the formation of foot odor and serine and alanine are considered basic amino acids responsible for moistening sweat. 1,2 The amino acids such as leucine, valine, and isoleucine are broken down by microorganisms present on skin surface into lower fatty acids, which are volatile in nature. It is known that gram-positive bacterial metabolism causes strong foot odor. ...
... Amoore and Kanda et al., 3,4 in their study found that isovaleric acid appears to be a crucial odorant. Further, Sawano 5 and Ara et al. 1 found out that foot odor consists of isovaleric acid and various free fatty acids such as propionic, isobutyric, and butyric acids. Further, a mild foot odor was observed in sensory tests in human-being by utilizing cultures of S. epidermis, C. minutissiumum and S. hominis. ...
OBackground: Sanitizers are used to sanitize our hands to make them germ-free. However, it is found that people either forget or neglect to sanitize their feet. This act may lead to carrying germs to home or passing from one person to another, possibly spreading infection. Additionally, sweaty feet and foot odor have been found to be common nowdays. The presence of foot microfl ora like Staphylococcus epidermis, Bacillus subtilis and Propionibacterium Acnes can lead to the formation of isovaleric and propionic acids, which are responsible for the characteristic odor of feet. Objectives: This paper is aimed to develop a natural antimicrobial foot spray that exhibits a high evaporating rate, high antimicrobial activity, and an appropriate spray pattern. Methods: An antimicrobial formulation containing alcohol and natural active/s having antimicrobial activity is developed, which controls foot odor and infection or sanitizes feet. Results: The spray formulation of the present research contains lemon oil, neem oil and tulsi oil which have antimicrobial activity as well as being oil, they help in long-lasting skin moisturization. Regular use of foot spray deodorizes and prevents foot odor from, ensuring clean and healthy feet. The spray can be used anywhere with the ease of application which covers the feet area susceptible for odor generation and germ deposit. Conclusion: The spray exhibited the potential application as a rapidly dried antimicrobial spray for foot deodorant. It showed desired properties such as clarity, consistency, spreadability, quick absorption post-application, non-stickiness, non-dryness, and stability. The spray demonstrated antibacterial effi ciency against the bacteria responsible for producing a strong foot odor
... Ester Methyl propanoate [177] N-propylacetate [160] Alkene Isoprene [160] Alkane Methyl cyclohexane [174] AlcoholAcid Ethanol [159] Propanol [160] 2-Methylbutanol [178] 3-Methylbutanol [178] Decan-1-ol [163] Octan-1-ol [163] Methyl mercaptan [172] Acetic acid [159,160] Organosulphur Hydrogen sulfide [172] Dimethyl trisulfide [177] Carbon disulfide [162] Staphylococcus aureus Aldehyde Acetaldehyde [159] 3-Methylbutanal [167] 2-Methylpropanal [167] Ketone Acetone [160] 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone [161] 2-Tridecenone [178] Amine Ammonia [159] Other Dimethyl sulfide [159] Dimethyl trisulfide [160] 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane [160] Dimethyl disulfide [160] Alcohol Ethanol [159] 1-Hydroxy-2-propanone [161] Butanol [179] Acid Acetic acid [167] Isovaleric acid [161] 2-Methylbutyric acid [161] Isobutyric acid [161] Enterococcus faecalis Amine Ammonia [172] Staphylococcus epidermidis Ketone Acetone [172] Amine Ammonia [172] Other 2-Methylbutanal [180] Alcohol 3-Methyl-1-butanol [180] Acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid [180] 2-Methylbutanoic acid [180] methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Ketone 2-Heptanone [160] Aromatic 1,4-Dichlorobenzene [160] Psychological stress Acid Benzoic acid [181] N-decanoic acid [181] Aromatic Xylene isomer [181] 3-Carene [181] Foot odor Acid Acetic acid [182] Isovaleric acid [182] sensitivity and high selectivity can also be applied in E-nose in the near future. ...
... Ester Methyl propanoate [177] N-propylacetate [160] Alkene Isoprene [160] Alkane Methyl cyclohexane [174] AlcoholAcid Ethanol [159] Propanol [160] 2-Methylbutanol [178] 3-Methylbutanol [178] Decan-1-ol [163] Octan-1-ol [163] Methyl mercaptan [172] Acetic acid [159,160] Organosulphur Hydrogen sulfide [172] Dimethyl trisulfide [177] Carbon disulfide [162] Staphylococcus aureus Aldehyde Acetaldehyde [159] 3-Methylbutanal [167] 2-Methylpropanal [167] Ketone Acetone [160] 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone [161] 2-Tridecenone [178] Amine Ammonia [159] Other Dimethyl sulfide [159] Dimethyl trisulfide [160] 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane [160] Dimethyl disulfide [160] Alcohol Ethanol [159] 1-Hydroxy-2-propanone [161] Butanol [179] Acid Acetic acid [167] Isovaleric acid [161] 2-Methylbutyric acid [161] Isobutyric acid [161] Enterococcus faecalis Amine Ammonia [172] Staphylococcus epidermidis Ketone Acetone [172] Amine Ammonia [172] Other 2-Methylbutanal [180] Alcohol 3-Methyl-1-butanol [180] Acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid [180] 2-Methylbutanoic acid [180] methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Ketone 2-Heptanone [160] Aromatic 1,4-Dichlorobenzene [160] Psychological stress Acid Benzoic acid [181] N-decanoic acid [181] Aromatic Xylene isomer [181] 3-Carene [181] Foot odor Acid Acetic acid [182] Isovaleric acid [182] sensitivity and high selectivity can also be applied in E-nose in the near future. ...
... Ester Methyl propanoate [177] N-propylacetate [160] Alkene Isoprene [160] Alkane Methyl cyclohexane [174] AlcoholAcid Ethanol [159] Propanol [160] 2-Methylbutanol [178] 3-Methylbutanol [178] Decan-1-ol [163] Octan-1-ol [163] Methyl mercaptan [172] Acetic acid [159,160] Organosulphur Hydrogen sulfide [172] Dimethyl trisulfide [177] Carbon disulfide [162] Staphylococcus aureus Aldehyde Acetaldehyde [159] 3-Methylbutanal [167] 2-Methylpropanal [167] Ketone Acetone [160] 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone [161] 2-Tridecenone [178] Amine Ammonia [159] Other Dimethyl sulfide [159] Dimethyl trisulfide [160] 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane [160] Dimethyl disulfide [160] Alcohol Ethanol [159] 1-Hydroxy-2-propanone [161] Butanol [179] Acid Acetic acid [167] Isovaleric acid [161] 2-Methylbutyric acid [161] Isobutyric acid [161] Enterococcus faecalis Amine Ammonia [172] Staphylococcus epidermidis Ketone Acetone [172] Amine Ammonia [172] Other 2-Methylbutanal [180] Alcohol 3-Methyl-1-butanol [180] Acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid [180] 2-Methylbutanoic acid [180] methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Ketone 2-Heptanone [160] Aromatic 1,4-Dichlorobenzene [160] Psychological stress Acid Benzoic acid [181] N-decanoic acid [181] Aromatic Xylene isomer [181] 3-Carene [181] Foot odor Acid Acetic acid [182] Isovaleric acid [182] sensitivity and high selectivity can also be applied in E-nose in the near future. ...
Various diseases increasingly challenge the health status and life quality of human beings. Volatolome emitted from patients has been considered as a potential family of markers, volatolomics, for diagnosis/screening. There are two fundamental issues of volatolomics in healthcare. On one hand, the solid relationship between the volatolome and specific diseases needs to be clarified and verified. On the other hand, effective methods should be explored for the precise detection of volatolome. Several comprehensive review articles had been published in this field. However, a timely and systematical summary and elaboration is still desired. In this review article, the research methodology of volatolomics in healthcare is critically considered and given out, at first. Then, the sets of volatolome according to specific diseases through different body sources and the analytical instruments for their identifications are systematically summarized. Thirdly, the advanced electronic nose and photonic nose technologies for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) detection are well introduced. The existed obstacles and future perspectives are deeply thought and discussed. This article could give a good guidance to researchers in this interdisciplinary field, not only understanding the cutting-edge detection technologies for doctors (medicinal background), but also making reference to clarify the choice of aimed VOCs during the sensor research for chemists, materials scientists, electronics engineers, etc.
... Currently, there is a great concern with hygiene, comfort and quality of footwear, which poses new challenges to the tanning industries. The contact of the user's foot with the shoe provides a favorable environment (heat, humidity and nutrients present in the sweat) [1] for the development of bacteria and fungi, which cause a deterioration of the leathers, unpleasant odors, and is a focus of infections [2][3][4]. In short, preventing and reducing the growth of microorganisms is a very topical issue in the tanning industry [5]. ...
... In tanneries, biocides are used during the leather making process to stop putrefaction before tanning but are seldom used after this point [1,[7][8][9]. The scientific literature reports new options: (1) zinc oxide nanoparticles incorporation [10]; (2) the deposition of silver agglomerates on the leather surface [11]; (3) melamine-formaldehyde microcapsules containing tea tree oil incorporation [3]; (4) essential oils from plants, such as encapsulated eucalyptus, lavender and thyme treatment [9,12]; (5) polyurethane dispersions added with photoactive antimicrobial agents used in coating [13]; (6) chitosan solutions (acidic) [5]; and methacrylic acid-acrylamide-chitosan polymer coatings [14]. ...
... The economic viability in terms of industrial purposes is a main point in the present investigation. The work addresses: (1) the synthesis and characterization of chitosan, and chitosan/silver nano/microparticles; (2) its incorporation in leather obtained from the final dyeing stage, provided by a local tannery (incorporations were performed at the laboratory level, mimicking drum industrial process); and (3) the evaluation of antimicrobial protection of the treated leather against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. ...
Tanned leather can be attacked by microorganisms. To ensure resistance to bacteria on leather surfaces, protection solutions need to be developed, addressing both environmental issues and economic viability. In this work, chitosan nano/microparticles (CNP) and chitosan/silver nano/microstructures (CSNP), containing silver nanoparticles around 17 nm size, were incorporated into leather, obtained from the industrial process. Low loads of chitosan-based nano/microformulations, 0.1% mass ratio, resulted in total bacteria reduction (100%) after 2 h towards Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, both with CNP and CSNP coatings. Otherwise, comparable tests with the Gram-negative bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, showed no significant improvement under the coating acidic conditions. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated by standard test methods: (1) inhibition halo and (2) dynamic contact conditions. The developed protection of leather either with CNP or CSNP is much higher than the one obtained with a simple chitosan solution.
