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Effects of ovariohysterectomy on reactivity in German Shepherd dogs
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of ovariohysterectomy on reactivity of German Shepherd dogs. Fourteen healthy dogs ranging in age from 5 to 10 months were assigned to an ovariohysterectomy or a sexually intact group. Their behaviours were digitally video recorded 4-5 months after treatment and analysed for treatment effects on reactivity. Responses to the approach of an unfamiliar human leading an unknown dog were assigned the following reactivity scores: severe reactivity, 3; moderate reactivity, 2; defensive or mild reactivity, 1; attentive or no reactivity, 0. Median reactivity scores in response to the approach of an unfamiliar human walking with an unknown dog were calculated for each observation period. Dogs in the ovariohysterectomized group showed more reactivity, and median reactivity scores were higher in the ovariohysterectomy group compared with those of the sexually intact group. Ovariohysterectomy of 5-10 month old German Shepherd bitches specifically, and perhaps bitches of any breed generally, may induce an increase in reactivity. Practitioners may benefit from recognizing that a range of behavioural changes may occur post-ovariohysterectomy.
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... Although the most serious bite injuries in the United States involve sexually intact dogs, 115 gonadectomy has not been found to be a useful measure to prevent aggressive behavior in male or female dogs. 109,111,116,117 Gonadectomy consistently reduces only intermale aggression and may actually contribute to increased aggression in female dogs. 109,111,[116][117][118] In a study 118 conducted to evaluate canine patients referred for management of behavioral problems, sexually intact males and neutered females were significantly more likely to be referred because of aggression and stimulus reactivity than were neutered males and sexually intact females. ...
... 109,111,116,117 Gonadectomy consistently reduces only intermale aggression and may actually contribute to increased aggression in female dogs. 109,111,[116][117][118] In a study 118 conducted to evaluate canine patients referred for management of behavioral problems, sexually intact males and neutered females were significantly more likely to be referred because of aggression and stimulus reactivity than were neutered males and sexually intact females. A prospective controlled study 117 of German Shepherd Dogs revealed increased reactivity to unfamiliar people and unknown dogs following OHE performed between 5 and 10 months of age, compared with results for dogs allowed to remain sexually intact. ...
... 109,111,[116][117][118] In a study 118 conducted to evaluate canine patients referred for management of behavioral problems, sexually intact males and neutered females were significantly more likely to be referred because of aggression and stimulus reactivity than were neutered males and sexually intact females. A prospective controlled study 117 of German Shepherd Dogs revealed increased reactivity to unfamiliar people and unknown dogs following OHE performed between 5 and 10 months of age, compared with results for dogs allowed to remain sexually intact. A study 116 based on responses of 150 owners of dogs to questionnaires administered at the time of spaying and again 6 months later revealed a significant increase in dominance aggression toward family members by bitches following OHE, compared with the response of sexually intact female dogs of similar age and breed assessed at the same time periods. ...
... In several studies, neutered dogs showed an increased aggression against people [33], against children of the same household [12], against people of the same household [1,[33][34][35], and against other dogs [29]. In general, other authors also found increased aggression of neutered dogs, but did not distinguish the different forms of aggression [24,36,37]. Neutered dogs were also more aggressive in terms of affect control aggression (previously and wrongly ...
... Oxytocin on the other hand, is an antagonist of cortisol, and reduces stress-related aggression. A similar explanation is provided by Kim [37], who suggest that female dogs become more reactive after neutering either through the loss of the sedative effect of progesterone or because of the increased gonadotropinstimulated release of androgens from the adrenal gland. Other authors also assume a sedative effect of progesterone but suspect that the behavioural changes are caused by the sudden drop in progesterone levels after neutering [47]. ...
... Behavioural Decrease in oestrus-associated behaviours [25] Increased possessive aggression [63] Reduced risk of vehicular injury [60] Increased owner-directed aggression [64] Increased reactivity to approach by stranger (German shepherd dogs spayed between 5 and 10 months of age) [65] Increased fearful behaviour in Labradors in response to loud noise, unfamiliar objects approaching on or near the sidewalk, and approach by unknown dog that is barking, growling or jumping [66]. (Fearfulness of approach by unknown dog that is barking, growling or jumping was more pronounced in dogs spayed after puberty.) ...
... This is consistent with Balogh and colleagues, who found that owners of spayed dogs described more frequent and/or more intense fear reaction in their dogs in response to loud noises, unfamiliar objects approaching on or near the sidewalk, or if they were approached by unknown dogs barking, growling or jumping [66]. One previous study on female German shepherd dogs reported an increase in owner-reported emotional reactivity after ovariohysterectomy [65]. With more owner-reported data supporting this finding reported here across multiple breeds and countries, there is a clear and pressing need for longitudinal studies (e.g. using data from VetCompass Australia [78] and doglogbook [79]) that can address possible causality. ...
Spaying of female dogs is a widespread practice, performed primarily for population control. While the consequences of early spaying for health are still being debated, the consequences for behaviour are believed to be negligible. The current study focused on the reported behaviour of 8981 female dogs spayed before 520 weeks (ten years) of life for reasons other than behavioural management, and calculated their percentage lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones (PLGH) as a proportion of their age at the time of being reported to the online Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). We found that 23 behaviours differed between entire and spayed dogs, of which 12 were associated with PLGH and 5 with age-at-spay (AAS). Two behaviours, chewing and howling, were significantly more likely in dogs with longer PLGH. In contrast, longer PLGH was associated with significantly reduced reporting of 10 (mostly unwelcome) behaviours. Of these, one related to fearfulness and three to aggression. The current data suggest that dogs’ tendency to show numerous behaviours can be influenced by the timing of spaying. They indicate how female dog behaviour matures when gonadal hormones are allowed to have their effect. The differences reported here between undesirable behaviours of spayed and entire dogs were in the range of 5.33% and 7.22%, suggesting that, for some dogs, partial or complete denial of maturation may reduce howling and chewing and improve retrieval and recall, but have other undesirable consequences. Veterinarians may take these data into account to discuss the risks and benefits of spaying with clients, and the timing of the procedure.
... Rather, increased aggression in castrated dogs was also identified in some cases [76,[83][84][85]. Studies on female dogs appear to be more coherent, as a majority of outcomes report a higher level of aggressive behaviors in spayed females [59,66,75,[86][87][88]. However, a recent study failed to replicate these data and indicated a contradictory lower incidence of aggression toward people (i.e., both familiars and strangers) in spayed female dogs [80]. ...
... However, it should be emphasized that, in this study, a high percentage of sterilized dogs (87.5%) were used, with significantly more spayed females than castrated males. As ovariectomy results in increased aggressive behaviors in females [59,66,75,[86][87][88], neutered females may have partially biased the results of Guy et al. [76]. Because of these limitations, the conclusion that male dogs are more aggressive would seem not robust. ...
In this paper, we review the scientific reports of sex-related differences in dogs as compared to the outcomes described for wild animals. Our aim was to explore whether the differences in male and female dogs were affected by the domestication process, in which artificial selection is the main driver. For this purpose, we used information regarding personality traits, cognitive processes, and perception, for which there is a wide theoretical framework in behavioral ecology. Aggressiveness and boldness, described as a behavioral syndrome, were reported as being higher in males than females. Females also seemed more inclined to interspecific social interactions with humans in tasks that require cooperative skills, whereas males appeared more inclined to social play, thus implying different levels of social engagement between the sexes, depending on the context. Studies on cognitive processes underlined a greater flexibility in resorting to a particular navigation strategy in males. Most lateralization studies seem to support the view that males are preferentially left-handed and females are preferentially right-handed. Reports on visual focusing coherently rank females as superior in focusing on single social and physical stimuli. Only male dogs are able to discriminate kin; however, the timing of the olfactory recording in sexes is related to the stimulus relevance. Dogs are largely in line with life-history theories, which indicate that sex differences in dogs are mainly rooted in their biological and evolutionary heritage, remaining unchanged despite artificial selection. In contrast, the higher intraspecific sociability in wild male animals was not replicated in dogs.
... 2014; Hart, Hart, Thigpen, & Willits, 2016;Ru, Terracini, & Glickman, 1998;Smith, 2014;Zink et al., 2014), immune disorders (Sundburg, Belanger, Bannasch, Famula, & Oberbauer, 2016) and diseases of the locomotor system (Hart et al., 2014;O'Neill, Meeson, Sheridan, Church, & Brodbelt, 2016;van Hagen, Ducro, Broek, & Knol, 2005) were also reported. Moreover, behavioural changes, for example increased aggression (O'Farell & Peachey, 1990), excitability (Salmeri, Bloomberg, Scruggs, & Shille, 1991), fear behaviours (Brinkmann, 2015;Zink et al., 2014) in early spayed bitches as well as reactivity (Kim et al., 2006) were mentioned as side effects of spaying. ...
... Increasing aggression as a side effect of spaying is of concern (Bubna- Littitz, 2001;O'Farell & Peachey, 1990;Strodtbeck, 2011;Strodtbeck & Ganslosser, 2011); however, we did not find any differences between spayed and intact females by analysing scores for aggression obtained by an owner questionnaire. Increased aggressiveness or reactivity after spaying was reported in particular for puppies, which already showed aggression before one year of age (O'Farell & Peachey, 1990), and for military dogs (Kim et al., 2006). It is clear that our results on behavioural traits of only 58 dogs, which belonged to a breed with aggression scores below the average of the dog population (Duffy et al., 2008) cannot refute these previous findings. ...
