... Moreover, Ross and Aday (2006) found that 92 % of custodial grandparents identified clinically significant levels of parenting stress among African American grandparents. Previous studies identified some risk factors associated with parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers, which included lack of economic resources (Butler & Zakari, 2005;Minkler & Fuller-Thomson, 2005), unmet family needs (Lee et al., 2016), poor health and emotional well-being of caregivers (Gerard, Landry-Meyer, & Guzell Roe, 2006;Leder, Grinstead, & Torres, 2007;Lee et al., 2016), grandchildren's behavioral problems (Gerard et al., 2006;Leake, Wood, Bussey, & Strolin-Goltzman, 2019;Smith & Palmieri, 2007), lack of social support (Butler & Zakari, 2005;Leder et al., 2007;Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000;Sharda, Sutherby, Cavanaugh, Hughes, & Woodward, 2019), lack of family competence (e.g., family's inability to solve problems, express emotions, and facilitate individual autonomy; Gleeson, Hsieh, & Cryer-Coupet, 2016), and the transition to become primary caregivers for grandchildren (Landry-Meyer & Newman, 2004;Orb & Davey, 2005). Prior research has indicated that a high level of caregivers' parenting stress is associated with an increased likelihood of child abuse and neglect (Holden & Banez, 1996). ...