... Fatty Acids Carboxylic acids, and particularly fatty acids (FAs) (carboxylic acids carrying an aliphatic chain), have long been suspected to be attractive compounds for mosquitoes. Both short-chain (C2-C5) and medium-chain (C6-C11) FAs are commonly found in volatile emissions from human skin (Ara et al. 2006;Caroprese et al. 2009;Dormont et al. 2013). Volatile FAs in skin odors originate from the metabolism of glycerol, lactic acid, amino acids, and diverse skin lipids, under the action of various skin bacteria (James et al. 2004;James et al. 2013). ...
... Other authors have also successfully used traps baited with nylon socks to collect mosquitoes (Jawara et al. 2009;Qiu et al. 2004;Schmied et al. 2008;. Foot odors consist of numerous volatile compounds and particularly include various FAs (Ara et al. 2006;Caroprese et al. 2009) that have been shown to elicit strong olfactory responses of female mosquitoes (Meijerink and van Loon 1999;Smallegange et al. 2009). ...
... Variation in the distribution of skin bacteria on the human body, which is mainly linked to the local abundance of skin glands of different types (Kearney et al. 1984), may explain the differences in body odor composition among body parts. For example, the strong odor emanating from feet (Ara et al. 2006;Caroprese et al. 2009), which is highly attractive to host-seeking mosquitoes , is likely determined by the specific and unique microbiota populations associated with this body part (Adamczyk et al. 2020). At the same time, the varying composition of skin microbiota among human subjects (Byrd et al. 2018;Fierer et al. 2008;Grice et al. 2009) may likely contribute to the differences of human odors among subjects, and thus to the differences in human attractiveness to mosquitoes. ...
Vector control and personal protection against anthropophilic mosquitoes mainly rely on the use of insecticides and repellents. The search for mosquito-attractive semiochemicals has been the subject of intense studies for decades, and new compounds or odor blends are regularly proposed as lures for odor-baited traps. We present a comprehensive and up-to-date review of all the studies that have evaluated the attractiveness of volatiles to mosquitoes, including individual chemical compounds, synthetic blends of compounds, or natural host or plant odors. A total of 388 studies were analysed, and our survey highlights the existence of 105 attractants (77 volatile compounds, 17 organism odors, and 11 synthetic blends) that have been proved effective in attracting one or several mosquito species. The exhaustive list of these attractants is presented in various tables, while the most common mosquito attractants - for which effective attractiveness has been demonstrated in numerous studies – are discussed throughout the text. The increasing knowledge on compounds attractive to mosquitoes may now serve as the basis for complementary vector control strategies, such as those involving lure-and-kill traps, or the development of mass trapping. This review also points out the necessity of further improving the search for new volatile attractants, such as new compound blends in specific ratios, considering that mosquito attraction to odors may vary over the life of the mosquito or among species. Finally, the use of mosquito attractants will undoubtedly have an increasingly important role to play in future integrated vector management programs.
... Alum (potassium aluminum sulphate dodecahydrate) is a natural mineral with the chemical formula KAl (SO 4 ) 2 · 12 H 2 O) [53]. It occurs in the form of a crystal that is brittle and easily soluble in water [54,55]. This mineral crystallizes in the form of regular octagonal crystals. ...
... SEM pictures of natural diatomaceous earth-diatomite are shown in Figure 3a. The photos show the diatom skeleton with an ordered micro-and nanoporous structure [54,55]. Additionally, numerous clusters of diatomaceous shells are visible. ...
This article presents research related to the transformation of geraniol (GA), leading to the formation of products with very valuable properties. In the planned method, heterogeneous catalysts of natural origin in the form of alum and diatomite were used as catalysts. Initially, the process which we investigated was the process of isomerization of GA, but it turned out during the studies that GA is also transformed in other reactions. Before catalytic tests, these two minerals were subjected to detailed instrumental analyses using the following methods: XRD, SEM/EDX, XRF and FTIR, which allowed to obtain their full morphological characteristics. During the catalytic tests, the influence of such relevant parameters on the GA transformations was determined: temperature from 80 to 150 °C, catalyst content from 5 to 15% by weight and the reaction time from 15 min to 24 h. The tests presented in the article were carried out under atmospheric pressure (in air) as well as without the use of a solvent. The optimal conditions for the transformations of GA were determined on the basis of its conversion and selectivities of transformation to the main products in the form of: beta-pinene (BP), 6,11-dimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatriene-1-ol (DC) and thumbergol (TH). The above products were formed with the highest selectivity, respectively: 100 mol%, 50 mol% and 52 mol%. The results of the syntheses showed that for GA the best transformation results were obtained at the temperature of 80 °C (for both tested catalysts), with the catalyst content of 1 wt % (for both tested catalysts) and for the reaction time of 1 h (for diatomite)) and 3 h (for alum).
... This gram-positive bacteriumcauses several skin and tissue infections such as sepsis, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and bacteremia [15]. On the other hand, the gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis is found on the skin, other extremities of the human body [16], and in the gastrointestinal tract [17]. Bacillus subtilis is considered important probiotic bacteria with antimicrobial potentials in human [18]. ...
... Bacillus subtilis is considered important probiotic bacteria with antimicrobial potentials in human [18]. However, these bacteria were identified to be the cause of foot odor [16]. Naturally, Escherichia coliexist in the gastrointestinal tract of most organisms including humans and do not harm its host [19]. ...
Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are potential biocontrol agents against agricultural pests and insects. These fungi are also known to be a source of secondary metabolites and could be a potential source of antibiotic drugs in the future. This study aims to determine the phytochemical and antimicrobial properties of EPF isolated from different host insects and their larvae in the province of Nueva Vizcaya. The method employed in this study includes the collection of EPF from dead insects and their larvae, isolation and mass production of the fungi, identification of the different fungi, extraction of secondary metabolites from the fungi, phytochemical screening, and antimicrobial assay. The results revealed that the antimicrobial properties of the different EPF could be explained by their phytochemical properties.When compared to the positive control, the significantly high antifungal activities of the Pandora neoaphidis (EPF 1) against the Candida albicans can be due to the presence of sterols. Conversely, the significantly high antibacterial activities of Beauveria alba (EPF 5) against Bacillus subtilis could be due to the presence of steroids, triterpenoids, glycosides, and fatty acids.These findings indicate that entomopathogenic fungi could be a potential source of antibiotic drugs against pathogenic microorganism in the near future. To realize this, future research is highly recommended for the isolation, elucidation, and evaluation of the safety of the bioactive compounds of entomopathogenic fungi responsible for the antimicrobial activities, prior to their use in humans.
... Its chemical identity was for the first time studied in the 21st century (Pedler, 1868). Isovaleric acid is produced by skin bacteria that metabolize leucine: therefore its odour is unpleasant to humans, and it is the main component of the pungent smell of unwashed feet (or, as often said, smell of dirty feet) (Ara et al., 2006). ...
Increasing the activity of zoophage Acari in agrocenoses, for example luring them to concentrations of harmful insects, could be effectively performed using attractants, for example organic acids that people use in households and industry. In our experiment, we studied the influence of organic acids on the locomotor activity of Stratiolaelaps scimitus (Womersley, 1956) (Mesostigmata, Laelapidae). Different organic acids caused certain reactions in those zoophages. Acetic acid encouraged this mite to activity and attracted it, while thioacetic acid inhibited and repelled it. Fatty acids such as tridecylic and oleic acids had an activating effect on the locomotor activity of S. scimitus. Three isomers of valeric acid inhibited locomotor activity, and the mites exerted negative chemostasis to them. Maximum locomotor activity of the mites was observed when using asparagine, ornithine, propionic acid, tridecanoic acid, boric acid, and arginine. Locomotor activity of the mites was inhibited by 3,3-dimethylbutanoic acid, thioacetic acid, pivalic acid, maleic acid, formic acid, succinic acid, 2-methylbutanoic acid, isovaleric acid, 6-aminohexanoic acid, and 2-oxoglutaric acid. We propose using attractiveness coefficient and coefficient of migratory activity, which reflect the effects of aroma compounds on mites. Those coefficients are helpful in identification of a behaviour model for mites exposed to aroma compound: attack, motionless state or escape. High attractiveness and migratory-activity coefficients mean attack on victim; low coefficients indicate motionless mites; high migratory activity and low attractiveness coefficient mean escape reaction. Our results indicate complexity of behaviour reactions of mites, which were sensitive to volatile chemical compounds in the environment. We found a high potential of using those compounds in attracting zoophages during their introduction in agrocenoses of greenhouses and open plots.
... The main component in eccrine sweat that induces malodor is the amino acid leucine. Leucine secreted in the sweat can be converted to isovaleric acid by Staphylococcus species on the skin [7,111]. This results in a sweaty, 'locker room' smell, and is the only type of malodor reported by East Asian individuals, especially after exercise [123]. ...
Humans produce odorous secretions from multiple body sites according to the microbiomic profile of each area and the types of secretory glands present. Because the axilla is an active, odor-producing region that mediates social communication via the sense of smell, this article focuses on the biological mechanisms underlying the creation of axillary odor, as well as the intrinsic and extrinsic factors likely to impact the odor and determine individual differences. The list of intrinsic factors discussed includes sex, age, ethnicity, emotions, and personality, and extrinsic factors include dietary choices, diseases, climate, and hygienic habits. In addition, we also draw attention to gaps in our understanding of each factor, including, for example, topical areas such as the effect of climate on body odor variation. Fundamental challenges and emerging research opportunities are further outlined in the discussion. Finally, we suggest guidelines and best practices based on the factors reviewed herein for preparatory protocols of sweat collection, data analysis, and interpretation.
... These functional groups make the leather naturally hydrophilic and create a suitable medium for the growth of microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts, and molds, resulting in skin problems, unpleasant smells, and discomfort for the wearer [17][18][19]. The unpleasant odor emanating from feet and shoes is due to the degradation of amino acids found in sweat and skin by Brevibacterium linens and Staphylococcus epidermidis [20,21]. In detail, the breakdown of methionine by Brevibacterium linens produces methyl mercaptan gas, while Staphylococcus epidermidis breaks down leucine in sweat to isovaleric acid, causing malodor in shoes and feet [17]. ...