Benefits and risks of spaying on the behaviour of female dogs are controversially discussed. Increased aggressiveness and male urinary behaviour were postulated to be the consequence of masculinization after spaying in some female dogs. To investigate if spaying or its timing relative to the onset of puberty may have a masculinization effect, urinary behaviour, that is, frequency of urination, urinary posture and ground scratching after urination were recorded in 58 female Labrador Retrievers during 15 min of a daily walk with their owners. General behaviour of the dogs during the walks was assessed using an owner questionnaire. Data were analysed for age, reproductive status, lifetime of ovary exposure and/or time interval since spaying. Urinary behaviour of intact females (n = 12) and dogs spayed before (n = 17) or after (n = 29) puberty was similar and not influenced by age, lifetime of ovary exposure and/or time interval since spaying. Owners of spayed dogs described more frequent or more intense fear reaction in their animals in response to loud noises, unfamiliar objects approaching on or near the sidewalk, or if they were approached by unknown dogs barking, growling or jumping. In conclusion, we found no evidence of a masculinization effect after spaying on urinary behaviour in female Labrador Retrievers. In contrast to popular belief, gonadectomy did not inevitably result in a behaviourally more stable dog. Extrapolation of our findings from female Labrador Retrievers to other breeds should be performed with caution, as the effect of spaying on behaviour may differ among dog breeds.
... 18 Ovariohysterectomy prevents maternal aggression, but the role estrogen plays in modulating aggressive behavior is not fully understood. 21,22 Heritability: Because aggression may be a heritable trait, gonadectomy of aggressive dogs is recommended. Dental disarming: This term encompasses various dental procedures aimed to prevent a dog from inflicting injury from a bite. ...
... Estrogen and oxytocin have anxiolytic effects, 20 which possibly accounts for the findings that spaying may worsen aggressive behavior in dogs exhibiting aggression before surgery 21 and increase some dogs' reactivity toward unfamiliar people. 22 Evidence that human-directed aggression is a heritable trait has been shown in several different breeds (golden retrievers, 23,24 English cocker spaniels, 25 English springer spaniels 26 ). Owners of aggressive dogs should be counseled to neuter or spay their pets to avoid passing on genes related to aggression. ...
This article reviews the various causes of human-directed aggression in dogs and provides a step-by-step plan guiding the general practitioner through history taking, behavior observations, diagnosis, consultation, treatment, and follow-up care. Charts summarizing how to obtain behavioral information, the client's management options, treatment recommendations, diagnosis and treatment of human-directed aggression, and the clinician's role in preventing human-directed aggression are included. A graphic illustration of canine body language is also provided.
... Multiple studies have evaluated the effects of neutering on dog behaviour with ambiguous results (McKenzie, 2010). Neutering has been shown to reduce aggression in males but not females (Hsu and Sun, 2010;Wright and Nesselrote, 1987), has age dependent effects on trainability (Bálint et al., 2017)and can have sex and age dependent effects on aggression (Farhoody et al., 2018;Kim et al., 2006;McGreevy et al., 2018;Reisner et al., 2005;M. Starling et al., 2019). ...
Free-ranging dogs (FRDs) represent the largest population of dogs around the world. Their lives are not under direct human supervision and these dogs can be found in and around all possible forms of human habitation. Increased urbanization, poor population management measures and open garbage dumps have compounded their population over the years, leading to increased dog-human conflict, especially in the Global South. Pet keeping has been on the rise in India but most dogs are commercially acquired and are typically foreign breeds. Adoption of FRDs may be a potential solution for both population management and better welfare. While many studies have been conducted on dog behavior across the Global North, studies pertaining to adoptability, dog-human bonds, and welfare of FRDs have been largely missing. We investigated the in-house behaviour and human-animal bonds among adopted FRDs in India using a mixed method approach. Participants were recruited using social media using a snowball method. Data were collected on demographics and lifestyle of both the owners and their dogs, along with owner responses on the Canine Behaviour and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ, Survey I) and the Monash Dog Owner Relationship Scale (MDORS, Survey II). Questions on reasons for adoption, not sterilizing their dogs and behaviour consultation were kept as open responses. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on the C-BARQ items to investigate differences in factor structure from previously established studies in Europe and United States. Influence of demographic and lifestyle parameters on factor scores were investigated using logistic regression. We received valid responses from 1484 respondents for Survey I and 427 responses for Survey II from participants, who had filled the surveys for the same adopted FRD. A 13-factor structure emerged from the EFA- Stranger directed aggression, Owner directed aggression, Dog directed aggression, Fear, Nonsocial fear, Touch sensitivity, Separation related problems, Attachment, Excitability, Energy, Chasing, Elimination and Stereotypy. Comparison of scores across sex and neuter status of the dogs revealed differences. Various demographic factors influenced the behaviour of the adopted dogs. Owners reported a very high Emotional Closeness, low Perceived costs and average dog-owner interaction. The dog-owner relationship was mostly influenced by lifestyle and demographic factors rather than the dog’s behaviour. Overall, our results indicate that FRDs can adapt to a domestic life and make good pets. This study is a first attempt to bridge the ethnocultural gap on dog-keeping from India and lays the foundation for multiple avenues for future studies on the welfare of FRDs in the Global South.
... Fear of storms, fear of gunfire, fear of noises, fear biting, timidity, separation anxiety, and submissive urination all increase significantly following gonadectomy. Gonadectomized females are also more reactive to the presence of unfamiliar humans and dogs [89]. Although some dogs may become less aggressive following gonadectomy [90], dominance aggression [87]and ownerdirected aggression [20,91] occur with a significantly higher frequency in gonadectomized dogs compared to unaltered dogs. ...
Throughout most of the developed world, surgical sterilization via gonadectomy has become a common tool for combating the overpopulation of unwanted dogs as well as to eliminate the risk of reproductive diseases in pet dogs. However, if a surgical sterilization method is chosen that enables a dog to keep its gonads intact while still preventing reproduction, thismay avoid the problems discussed in this article. In the dog as in other normal adult mammals, the hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release of luteinizing hormone. Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the secretion of gonadal steroid hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen/progesterone in females). These gonadal steroid hormones then negatively feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to decrease the secretion of GnRH and LH, respectively. However, in the gonadectomized mammal, there is no negative feedback, which results in supraphysiologic circulating concentrations of LH. In gonadectomized dogs, LH concentrations are more than thirty times the concentrations found in normal adult dogs. Although the main role of LH is for reproductive functions (e.g. ovulation, corpus luteum formation), there are LH receptors present throughout the body, not just limited to the reproductive tract. The purpose of LH receptors in non-reproductive tissues is not known but may induce cell division and stimulate nitric oxide release. With constant activation following gonadectomy, these receptors are up regulated, further magnifying the effects of the extremely high LH concentrations in non-reproductive tissues. Canine gonadectomy increases the risk of several non-reproductive long-term disorders caused by extremely high LH including obesity, urinary incontinence, urinary calculi, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, hip dysplasia, cranial cruciate ligament rupture, aggressive and fearful behavior, cognitive dysfunction syndrome, prostate adenocarcinoma, transitional cell adenocarcinoma, osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, lymphosarcoma, and mastocytoma. In this review, the relationship between LH receptor activation in these non-reproductive target tissues will be discussed.
... A dog s overall activity profile consists of various behaviors; therefore, previous studies focused on the extent to which castration reduced the prevalence of specific undesirable activities. Neutering appears to diminish a dog's overall activity levels [3,22], although not all studies support this assumption [34]. Some authors [14,35] have argued that castration decreases activity levels by reducing the frequency of roaming, but according to Heidenberger and Unsheim [13], neutered dogs are less active because they gain weight. ...
In many Western countries, castration is the most popular surgical desexing procedure in dogs. The aim of the study was to identify the reasons for male dog castration and to determine the owners’ perceptions about changes in dog behavior before and after castration. An online survey was posted on social networking sites dedicated to dogs. A total of 386 respondents participated in the survey. The main reason (39%) for castration was undesirable behavior, including hyperactivity (8%), roaming (8%), mounting (7%), aggression (5%), marking (5%) and others (5%). This surgery did not change the prevalence of aggressive behaviors towards people, but it reduced aggressive behaviors towards dogs and other animals. Castration did not reduce the presentation of anxious behavior in fearful dogs. Castration increased the number of dogs that were fearful of unfamiliar dogs/humans, as well as dogs with sound phobias, while decreased the prevalence of hiding behavior. This procedure greatly decreased incidences of roaming, mounting and urine marking as well as the dog’s overall activity. Thus, it can be concluded that while castration can resolve many undesirable behaviors in male dogs, the arguments for and against neutering should always be considered on an individual basis.
... Bir başka çalışmada ise ovariohisterektominin Alman çoban köpeklerinde fırtına korkusu, silah sesi korkusu, ses korkusu, ısırılma korkusu, çekingenlik, ayrılık kaygısı gibi durumların arttığı görülmüştür. Kısırlaştırılmış dişilerde yabancı insanlara ve farklı köpeklere duyarlılık gözlemlenmiştir [35]. ...
zet: İnsan nüfusunun artması ile kedi ve köpek popülasyonu da yıllar içerisinde hızla artmıştır. Zamanla bu artış kedi ve köpekler için üremenin kontrolünü zorunlu hale getirmiştir. Üremenin kontrolü amacıyla kedi ve köpeklere birçok medikal veya cerrahi yöntem uygulanmaktadır. Cerrahi yöntemler medikal yöntemlere göre daha az komplikasyon oluşturması, hızlı ve pratik olması, ömür boyu sterilite sağlaması açısından daha fazla tercih edilmektedir. Cerrahi uygulamalar içerisinde ise en çok kullanılan yöntem gonadoektomidir. Dişilerde bu uygulama daha çok ovariohisterektomi (OHE) yöntemi kullanılarak yapılmaktadır. Fakat hayvan sahipleri ve hayvanları arasındaki duygusal bağ kısırlaştırma uygulamaları konusunda hayvan sahiplerini tedirgin etmekte ve kısırlaştırma/kısırlaştırmama konusunda kafa karışıklığı oluşturmaktadır. Ayrıca köpeklerini kısırlaştırmayı düşünen hayvan sahipleri için de uygun kısırlaştırma zamanı konusunda çok zorluk yaşamaktadır. Toplumda bu anlamda bir bilgi kirliliği bulunmaktadır. Köpeklerin en az bir kez kızgınlık geçirmesi, gebelik geçirmesi, çiftleşmesi gibi farklı düşünceler mevcuttur. Bu derlemede daha çok dişi köpekler ile ilgili farklı retrospektif çalışmalar sunulmuştur. Dişi köpeklerde OHE uygulamalarının avantaj ve riskleri, prepubertal (erken dönem) ve postpubertal (geç dönem) OHE uygulamalarının meme neoplazileri, neoplastik olmayan üreme bozuklukları, hipotiroidizm, idrar yolu bozuklukları, diabetes mellitus, osteosarkom, hemangiosarkom, ortopedik problemler, mizaç, yaşam süresi, obezite gibi durumlar üzerine etkisi hakkında bilgi verilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Anahtar Kelimer: gonadoektomi, kısırlaştırma, prepubertal, neoplazi Abstract: With the increase in the human population, the cat and dog population has also increased rapidly over the years. Over time, this increase has made it necessary to reproduction control for cats and dogs. Many medical or surgical methods are applied to cats and dogs to reproduction control. Surgical methods are more preferred than medical methods because create fewer complications, are fast and practical, and provide lifelong sterility. Gonadoectomy is the most used method among surgical applications. In females, it is often performed as ovariohysterectomy (OHE). However, the emotional relationship between pet owners and their pets makes animal owners uneasy about neutering practices and confused about spaying and non-spaying. In addition, choosing the appropriate time for spaying is very difficult for animal owners. There is also a confusion in the society regarding this issue. There are different thoughts such as dogs having heating at least once, having one pregnancy at least, and mating at least once. In this review, different retrospective studies about female dogs are presented. The advantages and risks of OHE and its applications in different periods (prepubertal/postpubertal) in female dogs are discussed. In addition, it is aimed to provide information about the effects of OHE on mammary neoplasms, non-neoplastic reproductive disorders, hypothyroidism, urinary tract disorders, diabetes mellitus, osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, orthopedic problems, temperament, life span, obesity.
... Neutering has been suggested to impact behaviour in female dogs by many authors (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21). However, considerable variation between study populations and methodology, alongside contradictory findings, make associations unclear for many behaviours. ...
There are few studies that investigate the effect of neutering bitches before or after puberty. The majority of current literature examining the impact of the timing of neutering on health and behaviour has used age rather than the onset of puberty as the key variable. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to investigate the effects of timing of neutering in relation to puberty on behaviour in female dogs reared and trained in an assistance dog programme. The study examined data for bitches neutered before or after puberty to compare scores for six behavioural factors (training and obedience, aggression, fear and anxiety, excitability, attachment and attention-seeking, and social behaviour) measured at 1 and 3 years of age. Labrador and Golden Retriever crossbreed bitches were neutered before (n = 155) or after (n = 151) puberty. Neutering before or after puberty had no impact on mean scores for the six behavioural factors at 1 or 3 years of age. When examining the change in behavioural factor scores between 1 and 3 years of age, only aggression behavioural factor scores were influenced by neutering before or after puberty. Bitches neutered after puberty were less likely to have aggression factor scores that increased between 1 and 3 years of age (OR = 0.959, 90% CI = 0.924 to 0.995, p = 0.06). However, the majority of bitches scored “0” for aggression at both time points (indicating no aggression behaviours were observed), and the number of bitches for which scores increased between 1 and 3 years of age was low (before puberty = 20, after puberty = 9). This is consistent with very mild aggressive behaviours being observed in a small number of animals and is, therefore, of questionable concern. The results suggest that, for Labrador and Golden Retriever crossbreed bitches, neutering before or after puberty has little to no effect on future behaviour. It is recommended that decisions about the timing of neutering are not informed solely by impacts on behaviour, but that they also consider evidence relating to the impacts on bitch health and well-being.
... Étude de la castration chez le chien femelle en lien avec les comportements agressifs L'étude de Kim et al. (2006) Cas référés pour problèmes de comportement L'étude américaine de Wright et Nesselrote (1987) ayant analysé 170 consultations pour 105 chiens référés pour problèmes de comportement, montre que l'âge moyen des chiens présentés en consultation est de 3,4 ans (de 0,25 à 11,5 ans). Mille-quarante cas d'agression présentés en référé ont été analysés par Fatjo et al. (2007). ...
Advice of the French Food Safety Agency on the risk of dog bites and the relevance of breed specific laws made by a subgroup of the Animal Health and Welfare Committee. An evaluation of risk process : identification of the hazard, evaluation of risk i.e emission X expostion and consequences. Advice given on demand of Department of Agriculture related to Laws of 1999, 2007 and 2008 concerning dangerous dogs. Relevance of categorization of dog breeds is discussed as well as the methods of behavioural evaluation.
... One study demonstrated that, if a dog already displayed aggression as a juvenile, if spayed at <1 year of age, there was an increased chance of aggressive behaviors (84). The results of another study showed increased reactivity in spayed German Shepherd Dogs compared to those that were intact (85). ...
Veterinarians perform surgery for a number of reasons, from treating a problem to preventing future problems. There is an inextricable link between the physical and psychological aspects of an animal's health, and surgery is often a conduit to bridge that gap. Some surgical procedures can affect an animal's behavior, such as castration, and some pose an ethical dilemma, such as ear cropping and declawing. Ameliorating pain, decreasing stressful experiences for the animal, and identifying and treating concurrent problem behaviors are hallmarks of improving animal welfare. The purpose of this article is to outline some of these interrelationships and ethical dilemmas, providing evidence-based verification as applicable.
... Fear of storms, fear of gunfire, fear of noises, fear biting, timidity, separation anxiety, and submissive urination all increase significantly following spaying or neutering. Spayed females are also more reactive to the presence of unfamiliar humans and dogs [83]. Although some dogs may become less aggressive following gonadectomy [80], dominance aggression [84] and owner-directed aggression [20,85] occur with a significantly higher frequency in gonadectomized dogs compared with unaltered dogs. ...
Spaying and neutering dogs is commonly used to prevent the birth of unwanted animals and eliminate the risk of reproductive diseases. However, removal of the gonads prevents the feedback of estrogen and testosterone on the pituitary and hypothalamus. As a result, luteinizing hormone (LH) is continuously elevated at supraphysiologic concentrations. Although the main role of LH is for reproductive function (e.g., ovulation), there are LH receptors present in several normal tissues including the thyroid and adrenal glands, gastrointestinal tract, cranial cruciate ligament and round ligament, and lymphocytes. In addition, there are LH receptors present in several neoplastic tissues (e.g., lymphoma, hemangiosarcoma, mastocytoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and osteosarcoma). The role of LH receptors in non-reproductive normal and neoplastic tissues is not known but may stimulate nitric oxide release and induce cell division. The precise etiology of the increased incidence of several non-reproductive long-term health complications following spaying and neutering is not known but may be related to LH receptor activation in these non-reproductive target tissues. How these effects may be mediated is described in this review.
... On the other end of the shynessboldness spectrum, several studies have reported an increase in fearfulness and/or reactivity associated with gonadectomy. This included increased fearfulness in gonadectomized female Labrador Retrievers [212] and gonadectomized Vizslas of both sexes [112], as well as reactivity and vocalization in ovariectomized German Shepherd females [224,225]. ...
Simple Summary: Desexing is a general term for interventions suppressing fertility in dogs, most commonly by surgically removing the testes or ovaries ("gonadectomy"). Desexing is promoted for population control, health benefits, and behavior modification. Surprisingly, the existing evidence shows no effect of desexing on population size in companion or shelter dogs; however, an effect has been shown for desexing female free-roaming dogs. Desexing has consistently been shown to change various health risks, including a reduction in pyometra and mammary tumor risk, as well as an increased risk of cranial cruciate ligament rupture, several forms of cancer, and obesity in both sexes. Other health effects vary considerably between breeds and sexes. A lifespan advantage in desexed dogs has consistently been shown in females, while the evidence is inconsistent in males, and the effect is smaller in studies that found one. There is more literature on behavioral effects in males than in females, and the evidence suggests reduced libido, roaming, conspecific mounting, and urinary marking in a large percentage of gonadectomized males, and reduced male dog aggression in a majority of males gonadectomized because of behavioral problems. The decision whether to desex dogs needs to be individualized based on the available evidence.
Abstract: Background: Desexing dogs is promoted for population control, preventative healthcare, and behavior modification. Common methods are orchiectomy and ovariectomy/ovariohysterectomy. GnRH superagonist implants are available in some areas. Alternative methods like vasectomy and salpingectomy/hysterectomy are uncommon. The terminology used to describe desexing is inconsistent and contradictory, showing a need for the adaption of standardized terminology. Population Control: Surprisingly, empirical studies show no effects of desexing on population control in companion and shelter dogs despite desexing being consistently recommended in the literature. There is evidence for a population control effect in free-roaming dogs, where desexing also has benefits on zoonotic disease and bite risk. Population control in free-roaming dogs is mostly correlated with female, not male desexing. Health and Lifespan: Desexing affects numerous disease risks, but studies commonly neglect age at diagnosis and overall lifespan, age being by far the most important risk factor for most diseases. We argue that lifespan is a more important outcome than ultimate cause of death. A beneficial effect of desexing on lifespan is consistently demonstrated in females, while evidence for a beneficial effect in males is inconsistent. Studies are likely biased in desexing being a proxy for better care and desexed dogs having already lived to the age of desexing. Desexing reduces or eliminates common life-limiting diseases of the female reproductive system such as pyometra and mammary tumors, while no analogous effect exists in males. Disease risks increases across sexes and breeds include cruciate ligament rupture, various cancers, and obesity. Urinary incontinence risk is increased in females only. Various other disease risk changes show considerable variability between breeds and sexes. Behavioral Effects: Desexed males show reduced libido, roaming, conspecific mounting, and urinary marking frequency, as well as reduced male dog-directed aggression in a majority of males desexed for behavioral reasons. There is a detrimental effect on the risk and progression of age-related cognitive dysfunction. Desexed dogs may be less likely to cause bite injuries across sexes. The evidence for other effects such as human-directed aggression, human or object mounting, resource Animals 2019, 9, 1086 2 of 28 guarding, or shyness and anxiety is inconsistent and contradictory. There are few studies specific to females or individual breeds. Conclusions: The evidence for a beneficial effect of desexing is stronger in female than in male dogs; however, there is significant variation between breeds and sexes, and more research is needed to further elucidate these differences and to arrive at individualized evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice.