The natural hydrophilic property of leather makes it a possible growing substrate for microorganisms. Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds frequently grow on shoe lining leather, causing skin diseases, unpleasant odors, and discomfort for the wearers. To address these issues, herein, bio-synthesized silver nanoparticles from Piper betle L. leaf extract were applied as an antimicrobial agent to pig leather via the exhaustion method. The characterization of na-nosilver-treated pig leather was performed using colorimetry, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), and FTIR techniques. Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of the nanosilver-treated leather was both qualita-tively and quantitatively assessed against two bacteria (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) and two fungi (a yeast Candida albicans and a mold Aspergillus niger) in accordance with AATCC TM90, AATCC TM30, and ISO 16187:2013 standards. The results indicated that the nanosilver was immobilized on the surface of collagen fibers as well as within the collagen matrix of the pig leather. The treated leather exhibited highly effective antibacterial and antifungal activities against all tested microorganisms, and the inhibition increased with an increase in the initial nanosilver concentration in the treated solution. Furthermore, the exhaustion technique used for the antimi-crobial treatment of pig leather had no negative effects on its physico-mechanical properties, and it met the standard requirements of ISO 20882:2007 for shoe upper lining. Therefore, based on the efficient antimicrobial and suitable physico-mechanical properties, nanosilver-treated pig leather adapts the criteria for making hygienic shoe upper lining.
... Assim, os pés humanos produzem um odor forte devido a densidade populacional bacteriana ser significativamente mais alta, sobretudo, na produção de ácido isovalérico. Pesquisas apontam que o mau odor dos pés pode ser mascarado por agentes perfumados incluindo o citral, citronelal e geraniol (ARA et al., 2006;ORCHARD;VILJOEN;VAN VUUREN;. ...
A hiperidrose é uma produção excessiva de suor que ocorre em algumas regiões do corpo. Este transtorno também é causado nos pés e que pode desencadear o mau odor vulgarmente denominado chulé. Neste trabalho, optou-se em formular desodorantes para os pés já que nessa região a transpiração se desenvolve de forma mais intensa que que demais partes do corpo. Foram empregadas misturas de diferentes óleos essenciais, afim de obter um novo produto, de sensorial agradável e com potencialidade antimicrobiana. Foram utilizados os óleos essenciais de melaleuca, lemongrass, eucalipto radiata, hortelã pimenta, lavanda, alecrim Qt cânfora, citronela, limão siciliano e ylang-ylang em virtude de suas propriedades antimicrobianas e propriedades aromáticas. Os resultados físico-químicos foram úteis para a caracterização dos produtos. O estudo também envolveu análise sensorial das formulações obtidas a fim de prever aceitabilidade das amostras propostas. Os resultados podem ser utilizados para auxiliar outros pesquisadores a buscar alternativas de aprimoramento de desodorantes para os pés produzidos com óleos essenciais.
... They are antioxidants, provide protection from sunlight, and immune function (Iwu, 2014). • Isovaleric acid-essential oils, anticonvulsant agent in valeria, used largely in perfumery, limonene essential oils fragrant, botanical insecticide, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial (Ara et al., 2006). ...
This book is an effort to throw light on the importance of biologically active molecules which are isolated from different plants, their biological activity, extraction from natural sources and their in vivo production to preserve the biodiversity of medicinal plants.
... Bakteri dominan penyebab bau kaki yaitu Micrococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., dan Corynebacteria (Barbaro dan Symonds 2006). S. epidermidis berperan utama dalam pengembangan bau kaki karena bekerja mendegradasi leusina yang dihasilkan keringat menjadi asam isovalerat yang memberi bau cheesy (Ara et al. 2006). Salah satu solusi untuk mencegah hal tersebut terjadi adalah menerapkan antibakteri penyebab bau kaki melalui pemakaian produk antibau kaki. ...
Solusi masalah antibau kaki salah satunya yaitu penggunaan produk anti bau kaki. Salah satu bahan alami yang berpotensi sebagai agen anti bau kaki adalah kitosan. Kitosan apabila dalam bentuk nanopartikel lebih reaktif dan memiliki aktivitas antibakteri lebih tinggi. Limbah industri udang sampai saat ini belum banyak dieksplor, sehingga pemanfaatan limbah industri udang menjadi nano kitosan dapat meningkatkan nilai tambah limbah udang. Penelitian ini bertujuan menemukan formulasi foot spray terbaik dalam menghambat bakteri penyebab bau kaki. Tahapan penelitian ini yaitu pembuatan kitosan, nano kitosan, formulasi foot spray, uji sifat fisik, uji aktivitas antibakteri, uji stabilitas fisik, dan uji iritasi. Pembuatan nanokitosan menggunakan metode gelasi ionik. Kitosan dilarutkan dengan akuades, TPP 0,1%, dan Tween 80 serta disizing dengan kecepatan 23.000 rpm akan membentuk nanopartikel stabil. Konsentrasi nano kitosan 3.000 ppm memberi daya hambat tertinggi yakni 5,20 mm terhadap S. epidermidis dan 3,15 terhadap Micrococcus sp. Derajat keasaman, ukuran partikel, dan nilai sensori foot spray nano kitosan stabil selama penyimpanan 8 minggu, namun viskositasnya mengalami penurunan besar.
... Bakteri dominan penyebab bau kaki yaitu Micrococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., dan Corynebacteria (Barbaro dan Symonds 2006). S. epidermidis berperan utama dalam pengembangan bau kaki karena bekerja mendegradasi leusina yang dihasilkan keringat menjadi asam isovalerat yang memberi bau cheesy (Ara et al. 2006). Salah satu solusi untuk mencegah hal tersebut terjadi adalah menerapkan antibakteri penyebab bau kaki melalui pemakaian produk antibau kaki. ...
One of the solutions to the problem of anti-odorous feet is the use of anti-odor products. One of the natural ingredients that have the potential as an anti-odor agent is chitosan. Chitosan in the form of nanoparticles is more reactive and has higher antibacterial activity. Until now, shrimp industrial waste has not been explored much, so that the utilization of shrimp industrial waste into nano chitosan can increase the added value of shrimp waste. This study aims to find the most effective foot spray formulation in inhibiting bacteria that cause foot odor. The stages of this research were the manufacture of chitosan, nano chitosan, foot spray formulation, physical properties test, antibacterial activity test, physical stability test, and irritation test. The manufacture of nanochitosan was done using the ionic gelation method. Chitosan was dissolved with distilled water, 0.1% TPP, and Tween 80 and disizing at a speed of 23,000 rpm to form stable nanoparticles. The nano chitosan concentration of 3,000 ppm gave the highest inhibitory power of 5.20 mm against S. epidermidis and 3.15 against Micrococcus sp. The degree of acidity, particle size, and sensory value of foot spray nano chitosan was stable during 8 weeks of storage, but the viscosity decreased significantly. Keyword: antibacterial, chitosan, foot odor, foot spray, nano chitosan ABSTRAK Solusi masalah antibau kaki salah satunya yaitu penggunaan produk anti bau kaki. Salah satu bahan alami yang berpotensi sebagai agen anti bau kaki adalah kitosan. Kitosan apabila dalam bentuk nanopartikel lebih reaktif dan memiliki aktivitas antibakteri lebih tinggi. Limbah industri udang sampai saat ini belum banyak dieksplor, sehingga pemanfaatan limbah industri udang menjadi nano kitosan dapat meningkatkan nilai tambah limbah udang. Penelitian ini bertujuan menemukan formulasi foot spray terbaik dalam menghambat bakteri penyebab bau kaki. Tahapan penelitian ini yaitu pembuatan kitosan, nano kitosan, formulasi foot spray, uji sifat fisik, uji aktivitas antibakteri, uji stabilitas fisik, dan uji iritasi. Pembuatan nanokitosan menggunakan metode gelasi ionik. Kitosan dilarutkan dengan akuades, TPP 0,1%, dan Tween 80 serta disizing dengan kecepatan 23.000 rpm akan membentuk nanopartikel stabil. Konsentrasi nano kitosan 3.000 ppm memberi daya hambat tertinggi yakni 5,20 mm terhadap S. epidermidis dan 3,15 terhadap Micrococcus sp. Derajat keasaman, ukuran partikel, dan nilai sensori foot spray nano kitosan stabil selama penyimpanan 8 minggu, namun viskositasnya mengalami penurunan besar. Kata kunci: antibakteri, bau kaki, foot spray, kitosan, nano kitosan
... Despite the diversity of influencing factors, the major contributor is the bacterial activity in skin gland secretions [2]. Numerous skin bacteria, including Corynebacterium jeikeium, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus epidermidis, help produce odorant substances [3,4]. Most of the chemical compounds required by the skin bacterial flora are secreted from the apocrine sweat glands on the skin, which are then metabolized into odorant substances [2]. ...
The potential deodorizing effects of Saccharina japonica have been evaluated by determining their deodorizing performance, but they are yet to be validated in experimental animals. The deodorizing effects of S. japonica were examined in an animal model using a novel odor marker associated with aging by comparing the concentration of odor component in urine obtained from two- and 10-month-old ICR mice using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the changes in the trimethylamine (TMA) concentration, ammonia level, and structure of sweat gland were determined after exposing 10-month-old ICR mice to 70% ethanol extract of S. japonica (EESJ) for four weeks. In vitro analysis was performed to confirm the composition of EESJ with respect to the total flavonoid contents (TFC, 28.6 ± 2.5 mg/g), total polyphenol contents (TPC, 107.3 ± 8.9 mg/g), and total condensed tannin contents (TTC, 65.7 ± 5.2 mg/g) contents, as well as to the deodorizing performance to ammonia and acetic acid (91.2 ± 7.8% and 54.8 ± 6.3%, respectively). In vivo analysis revealed TMA to be the novel odor marker associated with aging among the 19 odor components evaluated, considering the higher concentration in the urine of 10-month-old ICR mice. The peak area of TMA on the gas chromatogram was significantly lower in the 10-month-old ICR mice treated with EESJ than in the two-month-old mice. A similar decrease was observed in the level of ammonia obtained from the dirty bedding of the EESJ-treated group. Moreover, tissues obtained from the mouse foot of the group exposed to EESJ showed a dose-dependent decrease in the gland tube number of sweat glands and the TMA dehydrogenase transcription level. Overall, these results provide novel evidence that the administration of EESJ helps reduce the body TMA and ammonia concentrations, resulting in reduced odor and a decrease in the number of sweat glands and the expression of TMA dehydrogenase in the ICR mouse feet.
... Textiles, particularly clothing and bedding, may also harbor fungal pathogens, and studies have previously implicated textiles with human infection [38,50]. The warm environment and presence of desquamated keratinocytes provides for ideal growing conditions for fungi [51]. Multiple studies have shown persistence of dermatophytes on clothing, particularly socks, despite regular laundering [20,44]. ...
Onychomycosis is a common fungal infection of the nail, caused by dermatophytes, non-dermatophytes, and yeasts. Predisposing factors include older age, trauma, diabetes, immunosuppression, and previous history of nail psoriasis or tinea pedis. Though many biological risk factors have been well characterized, the role of the environment has been less clear. Studies have found evidence of transmission in 44% to 47% of households with at least one affected individual, but the underlying mechanisms and risk factors for transmission of onychomycosis between household members are incompletely understood. A scoping literature review was performed to characterize and summarize environmental risk factors involved in the transmission of onychomycosis within households. A total of 90 papers met the inclusion criteria, and extracted data was analyzed in an iterative manner. Shared household surfaces may harbor dermatophytes and provide sources for infection. Shared household equipment, including footwear, bedding, and nail tools, may transmit dermatophytes. The persistence of dermatophytes on household cleaning supplies, linen, and pets may serve as lasting sources of infection. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations that aim to interrupt household transmission of onychomycosis. Further investigation of the specific mechanisms behind household spread is needed to break the cycle of transmission, reducing the physical and social impacts of onychomycosis.
... Freshly secreted human sweat is odorless [38] and only has a limited attraction to Anopheles gambiae compared to sweat incubated with skin bacteria [39,40]. Furthermore, a strong correlation is evidenced between human body odor and the species composition of skin bacteria [39,[41][42][43][44]. Emanations from feet generally appear to be greatly attractive to An. gambiae compared to those from other parts of the body such as the hands and sweat [40]. ...
Pathogens may change the odor and odor-related biting behavior of the vector and host to enhance pathogen transmission. In recent years, volatile biomarker investigations have emerged to identify odors that are differentially and specifically released by pathogens and plants, or the pathogen-infected or even cancer patients. Several studies have reported odors or volatile biomarkers specifically detected from the breath and skin of malaria-infected individuals. This review will discuss the potential use of these odors or volatile biomarkers for the diagnosis of malaria. This approach not only allows for the non-invasive mean of sample collection but also opens up the opportunity to develop a biosensor for malaria diagnosis in low-resource settings.
... Besides, foot odor impacts negatively the human comfort, Ara et al. proved that this unpleasant odor can be caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis. Thus, this skin resistant bacteria produces isovaleric acid when it degrades leucine present in sweat (Ara et al. 2006). Antimicrobial textiles can protect human health by bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects against microorganisms growth. ...
Nowadays, regarding the important interest to hygienic conditions and human comfort and health, in this study, we were particularly focused on developing functional cotton for safety shoes insoles worn as personal protective equipment (PPE). In fact, numerous persons are exposed to several shoes problems such as bad odors caused by bacteria and many diseases due to foot infections. For this purpose, an AgNPs free antibacterial ecofriendly treatment respecting Oekotex standard 100 and Detox Campaign using zinc pyrithione compound was realized based on an experimental design to optimize simultaneously the zinc fixation rate under an exhaustion process and the antibacterial efficiency. The fixed zinc pyrithione content was analyzed by ICP-MS spectrometry as a reference method and a spectrophotometric method as an alternative, more straightforward, and cost-effective method. A good correlation between the two methods was established. Then, the impact of zinc pyrithione and zinc content on antibacterial effects was investigated. As a result, 173 mg/kg of fixed zinc obtained by applying only 0.14% of pure zinc pyrithione with the optimized exhaustion process showed a significant antibacterial effect. Furthermore, 0.28% of pure zinc pyrithione ensured an excellent fastness to abrasion and sweat of the antibacterial treated cotton fabric tested against bacteria Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus Epidermidis.
... However, when the odors generate discomfort and embarrassment it can be associated with the proliferation of common skin-resident bacteria (Nestora et al., 2016). The Staphylococcus epidermis plays a major role in foot odor through the conversion of leucine, present in the sweat, into isovaleric acid, a volatile organic compound with a sour and pungent odor (Ara et al., 2006). Methylparaben is a common substance added to cosmetics with antimicrobial activity through the disruption of the plasmatic membrane and the denaturation of enzymes (Soni et al., 2002). ...
This systematic scoping review presents evidence from 52 primary research articles for the beneficial, and sustainable, use of coffee in personal care products. The identification and evaluation of natural ingredients that harbor bioactive compounds capable of supporting healthy personal care and protecting and improving the appearance and condition of skin and hair is topical. Demand for natural and sustainable ingredients in beauty and personal care products is driving growth in a market valued at over $500 billion. Coffee, as one of the world's favorite beverages, is widely studied for its internal benefits. External benefits, however, are less known. Here the potential of coffee and its by-products as ingredients in cosmetic and personal care formulations is explored. Diverse applications of a range of bioactive compounds from the coffee bean, leaves, and by-products, are revealed. Research is evaluated in light of economic and environmental issues facing the coffee industry. Many of the 25 million smallholder coffee farmers live in poverty and new markets may assist their economic health. Coffee by-products are another industry-wide problem, accounting for 8 million tons of residual waste per year. Yet these by-products can be a rich source of compounds. Our discussion highlights phenolic compounds, triacylglycerols, and caffeine for cosmetic product use. The use of coffee in personal care products can benefit consumers and industry players by providing natural, non-toxic ingredients and economic alternatives and environmental solutions to support sustainability within the coffee production chain. Database searches identified 772 articles. Of those included (k = 52), a minority (k = 10; N = 309) related to clinical trials and participant studies. Applications were classified, using the PERSOnal Care products and ingredients classification (PERSOC). Sustainability potential was evaluated with the Coffea Products Sustainability (COPS) model. Overall objectives of the systematic scoping review were to: (1) scope the literature to highlight evidence for the use of coffee constituents in externally applied personal care products, and (2) critically evaluate findings in view of sustainability concerns.
... Previous research has verified that this odor emanated from foot is mainly composed of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) including propanoic acid, butyric acid, isobutanoic acid, isovaleric acid, hexanoic acid, and heptylic acid, etc., among which isovaleric acid plays dominant role in foot odor [1]. According to literature, this odor emanates from the bacterial biotransformation of branched-chain amino acids, such as leucine and valine into VFAs [2,3]. Moreover, the human foot usually has high levels of humidity and a rich supply of nutrients. ...
... A relative humidity of 96-100% inside footwear may substantially contribute to bacterial growth and colonization of yeast-like fungi 4 . The former can stimulate common bacterial infections like erythrasma 5 and contribute to foot odor due to degradation of the leucine present in sweat by Staphylococcus epidermidis 6 , while the latter can lead to fungal infections like dermatophytosis 7 . Most of the microbes and pathogens that are normally present in or on the human body are mesophiles, and grow best at around 37 °C 8,9 , which happens to be the peak value of the measured in-shoe temperature (27-37 °C) under constant moderate climatic conditions 10 . ...
The association between the footwear microclimate and microbial community on the foot plantar skin was investigated by experiments with three participants. Novel methods were developed for measuring in-shoe temperature and humidity at five footwear regions, as well as the overall ventilation rate inside the footwear. Three types of footwear were tested including casual shoes, running shoes, and perforated shoes for pairwise comparison of footwear microclimate and corresponding microbial community on the skin. The major findings are as follows: (1) footwear types make a significant difference to in-shoe temperature at the instep region with the casual shoes sustaining the warmest of all types; (2) significant differences were observed in local internal absolute humidity between footwear types, with the casual shoes sustaining the highest level of humidity at most regions; (3) the perforated shoes provided the highest ventilation rate, followed by running and casual shoes, and the faster the gait, the larger the discrepancy in ventilation rate between footwear types; (4) the casual shoes seemed to provide the most favorable internal environment for bacterial growth at the distal plantar skin; and (5) the bacterial growth at the distal plantar skin showed a positive linear correlation with the in-shoe temperature and absolute humidity, and a negative linear correlation with the ventilation rate. The ventilation rate seemed to be a more reliable indicator of the bacterial growth. Above all, we can conclude that footwear microclimate varies in footwear types, which makes contributions to the bacterial growth on the foot plantar skin.
... Plantar hyperhidrosis predisposes to foot odour associated with pitted keratolysis and pitted lesions, affecting quality of life and emotional well-being. The treatment of pitted keratolysis is based on topical antibiotics including natural antimicrobial agents; such as Gallnut (Yamuna & Sudha, 2013), fragrant agents; such as citral, citronellal and geraniol (Ara et al., 2006) and avoiding foot humidity; however, resistant cases have been reported by diverse patients (Singh & Naik, 2005;Blaise et al., 2008;Makhecha et al., 2017). Pertanika J. Sci. ...
... In fact, the processing of apocrine sweat by axillary microorganisms, mainly Staphylococci and Corynebacteria, is associated with the mal odor of sweat [96]. Ara et al. studied the foot odor in particular and showed that the odor was associated with the presence of isovaleric acid produced via the degradation of leucine in sweat by resident normal skin microbial flora, Staphylococcus epidermidis [97]. ...
Metabolome and proteome profiling of biofluids, e.g., urine, plasma, has generated vast and ever-increasing amounts of knowledge over the last few decades. Paradoxically, omics analyses of sweat, one of the most readily available human biofluids, have lagged behind. This review capitalizes on the current knowledge and state of the art analytical advances of sweat metabolomics and proteomics. Moreover, current applications of sweat omics such as the discovery of disease biomarkers and monitoring athletic performance are also presented in this review. Another area of emerging knowledge that has been highlighted herein lies in the role of skin host-microbiome interactions in shaping the sweat metabolite-protein profiles. Discussion of future research directions describes the need to have a better grasp of sweat chemicals and to better understand how they function as aided by advances in omics tools. Overall, the role of sweat as an information-rich biofluid that could complement the exploration of the skin metabolome/proteome is emphasized.
... Especially, ideal moisture and temperature for bacterial reproduction will be emerged in shoes under the circumstance that sweat from foot skin is absorbed by leather [4]. The large scale of microbial reproduction on leather will not only cause unpleasant odor but also may bring numerous infectious diseases [5][6][7]. Therefore, antibacterial leather is urgent and necessary for upgrading leather goods quality and generating better experience for customer. Antibiotics can be used to inhibit bacterial growth on leather, but drug-resistant bacteria and compatibility may become a big challenge and obstacle [8,9]. ...
In order to explain the interaction between collagen and nano-silver, gelatin solution was blended with nano-silver particles (AgNPs) with particle size 26 mm, and then the mixture was interacted under different time, pH and temperature. The changes in the process were measured by UV-Vis, fluorescence spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering and FT-IR. The results showed that the main type of reaction between gelatin and AgNPs was electrostatic interaction and the interaction was diffusive encounters. The particle size and distribution of nano-silver would not be affected by gelatin, however, there was dynamic fluorescence quenching of gelatin after nano-silver particle induced. The longer time and lower pH were beneficial for the interaction process while the interaction balanced after 60 min and pH 3.0 resulted in the most drastic interaction. Moreover, nano-silver would not impair gelatin structure during the interaction process. In short, the results in this work might be a foundation and reference for applying nano-silver in antibacterial leather producing.