... Gonadectomy, or more generally referred to as "neutering, " is a common procedure in many countries as a means to control reproduction in companion dogs and promoted extensively as a means to reduce dogs relinquished to shelters (1). It is also employed to alter undesirable behavioral characteristics such as aggression and roaming (2)(3)(4) although within the literature are disparate reports of aggressive dog behavior being greater among neutered dogs of both sexes (5)(6)(7)(8)(9) whereas other literature suggests that neutering decreases aggressive behavior (10,11). Neutering has been associated with reduced relinquishment (12) and increased lifespans (13,14). ...
Gonadectomy is an important reproductive management tool employed in many countries, and is highly prevalent in the US with an estimated 85% of dogs being neutered. Despite the societal benefits in pet population control, negative associations between neuter status, and health conditions have been reported in recent years. Most particularly observed are the consequences of early age neutering. Knowing that different physiological systems rely upon gonadal steroids during development and physiological maintenance, studies have been undertaken to assess the impact of neuter status on multiple body and organ systems. For some inherited conditions, neutering is associated with an increased risk of expression. Neutering has also been associated with altered metabolism and a predisposition for weight gain in dogs, which may confound the detected risk association between neutering and disease expression. This review summarizes the effects of neutering on cancer, orthopedic, and immune disorders in the dog and also explores the potentially exacerbating factor of body weight.
... Female dogs ovariohysterectomized at 5 to 10 months of age may show more reactivity than sexually intact females when interacting with other dogs. 22,23 However, for male dogs, gonadectomy at an early age may have behavioral benefits and has been associated with an overall decrease in relinquishment for any reason. 18 For cats, current AVMA guidelines recommend spaying or neutering by 5 months of age, 24 and early spaying and neutering have not been associated with adverse health effects. ...
... Unless the relationship between spaying and the onset of clinical signs is very clear, veterinary surgeons may be less likely to recognise pseudopregnancy in a spayed bitch [3,6,10,16]. It may be one cause of the increase in reactivity and/or aggression in bitches after being spayed [16,[21][22][23]. Aggression, in particular, is a potentially serious behavioural problem, which can result in not only injury to people, but also to dogs being relinquished or euthanised [18,24,25] and it is considered the most recurrent complaint in relation to canine behaviour. ...
Background
There is a dearth of literature on pseudopregnancy in the bitch, with only a few treatment-based studies published since the 1990s. Pseudopregnancy may be under-recognised in bitches and may account for a proportion of behavioural cases seen in veterinary practices including aggression. Little is known about commonly used treatments for overtly pseudopregnant bitches and it is possible that current regimes may not be prescribed for a sufficient duration to control any clinical signs including, physical and behavioural changes. To investigate current trends in diagnosis and treatment of canine pseudopregnancy, a postal survey was sent to 2000 randomly selected veterinary surgeons in UK veterinary practices. The questionnaire queried how often vets recognise cases of pseudopregnancy in spayed and entire bitches, which physical or behavioural signs are commonly recognised for diagnosis, and which management or treatment protocols are used.
Results
The response rate was 19.8% (397/2000). Ninety-six percent of veterinary surgeons reported seeing pseudopregnant bitches showing behavioural changes without any physical changes within the last 12 months. Of those behavioural changes, collecting and mothering objects was the most frequently reported behavioural sign (96%). Ninety-seven percent of vets had seen aggression in pseudopregnant bitches. Nevertheless, only 52% of vets routinely asked owners about behavioural changes during consultations. Forty-nine percent of respondents reported seeing pseudopregnancy in spayed bitches. The most commonly reported physical sign was enlarged mammary glands and/or milk production (89%). Treatment options varied (surgical, medical or none) and depended on duration and severity of physical and behavioural signs, owners’ preference, cost, concurrent disease, drug availability and previous history.
Conclusions
This is the largest epidemiological study of canine pseudopregnancy in the UK. The prevalence and severity of clinical signs in dogs with pseudopregnancy are variable and possibly under-estimated. Dogs with overt pseudopregnancy experience diverse physical and behavioural changes and information on standard treatment protocols are lacking. Although, progress on our understanding of diagnosis and treatment of pseudopregnancy in spayed and entire bitches has been made, further studies are warranted.
... Gonadectomized dogs of both sexes were significantly more likely than intact dogs to have bitten a person. Kim et al. conducted a prospective study of the effects of ovariohysterectomy on aggressive behavior in 14 German Shepherd dogs-7 were gonadectomized at the age of 5-10 months and 7 littermate controls remained intact (27). Ovariohysterectomized dogs demonstrated significantly more barking, growling, lunging, snapping, widened eyes, and lip lifting or curling in response to the approach of an unfamiliar human and dog. ...
Gonadectomy is widely used to treat and prevent behavior problems including the aggressive behavior of dogs. The aim of this study was to determine whether aggressive behavior toward familiar people, strangers, or other dogs was significantly different in dogs gonadectomized at various ages vs. intact dogs using the Canine Behavioral Assessment Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) with multivariate analysis. Of 15,370 initial surveys, those for dogs reported to have been gonadectomized at less than 6 weeks of age or to correct a behavior problem, and those with incomplete answers to questions regarding independent or dependent variables were excluded, leaving 13,795 for the analysis of aggressive behavior toward familiar people: 13,498 for aggressive behavior toward strangers and 13,237 for aggressive behavior toward dogs. Aggressive behavior was defined (a) using mean scores for all questions on the C-BARQ for aggressive behavior (range 0–4) and (b) comparing dogs with no aggressive behavior (all questions answered 0) to dogs with moderate or severe aggression (at least one score of 2, 3, or 4). Data for intact dogs were compared with those for dogs gonadectomized at 6 months or less, 7–12 months, 11–18 months, and >18 months. Neither gonadectomy nor age at gonadectomy showed an association with aggression toward familiar people or dogs. However, there was a low but significant increase in the odds of moderate or severe aggression toward strangers for all gonadectomized dogs compared with intact dogs, but this effect was driven entirely by data for dogs gonadectomized at 7–12 months of age, which were 26% more likely to demonstrate aggression toward strangers. This large, comprehensive study of the relationships between gonadectomy and aggressive behavior in dogs demonstrates that when the many factors affecting aggressive behavior are considered, there is no evidence that gonadectomy at any age alters aggressive behavior toward familiar people or dogs, and there is only a minimal increase in aggression toward strangers. Given the increasing evidence of significant negative health effects of gonadectomy, there is an urgent need to systematically examine other means of preventing unwanted procreation, such as vasectomy and hysterectomy.
... Diese Ergebnisse widersprechen scheinbar denen einer prospektiven Blindstudie, in der das Verhalten von Arbeitshündinnen auf Annäherung fremder Hunde und Personen mittels Laut-und Videoaufzeichnung dokumentiert wurde. Dabei reagierten im Alter zwischen 5 und 10 Monaten kastrierte Hündinnen 4 und 5 Monate später deutlich aggressiver als ihre intakten Wurfgeschwister(55). Der Widerspruch zwischen beiden Studien kann darauf beruhen, dass unsichere Hunde für die Schutzdienstausbildung wenig geeignet sind und dass Aggressionsverhalten Ausdruck von Unsicherheit darstellen kann. ...
Advice for dog owners regarding the Pros and Cons and optimal time for neutering a female dog is complex and should be based on recent and valid research data as well as individual aspects. After taking a closer look at the literature, it becomes clear that some putative robust information has to be revised or updated. An obvious advantage of neutering a female dog is that ovarian diseases and sexual steroid-dependent diseases, including metropathy, no longer occur. In addition, it is likely that an early neutering reduces the risk to a certain extent of mammary neoplasia, even if the scientific basis for this observation is weak. The effect might be less than some earlier publications suggest. Disadvantages of neutering female dogs include urinary incontinence, which was postulated decades earlier. However, reported incidences and findings regarding factors that influence urinary incontinence, including time of neutering related to puberty, are heterogeneous. Recently, several studies have been published suggesting a significantly higher risk of different forms of neoplasia and musculoskeletal disorders in neutered dogs. However, factors that may bias these findings, including nutritional condition, age and/or housing, were not addressed in most studies. Data on effects on metabolism and the immune system are currently very limited. If owners want their female dogs to be neutered, a thorough counselling is essential that includes individual aspects as well as breed- and housing-specific factors. The optimal time may be between the first and the second heat. It can be suggested, that at this time, a certain reduction of the risk of mammary neoplasia can be achieved with only a moderate potential for undesired side effects.
... Male dogs and intact dogs were found to be bolder than female and neutered dogs, respectively [18]. Thus, neutered individuals might show slightly higher fearfulness or reactivity compared to intact ones [142], due to the lower levels of gonadal steroids, and hence score slightly higher on those questions overlapping with fearfulness in the HSD questionnaire. This might be a further possible explanation for the differences found in scores of neutered and intact male dogs. ...