... Additionally, the migration of these toxic substances and its contact with human foot is further enhanced by the porous nature of the leather matrix. The porous matrix also absorbs more amount of sweat, oil/grease which get accumulated resulting in colonization of microbes and may cause adverse effects for people with health conditions such as diabetes (Ara et al., 2006;Jennings et al., 1999). Alternatively, antiperspirants and antifungal formulations are sprayed on the foot to control the release of sweat (Aksoy and Kaplan, 2013), however it is not advisable for regular usage. ...
With the recent events following the pandemic COVID-19, global awareness about the use of biosafety materials has been in raise. Leather industry being a major commodity-driven sector, its role in addressing the issues concerning the safe use of leather products has become inevitable for the sustainability of the industry. A significant number of researches have been conducted to fabricate bio-safe leather by incorporating different types of antimicrobial agents during leather manufacturing. Besides, the increasing diversity in the development of synthetic materials and the impact of COVID-19 outbreak on automotive industry may create more demand from customers for incorporating different functionalities in leather without losing its inherent properties. Some of the key functionalities discussed include resistance to microbial growth, self-cleaning through superhydrophobicity and photocatalysis, thermal regulation, flame retardance and scented leather. This review focusses on the fabrication of such advanced functional leather materials over the past decade with special emphasis on antimicrobial leather. Some of the key factors elaborated in the review include the state of art approaches for the preparation of functional materials, mode of incorporation of the same into the leather matrix, the mechanism behind with a perspective on the challenges involved in fabrication for real-world applications. A major outcome of this review is that even though several kinds of cutting edge researches are happening in the field of leather manufacturing, most of them were not validated for its practical applicability and sustainability of the proposed solution. This could be majorly attributed to the cost involved in fabrication of such materials, which forms a crucial factor when it comes to a mass production industry such as leather. Also, the researchers should concentrate on the toxicity of the fabricated materials which can impede the process of adopting such emerging and need of the hour technologies in the near future. Knowledge obtained from this review on fabrication of bio-safety leather against bacteria, mold and fungi would help further to integrate the antiviral property into the same which is a global need. Also, fabrication of functionalized leather would open new avenues for leather manufactures to venture into the development of advanced leather products such as flexible electronics, radiation shielding and fire fighting garments etc.
... Dermatophytes are known to colonize and survive for a long duration in footwear worn by patients with onychomycosis and tinea pedis [78]. Fungi may use sweat and skin cells trapped in footwear as a source of nutrients to create and maintain fungal reser-voirs [72,79,80]. Textiles such as towels, sheets, and blankets are also potential fungal reservoirs [72,79]. ...
There is an increase in the incidence of onychomycosis, especially in at-risk populations. Onychomycosis is difficult to treat, as the efficacy of most antifungal agents is relatively low. Nondermatophyte molds (NDMs) and mixed infection (dermatophyte plus NDM) onychomycosis are contributing to growing antifungal resistance, as they are often underestimated and ignored due to incorrect diagnosis. There is a need for a paradigm shift in the management of onychomycosis to a patient-centered, holistic approach with an emphasis on laboratory diagnosis prior to initiating treatment, which enables the rational choice of the antifungal agent. Additionally, in the case of resistant infections, antifungal susceptibility testing is recommended. Strategies for effective management of onychomycosis include disinfection of fungal reservoirs in shoes and socks and prophylaxis posttreatment using topical antifungal agents. These measures may reduce the recurrence of onychomycosis and improve long-term clinical success.
... Higher levels were observed with increasing storage time, increasing storage temperature, and after concentrate storage ( Figure 3). Propionic, butyric, and isovaleric acid have an unpleasant odor and they are known to be present in foot sweet [26] and human stool [27], contributing to pungent off-odors. To evaluate their effect on P. purpureum odor more directly, their concentrations expressed per liter algae suspension were plotted (Supplementary Materials Figure S1) and compared to their odor threshold values (OTV) in pure water [28]. ...
It is often impossible in practice to process micro-algae immediately after their cultivation and harvest. This study, therefore, aimed to identify appropriate storage conditions for the wet preservation of Porphyridium purpureum. Algae were stored either as a concentrate or as a dilute culture at 4 °C, 8 °C, or 20 °C for 14 days and their quality was monitored. Concentrate storage tended to result in higher microbial numbers than dilute culture storage and clearly led to higher concentrations of malodorous organic acids. Butyric and isovaleric acid concentrations were about two orders of magnitude larger than their odor threshold values after 14 days of concentrate storage at 20 °C. Average B-phycoeryhrin (B-PE) levels were slightly higher after concentrate storage (2.5 ± 0.2 g B-PE/100 g organic matter) than after dilute culture storage (2.2 ± 0.5 g B-PE/100 g organic matter), probably due to respiration losses of other organic compounds in the first case. Significant amounts of organic matter got lost during concentrate storage (4-35%) as a result of carbohydrate degradation. The main restriction of concentrate storage was the rapid viscosity increase and formation of a weak gel structure complicating the later processing of the concentrates. These findings are highly relevant for P. purpureum cultivators and processors who have to store Porphyridium suspensions, even on a term of one day or less.
... Staphylococcal species catabolise amino acids found in the growth media to 3-methylbutyraldehyde, which is then oxidised by an aldehyde dehydrogenase to form 3-methylbutyric acid 18 (isovaleric acid). 3-Methylbutyric acid is a characteristic VOC emitted by various Staphylococcal species 45,46 and is strongly associated with the generation of human body odour 16,47 . S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and E. coli also produced the high amounts of 3-hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin). ...
The detection of volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted by pathogenic bacteria has been proposed as a potential non-invasive approach for characterising various infectious diseases as well as wound infections. Studying microbial VOC profiles in vitro allows the mechanisms governing VOC production and the cellular origin of VOCs to be deduced. However, inter-study comparisons of microbial VOC data remains a challenge due to the variation in instrumental and growth parameters across studies. In this work, multiple strains of pathogenic and commensal cutaneous bacteria were analysed using headspace solid phase micro-extraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. A kinetic study was also carried out to assess the relationship between bacterial VOC profiles and the growth phase of cells. Comprehensive bacterial VOC profiles were successfully discriminated at the species-level, while strain-level variation was only observed in specific species and to a small degree. Temporal emission kinetics showed that the emission of particular compound groups were proportional to the respective growth phase for individual S. aureus and P. aeruginosa samples. Standardised experimental workflows are needed to improve comparability across studies and ultimately elevate the field of microbial VOC profiling. Our results build on and support previous literature and demonstrate that comprehensive discriminative results can be achieved using simple experimental and data analysis workflows.
... Na przykład gatunki Corynebacterium mogą rozkładać bezwonne składniki potu i wytwarzać substancje o silnym, nieprzyjemnym zapachu, które są kojarzone jako zapach pachy [33]. Z kolei Staphylococcus epidermidis metabolizuje leucynę do kwasu izowaleria nowego, jednego ze składników odpowiedzialnych za typową woń stóp [34]. ...
... In extreme cases, high growth and large proliferation of Aspergillus niger microbes on the leather surface of footwear will occur prospective health complications for the customers (Orlita 2003), i.e., foot ulceration and amputation (Jennings et al. 1999, Ara et al. 2006, Johannesson et al. 2009, Sánchez-Navarro et al. 2011. ...
In this study, a chitosan based coating method was developed and applied on the shoe lining leather surface for evaluating its inhibition to bacterial and fungal attacks. At first, chitosan was prepared from raw prawn shells and then the prepared chitosan solution was applied onto the leather surface. Secondly, the characterization of the prepared chitosan and chitosan treated leather was performed by solubility test, ATR-FTIR, XRD pattern, SEM and TGA. Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of chitosan was assessed against two gram positive, two gram negative bacteria and a reputed fungi by agar diffusion test. The results of this study demonstrated that chitosan took place in both the surface of collagen fibres and inside the collagen matrix of crust leather. The chitosan showed strong antimicrobial activities against all the tested microorganisms and the inhibition increased with increasing percentage of chitosan. Therefore, the prepared chitosan in this study can be an environment friendly biocide, which functions simultaneously against different spoilage bacteria and fungi on the finished leather surface. Thus by using the prepared chitosan in shoe lining leather, the possibility of microbial attack during shoe wearing can be minimized which is one of the important hygienic requirements of footwear.
... B. subtilis is the second most frequently associated bacteria in neonates 17 . In addition, in healthy individuals (including adults) it has been found in the outer ear skin 17 , and it is predominately found in the plantar skin of humans with strong foot odor 18 . S. epidermidis is a major inhabitant of the skin, and comprises more than 90% of the aerobic resident microbiota 2 . ...
Bacteria display social behavior and establish cooperative or competitive interactions in the niches they occupy. The human skin is a densely populated environment where many bacterial species live. Thus, bacterial inhabitants are expected to find a balance in these interactions, which eventually defines their spatial distribution and the composition of our skin microbiota. Unraveling the physiological basis of the interactions between bacterial species in organized environments requires reductionist analyses using functionally relevant species. Here, we study the interaction between two members of our skin microbiota, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis. We show that B. subtilis actively responds to the presence of S. epidermidis in its proximity by two strategies: antimicrobial production and development of a subpopulation with migratory response. The initial response of B. subtilis is production of chlorotetain, which degrades the S. epidermidis at the colony level. Next, a subpopulation of B. subtilis motile cells emerges. Remarkably this subpopulation slides towards the remaining S. epidermidis colony and engulfs it. A slow response back from S. epidermidis cells give origin to resistant cells that prevent both attacks from B. subtilis. We hypothesized that this niche conquering and back-down response from B. subtilis and S. epidermidis, respectively, which resembles other conflicts in nature as the ones observed in animals, may play a role in defining the presence of certain bacterial species in the specific microenvironments that these bacteria occupy on our skin.
This study demonstrated a one-pot process for the preparation of seaweed-based antibacterial foot care gel for the removal of odor. Foot gel comprised 97.5% water, 1.2% seaweed polymer, 0.2% bioactive molecule, and 1.1% preservative. The antibacterial efficiency of foot gel was tested against 14 bacterial strains, isolated from foot swab samples from five different healthy volunteers having foul foot odor. The 16S rRNA partial gene sequencing identification revealed all 14 bacterial strains were different Bacillus species. Foot gel was characterized using FTIR, Rheology, TGA, and gelling properties. The volunteer's feet were treated with just two drops (around 200 L) of foot care gel before wearing socks, which showed restriction in the growth of bacterial strains causing a foul odor within a few hours, therefore resulting in restrained the foul foot odor. Furthermore, the volunteer’s remarks about feeling freshness, coolness, dryness, and smooth feet after applying the foot gel were very encouraging. The shelf life of foot gel was monitored for up to six months and during that time, no significant change in rheological characteristics and antibacterial efficiency was observed. Foot gel was compared with commercially available foot care products and foul odor removal efficiency was found identical in both. Results of this study showed that the odor-removing efficacy of developed foot gel was found better than other commercial products.