In humans, the personality dimension ‘sensory processing sensitivity (SPS)’, also referred to as “high sensitivity”, involves deeper processing of sensory information, which can be associated with physiological and behavioral overarousal. However, it has not been studied up to now whether this dimension also exists in other species. SPS can influence how people perceive the environment and how this affects them, thus a similar dimension in animals would be highly relevant with respect to animal welfare. We therefore explored whether SPS translates to dogs, one of the primary model species in personality research. A 32-item questionnaire to assess the “highly sensitive dog score” (HSD-s) was developed based on the “highly sensitive person” (HSP) questionnaire. A large-scale, international online survey was conducted, including the HSD questionnaire, as well as questions on fearfulness, neuroticism, “demographic” (e.g. dog sex, age, weight; age at adoption, etc.) and “human” factors (e.g. owner age, sex, profession, communication style, etc.), and the HSP questionnaire. Data were analyzed using linear mixed effect models with forward stepwise selection to test prediction of HSD-s by the above-mentioned factors, with country of residence and dog breed treated as random effects. A total of 3647 questionnaires were fully completed. HSD-, fearfulness, neuroticism and HSP-scores showed good internal consistencies, and HSD-s only moderately correlated with fearfulness and neuroticism scores, paralleling previous findings in humans. Intra- (N = 447) and inter-rater (N = 120) reliabilities were good. Demographic and human factors, including HSP score, explained only a small amount of the variance of HSD-s. A PCA analysis identified three subtraits of SPS, comparable to human findings. Overall, the measured personality dimension in dogs showed good internal consistency, partial independence from fearfulness and neuroticism, and good intra- and inter-rater reliability, indicating good construct validity of the HSD questionnaire. Human and demographic factors only marginally affected the HSD-s suggesting that, as hypothesized for human SPS, a genetic basis may underlie this dimension within the dog species.
... In the friendly approach shelter dogs initiated more physical contact with the stranger, whereas in the threatening approach they initiated more interactions with their caregivers, who could be considered as a secure base figure in that situation (Van der Borg et al., 1991). Approach paradigms are also widely used in studies on privately owned pet dogs: when approached in a threatening manner, pet dogs show more avoidance behaviours, more barking, and less contact with the stranger than when approached in a friendly manner (Barrera et al., 2010;Gácsi et al., 2013;Győri et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2006;Vas et al., 2005Vas et al., , 2008. ...
When confronted with an unfamiliar object or person, privately owned pet dogs engage in social referencing, synchronizing their reaction with that of their owners. The question of whether shelter dogs do so when confronted with a stranger has not yet been studied. We tested the reactions of 30 shelter dogs with their principal caregiver when confronted with a stranger approaching them in a neutral manner. The caregivers were instructed to behave in one of three ways toward the stranger: stay still, approach, or retreat. The shelter dogs showed both referential looks and gaze alternations between the stranger and their caregiver. However, the shelter dogs did not modify their reactions towards the stranger in accordance with the behaviour of their caregivers. Thus, when confronted with a stranger, shelter dogs did not show social referencing with their handlers, contrary to privately owned pet dogs with their owners. These findings highlight social deprivation that dogs in shelters are confronted with, and emphasize the importance of the affiliative bond between humans and dogs in creating social referencing.
... Bij de hond zijn verschillende complicaties mogelijk als gevolg van het wegvallen van de normale cyclische veranderingen in circulerende hormoonconcentraties. Zo worden karakter verande ringen be schreven (Kim et al., 2006), een grotere eetlust en bijgevolg een grotere neiging tot obesitas, veranderingen in de vacht structuur, die vooral langharige honden treffen (Reichler et al., 2008), en urineincontinentie (Stöck lin- Gautschi et al., 2001). Deze laatste com plicatie, die volgens sommige studies bij 10-20 % van de honden zou voorkomen (Reichler et al., 2004), is de voornaamste reden waarom eigenaars soms twijfelen om de operatie te laten uitvoeren. ...
... Ovariohysterectomy (OVH) is the most common surgical contraceptive in pet animal practice (6,13). OVH prevents unwanted pregnancy and reduces the risk of development of mammary tumour, pyometra, inconvenience of vaginal discharge, and male attraction during oestrus (8). ...
The aim of the presented study was to investigate the effect of ovariohysterectomy on lipid peroxidation and levels of some antioxidants and blood parameters in bitches. Thirty non-pregnant healthy bitches (1-3 years of age) were used in the study. All bitches were anaesthetised with xylazine-ketamine. Levels of glucose, total protein, calcium, inorganic phosphorus (IP), alanine amino transferase (ALT), aspartate amino transferase (AST), glutathione (GSH), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined in pre-operative and post-operative bitches. The statistical differences were found in the GSH and MDA levels between the pre- and post-operation animals. There were no significant differences of other biochemical parameters. The results of this study showed that the determination of alterations in the GSH and MDA levels could be useful for evaluation of the antioxidant defence mechanism after ovariohysterectomy in bitches.
... 28 A 2006 study of spayed female German Shepherds showed increased reactivity within the sterilized population. 29 A 1990 study asked owners to evaluate their dogs at approximately 6 months of age and again 6 months later. The study found that spayed females were more likely to demonstrate "indiscriminate appetite" and dominance aggression than females who were not spayed within the 6-month time period. ...
Pet neutering/spaying has worked well to control pet overpopulation and prevents or minimizes the risk of several serious health conditions common to domestic dogs and cats. Yet, recent evidence shows that the long-term health detriments of neutering/spaying, especially early-age neutering/spaying, may exceed the benefits. The article cites research on both sides of the argument and poses a solution that may address the majority of concerns.
... The information collected through the diagnosis records should help determine the risk that the animal represents to the family and the community and to decide on the treatment of the biting animal. General treatment recommendations for human-directed canine aggression must include client education, avoidance of situations that trigger aggressive behavior, communication, positive reinforcement training, response substitution, consistent positive and predictable interactions, desensitizationecounter conditioning (DCC), avoidance of positive punishment, appropriate use of negative punishment, anxiolytics such as pheromones (Gaultier and Peageat, 2003;Tod et al., 2005;Mills et al., 2006;Levine et al., 2006;Kim et al., 2010), physical activity (Cottam and Dodman, 2009;Cottam and Dodman, 2013), dietary supplements (Dodman et al., 1996;Araujo et al., 2010;Dodman et al., 2013), pharmaceutical therapy, acupuncture, music therapy, aromatherapy (Wells, 2006), homeopathy (Cracknell and Mills, 2008;DePorter et al., 2012), grooming (McGreevy et al., 2005, herbal preparations (Fugh-Berman and Ernst, 2001), castration (Neilson et al., 1997), and ovariohysterectomy (O'Farrell and Peachey, 1990;Kim et al., 2006). ...
... Sin embargo, todavía son escasas las evaluaciones objetivas de los resultados de estas intervenciones. Por último, si bien en este trabajo nos centramos en los tratamientos de índole conductual, otros procedimientos como los tratamientos farmacológicos (King et al., 2000), la castración (Hart & eckstein, 1997;Kim, yeon, Houpt, lee, Chang & lee, 2006), el empleo de hormonas tranquilizantes (Mugford, 2007), el enriquecimiento ambiental tanto por medio de objetos (Mugford, 2007;Hubrecht, 1993) como de estímulos olfatorios (graham,Wells & Hepper, 2005) y auditivos (Wells, graham & Hepper, 2002) han demostrado diferentes niveles de eficacia en el tratamiento de los variados problemas de conducta en los perros.Duffy et al., 2008;Netto & Planta, 1997;Rosado, garcía-belenguer, león & Palacio, 2008). esto, a su vez, ocasiona un nuevo problema de salud pública, al incrementar el número de perros en refugios caninos y centros de zoonosis, los cuales, en muchos países, como los de latinoamérica, se encuentran colapsados (barrera et al., 2008). ...
Coexistence between humans and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) can be affected by the presence of behavioural problems. These mainly relate to aggression, fear and separation anxiety, and to a lesser extent to compulsive disorders. Alterations associated with aggression are the most socially worrying because of the risk to humans. In this review the behavioural pattern of each type of alteration as well as some of the factors that are associated with their development are described. Finally, evidence from various behavioural treatments is reviewed and possible contributions from psychological science are discussed.
... to display more dominance-related aggression after spaying (Voith and Borchelt, 1982;Kim et al., 2006). Most household aggression involves spayed females , whereas c A dog's reactivity to other dogs can be influenced by its experiences during early life, a time that is critical for establishing social relationships (Scott and Fuller, 1965). ...
ABSTRACT Identification and treatment of inter-dog aggression is important so that animal shelters can re-home animals safely and reduce long-term confinement,and euthanasia rates. This thesis describes 1) a survey study which identified current management,of aggressive dogs in shelters and explored the feasibility of implementing rehabilitation for inter-dog aggression, and 2) an experimental study of the effectiveness of a rehabilitation program for reducing inter-dog aggression in shelter dogs. Of the 43 shelters that responded to the questionnaire, most admitted aggressive dogs, reported inter-dog aggression as a common problem, and estimated that less than 10% of adopted dogs are returned for inter-dog aggression. Management,of aggressive dogs included humane,destruction and rehabilitation. Rehabilitation methods were diverse, and respondents expressed varied levels of confidence over the success of their programs. Factors preventing rehabilitation included lack of time and financial constraints, but shelters indicated an interest in rehabilitation if a practical, scientifically validated program were available. In the experimental study, sixteen shelter dogs that showed inter-dog aggression in a behaviour test received a 10-day treatment of daily rehabilitation (rehabilitation group, n = 9) or daily release into an outdoor enclosure (control group, n = 7). Most rehabilitation dogs showed,a decline in aggression scores when tested on the day after the last treatment, compared with their pre-treatment scores. Control dogs showed either an increase or no change in aggression scores. The change in aggression scores
... Regarding the neutering status, all female dogs included in the non-ECS group were intact. Nevertheless, although female sex hormones may have an effect on some types of affective aggression (Kim et al., 2006), there is no report on any link between female sex hormones and serotonin level or impulsivity. ...
Aggression is one of the most common behavioral problems in dogs and may have important negative effects on public health, human–animal bond, and animal welfare. There is ample evidence showing a negative correlation between serum serotonin concentration and aggressive behavior in a variety of species, including the domestic dogs. This negative correlation is particularly pronounced in dogs that show impulsive aggression. Data obtained in some previous studies suggest that the English cocker spaniel (ECS) is more likely to show impulsive aggression than other breeds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze possible differences in serum serotonin levels between aggressive ECS and aggressive dogs of other breeds. Nineteen ECSs presented for aggression at the Animal Behavior Service (School of Veterinary Science, Barcelona, Spain) were evaluated and compared with 20 aggressive dogs of other breeds attended at the same center. Serum serotonin levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Statistical analysis was done using the SPSS 15.0 for Windows. Aggressive ECSs had significantly (P < 0.001) lower levels of serum serotonin than aggressive dogs of other breeds (318.6 ± 67.1 and 852.77 ± 100.58 ng/mL, respectively). Variances were not significantly different between ECSs and other breeds (standard deviation = 449.84 ng/mL vs. 292.47 ng/mL, P > 0.05). This finding may explain why ECSs are more likely to show impulsive aggression than other breeds, and suggests that the ECS could be a good model to study the neurophysiologic mechanisms underlying impulsive aggression.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate incidences of pyometra and orthopedic, behavioral, urinary/reproductive, neoplastic, or atopic disease processes as outcomes for dogs undergoing either a laparoscopic-assisted ovary-sparing spay/hysterectomy (LapOSS) or a laparoscopic ovariectomy (LapOVE).
ANIMALS
33 client-owned dogs.
PROCEDURES
Medical records of client-owned dogs presenting between August 2013 and May 2020 for elective LapOSS or LapOVE were reviewed. A multiple-choice client questionnaire was emailed to all clients whose dogs’ complete medical records were available.
RESULTS
17 of the 33 dogs were in the LapOSS group, and 16 of 33 dogs were in the LapOVE group. Of the 17 dogs undergoing LapOSS, 5 of 17 (29%) underwent an elective OVE at a later date. The mean follow-up time was 4.2 ± 1.8 years for the LapOSS group and 4.3 ± 2.0 years for the LapOVE group. No dogs developed stump pyometra. One LapOSS dog developed mammary tumor, and 2 others developed nonreproductive malignant neoplasia while 2 of the LapOVE dogs developed malignant neoplasia. One of the LapOSS dogs with malignant neoplasia had an ovariectomy prior to development of disease.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Laparoscopic-assisted ovary-sparing spay appears to provide a safe and reliable method of sterilization, with no observable increased risk of pyometra with hysterectomy. Owners must be counseled prior to surgery regarding the consequences of gonadal hormone retention and multiple heat cycles.
Background:
There are contradictory findings in the literature relating to the effects of timing of neutering on bitch behaviour that make decision making regarding neutering timing difficult.
Methods:
A scoping review was designed to identify and chart the evidence on the effect of neutering timing in relation to puberty on the behaviour of female domesticated dogs. A protocol was registered, and literature searches were conducted in CAB Abstracts, Medline and Web of Science. Studies were reviewed against the inclusion criteria. Data on study and population characteristics and behavioural outcomes were extracted for the final included studies.
Results:
A total of 1048 publications were reviewed; 13 were retained for inclusion and charting. Only one of the two studies that classified bitches as pre- or postpubertal presented results for the analysis of behaviours. The remaining 11 studies classified bitches by age at neutering.
Limitations:
Since the scoping review searches were conducted, further relevant studies may have become available. The search strategy may not have identified all available literature; however, databases were used that provide high levels of coverage of veterinary literature.
Conclusion:
This scoping review identified a lack of evidence to document the impact of neutering bitches before or after puberty on behaviour.
OBJECTIVE
To compare health and behavior outcomes for dogs that underwent vasectomy or ovary-sparing spay (hysterectomy) with sexually intact dogs or dogs that had undergone traditional castration or spay.
SAMPLE
6,018 dog owners responded to a web-based survey between November 3, 2021, and January 7, 2022.
PROCEDURES
Participants were asked demographic questions and to provide information about 1 or more dogs (living or deceased). Options for reproductive status were as follows: sexually intact, castrated, spayed (ovariohysterectomy or ovariectomy), vasectomy, or ovary-sparing spay (hysterectomy). Participants were asked questions about orthopedic and other health problems, cancer, and problematic behavior. Logistic regression models, survival analyses, and descriptive statistics were used to assess relationships between reproductive status and outcomes.
RESULTS
Owners provided valid surveys for 6,018 dogs, including 1,056 sexually intact, 1,672 castrated, and 58 vasectomized male dogs and 792 sexually intact, 2,281 spayed, and 159 female dogs that had undergone ovary-sparing spay. Longer exposure to gonadal hormones, regardless of reproductive status, was associated with reduced odds of general health problems and both problematic and nuisance behaviors.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
TTo our knowledge, this study provides the first data on health and behavior outcomes of vasectomy and ovary-sparing spay in dogs and is the first to compare these outcomes to sexually intact and gonadectomized dogs. It adds to accumulating data on the mixed benefits and risks of removing the gonads to prevent reproduction and emphasizes the importance of developing an informed, case-by-case assessment of each patient, taking into consideration the potential risks and benefits of spaying or neutering and alternative reproductive surgeries.
Domestic dogs differ enormously in both their morphology and behavior. Numerous factors can influence the development and expression of canine behavior and, more generally, determine the success of the pet–owner relationship. This chapter considers the role of nature and nurture in shaping canine behavior. The influence of factors intrinsic to the animal is outlined, focusing on research that has explored the role of breed, sex, and cerebral lateralization in guiding canine behavior and cognitive functioning. The chapter goes on to consider the role of more extrinsic factors that can influence the development of dog behavior, discussing the contribution of early experience, source of acquisition, training techniques, and owner-related traits including personality and attachment style. The article points to the enormous amount of individual variation that exists between dogs and the myriad of factors that can work together to shape the behavior and functioning of the animal we see before us.
The Can de Palleiro (CP) is an autochthonous canine breed from Galicia (NW Spain). Interestingly, no previous research has been published about the behaviour of this breed. Thus, the aim of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding of CP behavioural and temperamental traits and detect any potentially problematic behaviour by using the Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and the Socially Acceptable Behaviour (SAB) test. Behavioural information was obtained from 377 dogs—177 CPs and 200 general population (GP) dogs—using the C-BARQ. Additionally, 32 dogs were enrolled to perform the SAB test (19 CPs and 13 GP dogs) in order to directly evaluate their temperament. Our results indicated that CP dogs had a lower tendency to show aggressiveness towards their owners (0.18 times lower, p = 0.033) and less fear of other dogs (by 0.43 times, p = 0.001), as well as higher trainability levels (2.56 times higher, p < 0.001) when compared to GP dogs. CP dogs also had increased odds of showing chasing behaviour (3.81 times higher, p < 0.001). Conversely, CPs had reduced odds of non-social fear, separation-related problems and excitability (by 0.42, 0.35 and 0.48 times, respectively; p < 0.001, p < 0.001 and p = 0.002). The current research represents a starting point for the study of the behaviour of CPs, which appear to be a working breed, with guarding and, especially, herding characteristics.
Gonadectomies are the most commonly performed surgical procedures in dogs. The benefits and risks associated with gonadectomy in dogs have been broadly investigated. Due to concerns associated with ovariectomy, some pet-owners and veterinarians are considering surgical alternatives which terminate the capacity for reproduction without removal of the gonads to preserve functions of the gonadal hormones. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of complete resection of the glandular portion of the uterus with hysterectomy (HE). Using a prospective cadaveric and an ex-vivo design, uterine resection was performed cranially and caudally to the cervix, and at the proper ligament to simulate routine ovariohysterectomy and HE. Using microscopic evaluation procedures, there was identification of glandular tissue at the surgical margin of all samples resected cranially to the cervix and no glandular tissue in the samples resected caudally to the cervix. Half of the samples from the uterine horns contained glandular tissue. The results of the present study indicate ligation and transection of the uterus caudally to the cervix (as recommended for HE) allows for complete resection of glandular tissues, however, transection at the proper ligament may not. The clinical relevance of retention of para-ovarian uterine glandular tissue is unknown. Additional research is needed where there is investigation of the consequences and surgical technique for HE before there is widespread clinical use of this procedure.
Ovariohysterectomy (OHE) and castration are the surgeries most commonly performed by small animal practitioners in the United States. The optimal time for spay–neuter depends on species, breed, intended use, financial considerations, and life situation. For an individually owned animal living in a home, decisions should be based primarily on factors that impact that animal's individual health and the health and wellbeing of that household, and secondarily on population control. The normal behavior of most intact male cats is incompatible with their living as house pets. Benefits of OHE in female cats include increased life expectancy and decreased incidence of mammary neoplasia, ovarian or uterine tumors, and pyometra. Benefits of castration in male dogs include decreased incidence of testicular neoplasia and non‐neoplastic prostate disease, and possible increased life span. Mammary neoplasia is the most common tumor of female dogs. Ovariectomy is an alternative to OHE that offers essentially the same advantages and disadvantages.