Graphical abstract
Schematic representation of the preparation of antibacterial foot care gel and its efficacy
Similar to the pandemic COVID-19 situations, the world has been facing various infections due to innumerable pathogenic microbes in living organisms, which puts many challenges in front of policymakers, scientists, and governments as well. Among the different strategies to control infection-causing agents, the demand to develop biostatic or biocidal coatings is increasing dramatically. In addition, numerous companies have been marketing the various antimicrobial ways for inactivating or reducing infectious microbes. Among the different types of antimicrobial coatings, surface coating is one of the promising strategies to disinfect the surfaces of various objects or tools used in hospitals, homes, etc. In comparison to organic- or polymer-based agents, metal oxide nanocomposites have been emerged as antimicrobial materials because of their overriding advantages such as higher surface area, excellent stability, non-toxicity, reasonable cost, chemical inertness, etc., which leads to higher activity toward the microbes inactivation through reactive oxygen species generation, ease penetration, well integrity, etc. With these objectives, this chapter discusses the metal oxide nanocomposites-based antimicrobial coatings for controlling the microbes observed on the surfaces of objects used in different sectors, such as hospitals, paints, automobiles, food, etc. Accordingly, this chapter describes the basics of nanocomposites, antimicrobial coatings, characterizing composites, biological measurements for antimicrobial coatings used in various fields up to the future perspectives of nanocomposites-based antimicrobial coatings. Therefore, metal oxide nanocomposites-based antimicrobial coatings can be used effectively to control the microbial proliferation of various objects, devices used in common places of high-risk infections.
Background: The search for bioactive organic products for the treatment of various diseases is a growing concern worldwide, because these bioactive natural products are associated with fewer side effects and are easily accessible.
Aim: The present study analysed the phytochemical constituents and cytotoxic effects of the leaf, bark and fruit extracts of Cordia grandicalyx Oberm.
Setting: Plant samples were collected from Ga-Mashishimale village in Ba-Phalaborwa Municipality, South Africa.
Methods: Antioxidant activity was determined through 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging method, whilst cytotoxic assay was assessed using the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide method. Plant extracts were subjected to phytochemical profiling using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The extracts were also subjected to fractionation using column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography, and the sub-fractions with considerable yields were identified using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
Results: The aqueous extracts of the bark and leaves had significant (p 0.001) antioxidant activity as compared to negative controls and ascorbic acid. Additionally, appreciable amounts of total phenolic and alkaloid contents were recorded on polar extracts, notably 200 mg/GAE and 140 mg/quercetin equivalents for leaf cold water and leaf hot water extracts, respectively. All extracts were not toxic to cells, whilst the positive control (H2O2) led to almost 100% demise of cells. Two compounds were isolated from the leaf acetone extracts collected from fraction 20 to 30 and fraction 101 to 120 and identified as α˗amyrin and β-amyrin by NMR spectral analysis.
Conclusion: The study provided evidence supporting the screening of plants for the discovery of therapeutic compounds. The study also revealed that all the different C. grandicalyx extracts were less toxic to cells and may provide scientific backing for continued use of the plant in mixtures for the treatment of diseases.
The risk of having onychomycosis increases with age. Data suggest that the prevalence of onychomycosis may be ≥ 20% in subjects aged ≥ 60 years and ≥ 50% in those aged ≥ 70 years. Older males are 2.1 times more prone to onychomycosis than are females. Although most nail dystrophies (approximately 50%) are caused by onychomycosis, proper clinical assessment followed by mycological examination is recommended to exclude other conditions such as nail trauma, lichen planus, and psoriasis. The US FDA-approved onychomycosis treatments are systemic antifungals (terbinafine and itraconazole) for severe onychomycosis and topical antifungals (ciclopirox 8%, efinaconazole 10%, and tavaborole 5%) for mild-to-moderate onychomycosis. Oral fluconazole is used off-label, and itraconazole may be considered for non-dermatophyte onychomycosis. Recently, fosravuconazole was approved in Japan for onychomycosis treatment. Although the treatment options and durations are the same for older patients as for other age groups, a clinical decision should take into account various age-related factors such as comorbidities, polypharmacy, hepatic and renal insufficiency, and noncompliance. Clinicians should also consider possible drug interactions and side effects when choosing a particular antifungal. Since the recurrence rate of onychomycosis is high, older patients should practice sanitization techniques, consider lifestyle changes, and perhaps consider using a topical antifungal as long-term maintenance therapy one to three times per week to prevent the recurrence of onychomycosis or to treat early disease.
We postulated that disinfection of viable Trichophyton species in shoes would help reduce the number of patients with tinea pedis in Japan and that this might be accomplished safely using volatile components of essential oils. As vapor of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and citral have strong antimicrobial activities against Trichophyton, we examined the conditions under which lemongrass oil or citral show optimal antimicrobial activity in shoes. First, we investigated whether or not a strong antimicrobial effect could be obtained by combining with terpene aldehydes or aromatic aldehydes. When combined with citral, perillaldehyde showed superior antimicrobial activity to citronellal, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, hydroxycitronellal, and vanillin. The combined effects of citral and perillaldehyde against Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Bacillus subtilis, and Candida albicans as volatile components dotted on filter paper placed away from the petri dish inoculated with fungi or bacteria were examined. Citral (2.5 mg/mL) and perillaldehyde (2.5 mg/mL) showed a greater inhibitory effect on growth of C. albicans than either solution alone in the aromatogram (disc diffusion) descent method (fractional inhibitory concentration [FIC] index of 0.58). Citral (2.5 mg/mL) and perillaldehyde (1.25 mg/mL) vapors in a closed box synergistically inhibited growth of B. subtilis and T. mentagrophytes (FIC indexes of 0.5 and 0.38, respectively). These results suggested that this combination would be safe and useful for disinfection of shoes.
Host-seeking behaviour and how a parasite identifies the correct host to infect remains a poorly understood area of parasitology. What is currently known is that host sensation and seeking behaviour is formed from a complex mixture of chemo-, thermo- and mechanosensory behaviours, of which chemosensation is the best studied. Previous studies of olfaction in parasitic nematodes suggested that this behaviour appears to be more closely related to target host and infection mode than phylogeny. However, there has not yet been a study comparing the chemotactic and temperature-dependent behaviours of very closely related parasitic and non-parasitic nematodes. To this end, we examined the temperature-dependent and chemotactic responses of the Strongyloidoidea superfamily of nematodes. We found differences in temperature response between the different species and within infective larvae. Chemotactic responses were highly divergent, with different attraction profiles between all species studied. When examining direct stimulation with fur, we found that it was insufficient to cause an attractive response. Overall, our results support the notion that olfactory sensation is more closely related to lifestyle and host range than phylogeny, and that multiple cues are required to initiate host-seeking behaviour.
This article presents the results for the optimization of the geraniol isomerization process with the use of alum - the dodecahydrate mineral of aluminum-potassium sulfate as a catalyst. For this purpose, the Entropy / VIKOR optimization method was used. Three parameters were subjected to the process: process temperature, catalyst concentration, and reaction time. To determine the most favorable process parameters, the VIKOR method was used with the determination of weights based on entropy. The VIKOR method was used only as a numerical tool that was used to calculate the most important parameters of the process. The selected optimal parameters allowed to gain a high conversion of geraniol and selectivity of the transformation to individual reaction products.
Charcoal are of natural origin has anti-odour properties by controlling the metabolism of odour causing bacteria and fungi. In the present study, charcoal prepared from natural sources are finished on to natural cotton and bamboo fabrics with the aim of developing anti-odour fabrics. Finished fabrics were subjected to anti-odour testing using modified artificial sweat studies against the test bacterial specimens (Staphylococcus aureus and Micrococcus luteus). The infection associated with odour causing organisms were considered significant and hence the antibacterial and antifungal activity was tested using standard EN ISO 20645 test method and AATCC-30 test method respectively. No fungal organism was recorded for all the test specimens finished with lemon charcoal finished fabrics. Antibacterial and antifungal activity test also revealed the efficacy of charcoal finished fabrics in terms of inhibitory zones against the test organisms. This study would be considered highly significant by providing an eco-friendly and sustainable products for different fields of applications by developing charcoal from waste recycle process.
Novel three‐dimensional (3D) printing antibacterial thermoplastic polyurethane/green tea/tannic acid (TPU/GT/TA) composite filaments were successfully developed. The antimicrobial property of the filaments was evaluated against three Gram‐positive bacterial strains, that is, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Bacillus subtilis, using an agar diffusion assay. It was noted that the enhanced inhibitory potency of the filaments was derived from the synergistic antibacterial activity of GT and TA, also confirmed by the antibacterial potency of the crude extract of GT/TA mixture which was used as a synergism study model. Not only the weight ratio of GT and TA incorporated in the filaments, but also the uniform mixing of the polymer compounds played a crucial role in the antibacterial efficiency of the resulting filaments. Both GT and TA were uniformly distributed in the matrices of filaments composed of total contents of GT and TA ≤ 30 wt%, proven by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX), and micro‐computer tomography (μCT) analysis. Furthermore, a number of voids existed in the filament matrix were found to increase with a rising content of fillers. Among the composite filaments prepared, TPU/GT25/TA:70/10/20 filament demonstrated the best tensile property, whereas TPU/GT25/TA:70/15/15 filament possessed the greatest inhibitory potency. The antibacterial stability of the developed composite filaments after 3D printing and storage was eventually assessed. The novel composite filaments had a promising potential use as an effectively antibacterial FDM feedstock for such applications as 3D printed antimicrobial insoles.
Over the past decades, there has been increasing attention tothe study of medicinal plants that contain many phytochemicals beneficial for human health. A number of secondary metabolites derived from various plants have been used as drug components to treat several human disorders since ancient times. The traditional therapeutic applications of secondary metabolites have been reported in the whole world. Numerous bioactive phytochemicals constituents have been identified and isolated using many advanced techniques. These bioactive phytochemicals are responsible for many pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammation, anti-cancer, anti-allergic, and antimicrobial infection. These secondary metabolites are not only beneficial for human health but also protect plants themselves from biotic and abiotic stress. These secondary metabolites are classified into many subclasses like terpenoids, alkaloids and phenolics. Each class of secondary metabolites has its pharmacological activities, which is required to be studied thoroughly for better use in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and other industries. Therefore, this review paper represents many medicinal plants that contain bioactive secondary metabolites and show pharmacological activities, which provides an opportunity to utilize them for improvement of human health and discover new herbal medicines.
Sweat is produced by the apocrine glands, if infected by bacteria that play a role in the decay process will certainly produce foot odor. Some of the bacteria that cause, including Staphylococcus epidermis, Corynebacterium acne and there is one bacterium that causes pungent foot odor that is Bacillus subtilis. Bacillus subtilis enzyme leucine dehydrogenase produced the highest, resulting in isovaleric acid foot odor. Lime peel (Citrus aurantifolia) has the potential to be developed for the antibacterial active ingredient of foot odor contained in tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids. Spray can be effective for inhibition of feet due to water fleas or bacterial infections. The purpose of this research is to test the inhibitory zone of the preparation of foot odor spray ethanol extract of lime peel (Citrus aurantifolia) with variations of gelling agent. Bacterial inhibition zone testing on extracts of lime peel spray preparations using the disc method. This test was carried out on spray with extract concentration of 0% extract base carbopol, 0% extract base HPMC, 0.2% extract base carbopol, 0.2% extract base HPMC, 0.4% extract base carbopol, 0.4% extract base HPMC and positive control with an average inhibition zone of 9,13 mm, 9,12 mm, 11,86 mm, 11,29 mm, 13,17 mm, 12,30 mm, 8,13 mm against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Antibacterial test results were analyzed using ONE WAY ANOVA, the results of statistical analysis on the preparation of lime peel extract showed a significant inhibition zone difference of 0.000 (P = <0.05) between all concentrations. Lime peel extract spray is effective in inhibiting the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Key words: Sweat of foot odor, Lime skin (Citrus aurantifolia), Spray, bacteri Bacillus subtilis
Foot odor is one of the things that is quite disruptive to appearance, the 2014 American Podiatric Medical Association studied a significant increase in the prevalence of foot odor in the community. One of the causes of foot odor is the presence of bacteria, especially the bacteria Bacillus Subtilis. This study used the ethanol extract of beluntas leaf ( Pluchea Indica L .) as the active ingredient because the ethanol extract of beluntas leaf has been widely used and proven to have antibacterial activity besides the ethanol extract of beluntas leaf has a high enough compatibility to be used as a cosmetic product, including spray preparations. The spray form was chosen because of its easy and pleasant use. This study aims to make a foot odor control product in the form of a spray with 3 concentrations of beluntas leaf ethanol extract, 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% to study the antibacterial activity using the well diffusion method. The results showed that the ethanol extract of beluntas leaf can be formulated into foot spray preparation with the results of the organoleptic examination of the three formulas are clear liquid, and yellow slightly green color. The pH of the preparation is in the range 5.10 -5.92. In formula 3 (F3) with a concentration of 1.5% beluntas leaf ethanol extract, it has a strong bacterial inhibition zone with an average inhibition zone diameter of 12.5 mm.
This research was conducted to determine the effect of the use of Internet
Marketing marketing strategies on the marketing of anti-odor deodorants and dry
skin from Salcca zalacca skin. Data gathered from the marketing strategy carried
out was based on the number of Deodorant products and dry skin from salak skin
sold. The research method used is a type of field research that uses a type of
secondary data source by utilizing literature studies and primary data sources,
namely the results of interviews and observations. The analysis uses a qualitative
descriptive approach. This study aims to determine the effect of internet marketing
usage on sales of anti-odor deodorants and dry skin from salak skin and to know
the advantages and disadvantages of internet marketing in marketing these
products. The results show that 1) the influence of the use of internet marketing
(advertising, public relations and publications, sales promotion, personal selling,
and direct selling of anti-odor Deodorant products and dry skin from salak skin
shown by the sale of products that have reached 165 bottles ) the advantages and
disadvantages of internet marketing for the marketing of anti-odor Deodorant
products and dry skin from salak skin are with a variety of different social media
can reach different market segments and different features of social media can be
optimized in product marketing. However, the need for human resources to meet
other needs is an obstacle for companies in implementing internet marketing.
Background
The skin is a dynamic ecosystem of microbes and the source of many chemical compounds that affect human health. Skin-microbiome interactions can cause persistent, psychosocially devastating body smell despite good hygiene. Since odor production is often transient, malodors may not be perceptible during medical examinations. Therefore, having odor complaints can be diagnosed as body dysmorphic disorder and referred for psychological evaluations. Development of simple at-home tests and virtual care programs could improve the diagnosis and management of socially debilitating malodor conditions.
Objective
The aim of this study was to assess potential effectiveness of at-home gut microbiome testing in the diagnosis and management of idiopathic body and breath odor and in people are allergic to me (PATM) syndrome.
Methods
We contacted participants of prior metabolic body odor (MEBO) and PATM studies and online support groups by email or social media. Individuals who consented to participate were mailed test kits for at-home collection of gut microbiome samples. Participants completed an online survey (specially developed for this study) addressing their symptoms and other quality-of-life indicators at baseline and after sampling. Participants collected stool samples after flare-ups or symptom improvements and mailed them to the laboratory to be processed and analyzed. We evaluated between-group differences in symptom severity, as well as symptom improvement observations for the same individuals. For differential abundance testing of microbial taxa, we performed nonparametric statistical analyses using Mann-Whitney U tests for unpaired samples and Wilcoxon signed rank test for paired samples.
Results
A total of 112 individuals from 21 countries consented to participate. About half the participants had been tested for the metabolic disorder trimethylaminuria, and about half of those tested were diagnosed with the disorder. The levels of bacteria previously associated with cutaneous body odor were significantly elevated in gut samples. For the combination of species from Anaerococcus, Corynebacterium, Campylobacter, and Propionibacterium genera, the differences were P=.002 for active (73 participants, 182 samples) versus regression or remission groups (30 participants, 51 samples); P=.01 for those experiencing symptoms most or all of the time (46 participants, 88 samples) versus those who had symptoms sometimes, rarely, or never (25 participants, 74 samples); and P<.001 for improvement of symptoms in the same individuals (22 participants, 43 sets of matched samples). Changes in microbial diversity were significant for between- but not within-participant comparisons.
Conclusions
Changes in the gut microbiome composition affect MEBO and PATM severity. In particular, an increase in intestinal bacteria producing odor when in skin flexures was associated with increased intensity of self-reported symptoms. The changes were consistent in the within-group and between-group analyses. Our findings support the feasibility of remote and decentralized clinical studies of malodor conditions. Supplementary sample collection procedures may help to meet established research quality standards.
Trial Registration
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03582826; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03582826
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
RR2-10.1101/2020.08.21.20179242
The development of malodour on clothing is a well-known problem with social, economic and ecological consequences. Many people still think malodour is the result of a lack of hygiene, which causes social stigma and embarrassment. Clothing is washed more frequently due to odour formation or even discarded when permastink develops. The malodour formation process is impacted by many variables and processes throughout the textile lifecycle. The contact with the skin with consequent transfer of microorganisms, volatiles and odour precursors leads to the formation of a distinctive textile microbiome and volatilome. The washing and drying processes further shape the textile microbiome and impact malodour formation. These processes are impacted by interindividual differences and fabric type as well. This review describes the current knowledge on the volatilome and microbiome of the skin, textile and washing machine, the multiple factors that determine malodour formation on textiles and points out what information is still missing.
Phenols are a group of odorous components that are released from rotten human urine. Just after urination, the most abundant urinary phenols exist in odorless conjugates with glucuronic acid or sulfate. In this study, we analyzed these two types of conjugates in rotten human urine using LC-MS/MS and found that only the glucuronic acid conjugates (glucuronides) underwent degradation. This suggested that suppression of glucuronide degradation would effectively reduce urinary odor generation. Thus, about 200 fragrance chemicals were examined in an attempt to find an inhibitor of the bacterial enzyme involved in glucuronide degradation (β-glucuronidase). Macrocyclic compounds, such as 8-cyclohexadecen-1-one, exhibited strong inhibitory activity against β-glucuronidase and were effective at reducing urinary odor generation.
The distribution of bacterial leucine dehydrogenase (L-leucine:NAD+ oxidoreductase, deaminating, EC 1.4.1.9) was investigated, and Bacillus sphaericus (IFO 3525) was found to have the highest activity of the enzyme. Leucine dehydrogenase, which was purified to homogeneity and crystallized from B. sphaericus, has a molecular weight of about 245,000 and consists of six identical subunits (Mr = 41,000). The enzyme catalyzes the oxidative deamination of L-leucine, L-valine, L-isoleucine, L-norvaline, L-alpha-aminobutyrate, and L-norleucine, and the reductive amination of their keto analogues. The enzyme requires NAD+ as a cofactor, which cannot be replaced by NADP+. D-Enantiomers of the substrate amino acids inhibit competitively the oxidation of L-leucine. The enzyme activity is significantly reduced by both sulfhydryl reagents and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Purine and pyrimidine bases, nucleosides and nucleotides have no effect on the enzyme activity. Initial velocity and product inhibition studies show that the reductive amination proceeds through a sequential ordered ternary-binary mechanism. NADH binds first to the enzyme followed by alpha-ketoisocaproate and ammonia, and the products are released in the order of L-leucine and NAD+. The Michaelis constants are as follows: L-leucine (1 mM), NAD+ (0.39 mM), NADH (35 micrometer), alpha-ketoisocaproate (0.31 mM), and ammonia (0.2 M). The pro-S hydrogen at C-4 of the dihydronicotinamide ring of NADH is exclusively transferred to the substrate; the enzyme is B-stereospecific.
We studied human head odors by sensory test and GC-MS analysis of hairs and head-space components. We thought that head odors mainly consisted of mixed odors of fatty acids (from lower to higher fatty acids), and these fatty acids were produced from triglycerides in the lipids by lipase of resident flora on the scalp. We developed the fatty acids formation model by lipase and bacteria, and found many fragrance materials controlling fatty acids formations. And we verified the effect of controlling head odors by hair shampoo and rinse use test.Furthermore, we found that several fragrance materials form the esters with fatty acids.