Surgical neutering of pet dogs has generally been regarded as an important means of population control that also has both health-related and behavioural benefits. Perceived health-related benefits include prevention of mammary tumours and pyometra in bitches and testicular and prostatic disease in male dogs. Perceived behavioural benefits are associated with a reduction in sexually-dimorphic behaviours including roaming, mounting and urine marking in male dogs, and problem behaviours associated with seasons or phantom pregnancies in bitches. In recent years a number of research studies have suggested that the health-related benefits of neutering may be less marked than was once believed, and that neutering may also have negative health-related effects, particularly associated with the development of joint disease and neoplasia. While this is concerning, there are factors that may influence the validity of the results of these studies and the degree to which they can be reliably extended to all dogs. This also applies to the studies that have looked at the effect of neutering on behaviour in dogs.
In the absence of clear information particularly regarding the health-related effects of neutering it is currently very difficult to give neutering guidelines that will be suitable for all dogs, and that will reliably reduce the risks of them developing specific diseases. This may change as more research becomes available. Until then, it is better to work out the risks and benefits of neutering for each individual dog based on the risk of unwanted mating occurring and the presence or absence of problem behaviours influenced by sex hormones, in addition to the owner's preference.
This chapter describes the published studies evaluating risks and benefits associated with pediatric neutering. All surgical procedures have risks. The chapter examines how those risks compare to the benefits gained (the risk/benefit ratio), and how the risks/benefits compare to the risks and benefits of traditional-age neutering. It presents comparative studies of the effects of pediatric neutering in dogs and cats as of March 2010. There are many reported anesthetic protocols and surgical techniques for performing pediatric spay/neuter. Pediatric spay/neuter is well within the ability of any veterinarian who performs routine spay/neuter on young adult patients. The surgery is shorter and easier and has minimal hemorrhage, and the patients recover rapidly. The chapter describes anesthetic protocol for pediatric canine ovariohysterectomy and castration. Pediatric neutering after completion of the juvenile vaccination series is also recommended to prevent accidental breeding in client-owned animals.
Free-roaming dogs (Canis familiaris) may be viewed positively or negatively within their communities. Negative aspects of the presence of free-roaming dogs include noise, fouling, disease transmission, dog-bite injuries, road traffic accidents and potential hybridisation with endangered wildlife species. Due to these concerns, control of free-roaming dog populations may be required. Surgical sterilisation of free-roaming dogs through the implementation of 'trap-neuter-return' (TNR), initiatives is often recommended as a welfare-friendly method of dog population control. Welfare assessments in TNR are often absent. Where they do exist they may rely upon proxy assessment, or be limited to relatively few measures of health status. As a result, there is a paucity of literature regarding the welfare impacts of surgical control of canine populations despite this practice often being promoted for animal welfare reasons. We outline the primary welfare issues associated with surgical population control of free-roaming dogs, suggest steps that may be taken to mitigate these problems and discuss barriers to improving dog welfare in TNR. Many opportunities for welfare problems exist within the spectrum of surgical TNR initiatives. We recommend that further research is needed to set appropriate standards for surgical approaches to free-roaming dog population management. © 2017 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare The Old School, Brewhouse Hill, Wheathampstead.
When confronted with an unfamiliar object, dogs, Canis familiaris, engage in social referencing, i.e. synchronizing their reaction with that of their owner. The question of whether, like infants, they do so when confronted with an unfamiliar person, has not yet been studied. We tested the reactions of 72 pet dogs (36 shepherds and 36 molossoids) that were confronted with an unfamiliar person who approached them in a neutral manner. The dogs' owners were instructed to behave in one of three ways towards the stranger: stay still, approach or retreat. The dogs performed referential looks and gaze alternations between the experimenter and their owner. In the retreat condition, the dogs looked at the stranger significantly sooner and took significantly more time before first contact with the stranger compared to the approach condition. Moreover, in the retreat condition the dogs interacted more with their owners compared to other conditions. Additionally, sex had an effect on dogs' behaviours, with males looking towards their owner for information less than females. Breed also influenced dogs' reactions, with molossoid dogs behaving more independently than shepherd dogs. This study shows that pet dogs use social referencing with their owner in an approach paradigm involving a stranger. These findings provide evidence of similar processes in dogs with their owners and human infants with caregivers, and suggest a new way to manage dogs' reactions in public places.
This study was performed to find out how the training for overcoming the fear of and adapting to unfamiliar environments and noises, such as exposures at different levels to noises of a helicopter, affected German Shepherd dogs' characteristics to a specific condition. One hundred and nine German Shepherd dogs were tested in this study. There were no significant differences between genders, tasks, experiences boarding a helicopter, tempers, and lengths of time spent with the handler in fearful scores. The dogs at different ages showed significant differences in their fearful scores at the time of the arrival of the helicopter(p < 0.001) and approaching to it(p < 0.01). In conclusion, in the cases of the German Shepherd dogs, there's a need to re-examine the existing training methods for overcoming the fear of and adapting to unfamiliar materials and noises.
There have been many studies which investigated the effect of ovariohysterectomy on metabolic activity in bitches. The slowing down effect of ovariohysterectomy on metabolism and it's results was emphasized by the researchers. The purpose of the presented study is to determine the early term effects of neutering on bodyweight, serum total cholesterol, trigliceride, alkaline phosphatase, alanin aminotranspherase, aspartate aminotranspherase and glucose values in bitches with different breed, age and living conditions. For this purpose serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose levels and body weight of 15 bitches were determined at pre-operative and post-operative 3rd - 6th and 12th months. When the body weights of different times were considered statistically, the difference between pre and post-operative 6th and pre and post-operative 12th month bodyweights were significant (P<0.05). The results of serum parameters were non-significant statistically. As a result of this study, ovariohysterectomy in bitches have no significant early-time effect on serum total cholesterol, trigliceride, alanine aminotranspherase, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotranspherase and glucose level whereas body weight gain occurs after post-operative 6th month but it can be managed by proper nutrition and exercise programmes.
This study was performed to develop ethogram of the Jindo dog's temperament categories under various conditions. A set of 12 behavioral tests were developed to investigate temperament categories expressed by the dogs. Fourty-three adult Jindo dogs (24 males, 19 females) from three different farms located in Jindo island were tested in 12 different behavioral tests. All test procedures and dog's behaviors responded to the tests were recorded using two digital video cameras and one digital still camera. A single observer reviewed all of the videotapes focused on dog's vocalization, movement, head, ears, eyes, mouth, and tail-positions. After all of the behavioral variables expressed throughout the testing period were described in detail, an ethogram of four temperament categories of 'sociability', 'aggression', 'fearfulness', and 'submission' revealed by 12 behavioral tests was developed.
Our understanding of the welfare of companion animals is both incomplete and fragmentary. For domestic dogs, most research has focused on animals that do not have stable relationships with people, such as dogs in laboratories and rehoming kennels. The welfare of pet dogs has received limited attention, presumably due to an assumption that owners have their best interests at heart. However, owners' conceptions of their companion's needs can be inconsistent or even contradictory. Dogs are, on the one hand, sentimentalised via anthropomorphic interpretations, but on the other, mythologized as the descendants of savage wolves requiring harsh correction before they will conform to the demands of living alongside people. Canine welfare science attempts to replace such mythos with objective norms that have proved effective when applied to other domesticated species. However, animal welfare science is rarely value-free or unambiguous, since it has variously been defined in terms of physical health, psychological well-being, and the freedom to perform 'natural' behaviour. Here we attempt to strike a balance between each of these approaches while addressing a wide variety of current issues in canine welfare, including: concerns arising from the breeding of pedigree dogs; inappropriate training methods; and the widespread occurrence of behavioural disorders. We finish by describing some barriers to improvement in dog welfare, including owners' anthropomorphisms, the challenges of finding reliable indicators of well-being, and the effects of applying erroneous conceptual frameworks to the dog-owner relationship. © 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. All rights are reserved.
Veterinary nurses are directly involved with providing advice and gaining informed consent for ovariohysterectomy in bitches. In order to allow them to provide accurate information regarding this common procedure it is vital they fully understand the potential advantages and disadvantages regarding the procedure. It is very easy for clients to gain information, often inaccurate, from internet sources so in order to be able to provide correct evidence-based information, and therefore gain the confidence of the client, it is vital nurses fully understand the implications of any surgery for which they are gaining consent. Veterinary nurses are accountable for their actions and in order to comply with the code of conduct they must ensure that clients have a full understanding of procedures for which they are consenting.
Neutering consists of removing the source of the hormones that control reproduction and determine secondary sexual characteristics. In dogs and cats, this is most commonly accomplished by castration or ovariectomy. While the primary purpose of neutering is to prevent reproduction, the procedure may have other physical and behavioural effects. Epidemiologic research has identified many beneficial and harmful outcomes associated with neutering. A definitively causal relationship between these outcomes and neuter status cannot be accepted without consistent evidence from multiple studies of adequate size and quality. However, consideration of the possible health consequences of these associations is warranted when offering owners recommendations concerning neutering. An evidence-based decision about neutering a particular pet requires integrating relevant research data with the veterinarian's clinical expertise and the needs and circumstances of the patient and owner. It is impossible to precisely predict the outcome of neutering for any individual. However, existing research does allow some generalization about the magnitude and clinical importance of specific risks and benefits. Overall, it appears justified to recommend spaying all females not intended for breeding, because the procedure is more likely to prevent rather than cause disease. In male dogs, the benefits of castration are not so clearly greater than the risks. The evidence is also mixed regarding the risks and benefits of neutering dogs before 5-6 months of age, and so no strong recommendation for or against the practice can be made. However, it is clear that spaying female dogs before their first heat is preferable to spaying them later.