The majority of antiperspirants and deodorants in the market are formulated by ingredients that act in such a way that the production of body odour is prevented as much as possible.A new type of deodorant that acts directly on chemical compounds responsible for offensive body odours once formed, was investigated. First of all, by analysing foot odour with GC/MS, short chain fatty acids, especially iso-valeric acid, were found to be responsible for the malodour. Short chain fatty acids were also identified within the armpit, another region possessing offensive body odour.Various experiments confirmed us that the conversion of volatile short chain fatty acids into involatile short chain fatty acid salts was the mechanism of choice for quenching acid malodour. A number of compounds were sought, out of which zinc oxide possessing fine particles was the most promising in terms of its outstanding ability to efficiently quench iso-valeric acid.By uniformly covering the surface of a spherical resin such as nylon, with zinc oxide, a hybrid powder that overcomes many of the shortcomings that zinc oxide alone may provoke, was obtained without sacrificing any of zinc oxide's deodorizing power. Body odour quenchers formulated with this hybrid powder were far more efficacious compared to the conventional deodorizers.
We investigated the development of technique to cope with middle age body odor (ABO) by two suggested ways, 1) intercept the key component of ABO that is nonenal on the way of generation; 2) using ABO masking-able or variation-able fragrance, match to the character of ABO. In the first way, we developed in vitro ABO generation system by coexistence of palmitoleic acid and squalenemonohydroperoxide. Thiotaurine, a prominent biomedical antioxidant, was selected by this in vitro system for the ingredient to cut off the generation of nonenal. The using test of protocol product including thiotaurine was down the skin nonenal level and had an effect on suppression of ABO generation. Next, we developed the model-ABO that general people considered the middle age body odor. We use the model-ABO to test the fragrance efficacy of masking or variation. Based on this screening test, some effective fragrance was developed, and protocol product fragrant with that effective fragrance had the ability to prevent the odor of ABO in the using test. The application of technique we investigated shown the way for the product of cope with ABO.
Natto contains branched short-chain fatty acids (BCFAS), such as isobutyric acid, isovaleric acid, and 2-methylbutyric acid. These BCFAS have unpleasant smell. To produce light-smelling natto, we tried to develop BCFAS non-producing natto bacteria. BCFAS are presumed to be synthesized from branched amino acids, such as valine, leucine, and isoleucine. Therefore we constructed mutant strains, yqiT1 and ywaA1, which lack leucine dehyrogenase (LDH) and branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase by insertion mutation, respectively. YqiT1 produced much smaller amount of BCFAS than parent strain. While, ywaA1 produced BCFAS as much as parent strain. From this result, we concluded that LDH catalyzes the first step of the BCFAS biosynthesis pathway. Next we deleted the LDH gene of O-2 strain by means of homologous recombination and transduction. Natto made by the use of the mutant strain, B2, which had a deletion in the LDH gene, contained only 0.7 mg BCFAS/100g, while natto made by the use of the parent strain contained 70.7 mg BCFAS/100g. The natto fermented by B2 strain was valued highly as a light-smelling natto by sensary evaluation. Finally, we obtained the LDH-defective mutants by chemical mutagenesis to utilize in commercial production of natto. The mutants produced little BCFAS like B2, and the natto fermented by the mutants had lighter smells.
Synopsis
We have examined the relationship between human axillary skin microflora and underarm odour (UAO), in particular, the ability of cutaneous bacteria to transform steroids. A study was made of bacterial population density and odour intensity of the axillae of 34 normal male subjects. There was a statistically significant association between population density of aerobic coryneform bacteria and UAO intensity. No associations could be found between population densities of staphylococci, micrococci or propionibacteria and UAO intensity. An in vitro model for formation of UAO was developed, and used to test individual bacterial isolates. Only aerobic coryneforms could produce axillary odour in vitro , most notably C. xerosis. Many aerobic coryneforms could transform testosterone, the principal metabolites being 5α‐ and 5β‐DHT, androstenedione, and 5α‐ and 5β‐androstanedione. UAO positive coryneforms were more metabolically active than UAO negative bacteria. Micrococci also transformed testosterone to androstenedione, whilst staphylococci and propionibacteria could not metabolize it. A hypothesis for the role of aerobic coryneforms in the formation of human axillary odour is discussed.
This paper is a review of progress in the ‘specific anosmia’ approach to the classification of odors. We have developed a
suggestion by Guillot that the study of specific chemical defects in olfactory perception might reveal the fundamental or
primary odors of the human sense of smell. Six varieties of specific anosmia have been mapped out in chemical detail. The
maximum anosmic defects were observed with the following primary odorants: isovaleric acid, l-pyrroline, trimethylamine, isobutyraldehyde,
5α-androst-16-en-3-one and ω-pentadecalactone. We have named the corresponding primary odors: sweaty, spermous, fishy, malty,
urinous and musky. There is evidence that other mammals may possess many of the same primary odor sensitivities. These primary
odors appear to be well adapted for perceiving food and body odors, thereby conveying nutritional information and pheromonal
signals in animals and man. Evidence from the known varieties of specific anosmia suggests that the total number of human
primary odors is at least 32.
The 16S rRNA gene from various bacterial cultures was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction without DNA purification, and sequenced directly by using a laser fluorescent DNA sequencer and Tth polymerase with a cycle sequencing protocol. The described procedures provide almost complete 16S rDNA sequence data within a couple of days and facilitate systematic studies.
The bacteria isolated from foot skins of 17 volunteers by the swab sampling method were mostly gram-positive cocci, which were identified as Staphylococcus epidermidis by the ID-kit SP-18 (Nissui Co., Ltd). After incubation of S. epidermidis on agar plates containing oleic acid and Tween 80 for 24 h at 35 C, the smell noticed was similar to an offensive smell of human pes. However, under the same conditions, the smell of another staphylococcal species was different from that of S. epidermidis. Except for the staphylococcal species, the colonies isolated from the skins were mostly those of yeast (unidentified) and gave off no offensive smell. From these results, it was considered that the smell of human pes might be given off by S. epidermidis, and if this species is inhibited, the smell would also be inhibited. A selective bactericide for gram-positive bacteria, which is a lotion containing deoxycholic acid, was applied to the feet of the 17 volunteers. The experiments showed that the application obviously decreased the counts of colonies of S. epidermidis and inhibited the smell as compared with controls.
Short-chain fatty acids from the socks and feet of subjects either with strong foot odour or with weak or no foot odour were extracted with ethyl ether, and then analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Short chain fatty acids were found in greater amounts from those subjects with strong foot odour. Iso-valeric acid was present in all the subjects with foot odour but was not detected in those without. Olfactory evaluations of the various short-chain fatty acid solutions were in agreement with the GC/MS analyses. By incubating sweat and lipid from subjects with strong foot odour, we succeeded in reproducing the foot malodour. GC/MS analyses of reproduced foot odour revealed that short-chain fatty acids were present in a similar composition to that found in vivo.
A comparison of the cutaneous microflora found on normal feet with varying levels of odour has been made. High population densities of staphylococci and aerobic coryneform bacteria predispose to foot odour. There was no association between odour and the carriage on feet of any particular micro-organism, including brevibacteria. All organisms isolated were screened for exoenzyme activity. Only staphylococci produced lipase (78% of the staphylococci), whereas 97% of micrococci, 68% of aerobic coryneform bacteria, 25% of staphylococci and 94% of propionibacteria produced proteinase. The ability to degrade callous was exhibited by 47% of micrococci, 24% of aerobic coryneforms and 17% of the staphylococci. Feet with high odour had significantly higher population densities of micro-organisms with the ability to produce these exoenzymes than feet with low odour. No association was observed between foot odour and the carriage of micro-organisms capable of producing methanethiol. A hypothesis for the role of micro-organisms in the production of foot odour is proposed.
The characterization of the source of the odor in the human axillary region is not only of commercial interest but is also important biologically because axillary extracts can alter the length and timing of the female menstrual cycle. In males, the most abundant odor component is known to be E-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid (E-3M2H), which is liberated from nonodorous apocrine secretions by axillary microorganisms. Recently, it was found that in the apocrine gland secretions, 3M2H is carried to the skin surface bound to two proteins, apocrine secretion odor-binding proteins 1 and 2 (ASOB1 and ASOB2) with apparent molecular masses of 45 kDa and 26 kDa, respectively. To better understand the formation of axillary odors and the structural relationship between 3M2H and its carrier protein, the amino acid sequence and glycosylation pattern of ASOB2 were determined by mass spectrometry. The ASOB2 protein was identified as apolipoprotein D (apoD), a known member of the alpha2mu-microglobulin superfamily of carrier proteins also known as lipocalins. The pattern of glycosylation for axillary apoD differs from that reported for plasma apoD, suggesting different sites of expression for the two glycoproteins. In situ hybridization of an oligonucleotide probe against apoD mRNA with axillary tissue demonstrates that the message for synthesis of this protein is specific to the apocrine glands. These results suggest a remarkable similarity between human axillary secretions and nonhuman mammalian odor sources, where lipocalins have been shown to carry the odoriferous signals used in pheromonal communication.
Two samples of essential oils of Lippia sidoides Cham. have been tested for their antibacterial and antifungal properties against some microorganisms living on the skin of feet and armpits. The essential oils and also their main components, thymol and carvacrol, show strong antagonistic activities. Corynebacterium xerosis developing axillary odour is specially inhibited. But on the other hand no specific activities have been observed upon the feet microflora.
Phylogenetic analysis of a bacte-rium by sequencing its 16S ribosomal RNA gene
- Y Shinoda
- N Kato
Shinoda, Y., and Kato, N. 2000. Phylogenetic analysis of a bacte-rium by sequencing its 16S ribosomal RNA gene. Shimadzu. Rev. 57: 121–132.
The bacteriological and biological signifi-cance of Propionibacterium acnes — the indigenous bacteria of human skin
- M Kishishita
Kishishita, M. 1978. The bacteriological and biological signifi-cance of Propionibacterium acnes — the indigenous bacteria of human skin. Acta Derm. 73: 1–10.
Mechanism and regulation of body malodor generation
- H Takenaka
- S Mikoshiba
- D Yokoyama
- T Hayashi
- K Takada
Takenaka, H., Mikoshiba, S., Yokoyama, D., Hayashi, T., and Takada, K. 2002. Mechanism and regulation of body malodor generation. 51st Meeting of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists of Japan, 19 November 2002. pp. 68–71.
Skin Care Products Research Laboratories The University of Air Specific anosmia and the concept of primary odors
- T Hagura
- T Kamiya
T. Hagura, and T. Kamiya. Skin Care Products Research Laboratories, Kao Co., Ltd., 2-1-3 Bunka, Sumidaku, Tokyo 131-8501, Japan. F. Tomita. Hokkaido Study Center, The University of Air, Kita-17, Nishi-8, Kitaku, Sapporo 060-0817, Japan. References Amoore, J. 1977. Specific anosmia and the concept of primary odors. Chem. Senses Flavor, 2: 267–281.