Increased discussion on the influence of neutering on cancer development has been recently prompted with several studies that seem to indicate that incidence of some cancers may be increased with castration or spaying in our canine populations. Although the data are thought-provoking, we may not be able to extrapolate findings in single dog breeds to the entire species. Additionally, societal and humane issues related to pet overpopulation, as well as the incidence of other noncancerous diseases, behavior issues, and potentially decreased overall lifespan in unaltered animals must be taken into consideration before wholesale rejection of neutering in pets.
Objective:
To investigate associations between age at gonadectomy and estimated risk or age at diagnosis of neoplastic and behavioral disorders in Vizslas.
Design:
Retrospective cohort study.
Animals:
2,505 Vizslas born between 1992 and 2008.
Procedures:
Data on demographics, gonadectomy status, and age at diagnosis of disease or disorder were obtained with an anonymous online survey and analyzed.
Results:
Dogs gonadectomized at ≤ 6 months, between 7 and 12 months, or at > 12 months of age had significantly increased odds of developing mast cell cancer, lymphoma, all other cancers, all cancers combined, and fear of storms, compared with the odds for sexually intact dogs. Females gonadectomized at ≤ 12 months of age and males and females gonadectomized at > 12 months of age had significantly increased odds of developing hemangiosarcoma, compared with the odds for sexually intact dogs. Dogs gonadectomized at ≤ 6 months of age had significantly increased odds of developing a behavioral disorder. The younger the age at gonadectomy, the earlier the mean age at diagnosis of mast cell cancer, cancers other than mast cell, hemangiosarcoma, lymphoma, all cancers combined, a behavioral disorder, or fear of storms.
Conclusions and clinical relevance:
Additional studies are needed on the biological effects of removing gonadal hormones and on methods to render dogs infertile that do not involve gonadectomy. Veterinarians should discuss the benefits and possible adverse effects of gonadectomy with clients, giving consideration to the breed of dog, the owner's circumstances, and the anticipated use of the dog.
In a study of preferences for diets containing 1% to 20% sucrose over a bland diet, both female and male dogs preferred the diets containing sucrose over a bland diet, but female dogs had a significantly (P less than 0.05) greater preference for 1% sucrose than did males. Differences between sexes were not observed at the higher concentrations. Mean daily caloric intake was calculated for 12 bitches fed ad libitum during metestrus, estrus, and anestrus, as determined from metachrome-stained vaginal smears. Mean daily caloric intake was lowest during estrus (149 +/- 17 kcal/kg of body weight), was higher during metestrus (159 +/- 8 kcal/kg of body weight), and was highest (175 +/- 9 kcal/kg of body weight) during anestrus. Ovariohysterectomized bitches gained significantly (P less than 0.01) more weight (1.3 +/- 0.3 kg) in the first 10 days after surgery than did sham operated controls (0.3 +/- 0.1 kg). Food intake also was significantly greater ( less than 0.01) in the ovariohysterectomized bitches (1,708 kcal/day) than in the sham operated controls (1,423 kcal/day). Depth of subcutaneous fat in shoulder, rib, and rump areas of ovariohysterectomized bitches was not significantly different from that of intact bitches.
To evaluate the long-term risks and benefits of early-age gonadectomy, compared with traditional-age gonadectomy, among cats adopted from a large animal shelter.
Retrospective cohort study.
1,660 cats.
Cats underwent gonadectomy and were adopted from an animal shelter before 1 year of age; follow-up was available for as long as 11 years after surgery (median follow-up time, 3.9 years). Adopters completed a questionnaire about their cats' behavior and medical history. When possible, the cats' veterinary records were reviewed. Statistical analyses were conducted to identify any associations between the occurrence of 47 medical and behavioral conditions and the cats' age at gonadectomy.
Among male cats that underwent early-age gonadectomy (< 5.5 months of age), the occurrence of abscesses, aggression toward veterinarians, sexual behaviors, and urine spraying was decreased, whereas hiding was increased, compared with cats that underwent gonadectomy at an older age. Among male and female cats that underwent early-age gonadectomy, asthma, gingivitis, and hyperactivity were decreased, whereas shyness was increased.
Gonadectomy before 5.5 months of age was not associated with increased rates of death or relinquishment or occurrence of any serious medical or behavioral condition and may provide certain important long-term benefits, especially for male cats. Animal shelters can safely gonadectomize cats at a young age, and veterinarians should consider recommending routine gonadectomy for client-owned cats before the traditional age of 6 to 8 months.
The purpose of this study was to establish the post-operative behavior of caged dogs after ovariohysterectomy. Twenty dogs in the Control Group were anesthetized, but did not undergo surgery. Twenty-two dogs in the Surgery Group underwent laparotomy and ovariohysterectomy. Dogs in the Control and Surgery Groups were further assigned on a random basis to either the Oxymorphone or Placebo Groups (Group O or P). Dogs in Group O received oxymorphone (2.5 mg m−2 intramuscularly) as a pre-anesthetic and 6, 12 and 18 h later, while dogs in Group P received isovolumetric doses of sterile saline. The dogs were videotaped for 24 h after anesthesia, during which time a handler interacted with the dog once each hour. At each interaction the handler recorded a sedation and a pain score, using a numerical scoring system. Interactive and non-interactive behavior was observed and quantitated by a single observer using the videotapes. Surgery resulted in an increase in pain score, sedation score and time spent sleeping. During interactions with caregivers, greeting behaviors were decreased after surgery. Differences between Surgery Group dogs given analgesics and those given placebo drugs were readily measured using quantitative behavioral measurements, but were not apparent using the numerical scoring system.
Escherichia coli strains associated with pyometra in 85 of 100 bitches investigated had an affinity for urinary tract epithelium and smooth muscle as well as for progesterone-stimulated endometrium and myometrium. The adherence via K-antigen seemed to be important for colonization of the pathogen during development of pyometra. urinary tract infection was detected in 23 of 32 bitches from which urine specimens were obtained. In these bitches, a strain of E coli identical to the strain in the infected uterus was isolated. It was concluded that subclinical urinary tract infection is associated with pyometra and that the uterus will be infected at early metestrus, when receptors for E coli are developed in the endometrium and myometrium, thus enhancing the colonization of bacteria in the uterus.
In a 15-month study, the effects of prepubertal gonadectomy on skeletal growth, weight gain, food intake, body fat, secondary sex characteristics, and behavioral development were investigated in 32 mixed-breed dogs. Male and female pups from 5 litters were randomly allotted to 3 groups: group I, neuter at 7 weeks (n = 14); group II, neuter at 7 months (n = 8); and group III, sexually intact dogs (n = 10). Growth plate closure was delayed (group I vs group III; P less than 0.000001; group II vs group III, P less than 0.000001) in all neutered dogs, as compared with sexually intact dogs. Growth plate closure was delayed longer (group I vs group II, P less than 0.000045) in dogs neutered at 7 weeks old, compared with dogs neutered at 7 months old. The rate of growth was unaffected by gonadectomy, but the extended growth period resulted in greater final radial/ulnar length in all male dogs and bitches neutered at 7 weeks. Gonadectomy did not influence food intake, weight gain, or back-fat depth. Penile development was immature in the adult group-I males (mean +/- SEM diameter of pars glandis = 11.1 +/- 1.0 mm), compared with adult group-II (16.3 +/- 0.5 mm) and group-III (21.0 +/- 2.2 mm) males. Subjectively, the prepuce and os penis of the group-I males were immature, compared with those of group-II and group-III males. Vulvar development in group-I and group-II bitches was less mature than vulvar development in the sexually intact bitches. Of 7 behavioral characteristics assessed, only general activity and excitability rated differently among treatment groups. All neutered dogs were judged to be more active (group I, P less than 0.004) than sexually intact dogs. Group-I males were judged to be more excitable (P less than 0.02) than group-III males. It was concluded that with respect to skeletal, physical, and behavioral development, the effect of neutering pups at 7 weeks old was similar to that of neutering pups at 7 months old.
An ovarian teratoma in a 5-year-old bitch with a history of vaginal discharge was removed successfully by ovariohysterectomy. The mass was discovered on abdominal palpation and contained multiple mineralized densities that were visualized radiographically. Histologic examination of the mass confirmed the presence of tissues originating from multiple germ-cell layers, characteristic of a teratoma. Clinical findings in dogs with teratomas include abdominal distention, a palpable abdominal mass, and rarely, evidence of reproductive hormonal activity. These neoplasms are uncommon in the dog, and they may exhibit malignant tendencies, with metastasis developing in approximately 33% of the reported cases. Ovariohysterectomy is the preferred treatment for ovarian teratomas, and this procedure was curative in the dog of this report.
Contraception, the prevention of pregnancy, can be achieved by any method which prevents the union of sperm and follicle. In the case of the dog and cat contraception is seldom necessary for the animals' well-being, but is sought for the owner's convenience, and it therefore behoves the veterinary surgeon to discuss fully the various options. Notwithstanding this, it is essential from the social angle to limit the production of unwanted kittens and puppies.Contraception may be achieved by confinement or by surgical or chemical methods. Whereas formerly confinement was the method of choice, followed closely by surgery, various chemical methods are now in vogue, and it is not always realized, even by veterinary surgeons, that the way these chemicals work is not fully understood, and that for this reason alone they are inherently dangerous. All methods are associated with some danger but whereas in the case of confinement or surgery the dangers are most likely to be immediate, adverse results from the use of chemical contraceptives may not appear for many years.
Canine aggression directed to human beings is a common presenting complaint and requires attention to safety issues and behavior modification to minimize the risks of future aggression. Dogs may bite familiar people, including family members, or unfamiliar people for a variety of reasons. Anxiety plays an important role in aggression regardless of its target or circumstances. Effective management of aggression may include education and safety counseling for owners, lifestyle changes for dogs and owners, avoidance of provocations when possible, and behavior modification to minimize the risk of future bites. Drug therapy may be indicated to facilitate behavior modification or to reduce reactivity in the dog.
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