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Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology (2006) 33, 808–812 doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2006.04444.x
Blackwell Publishing Asia
Original Article
P. biglobosa on alloxan-induced diabetic ratsAA Odetola et al.
POSSIBLE ANTIDIABETIC AND ANTIHYPERLIPIDAEMIC EFFECT
OF FERMENTED PARKIA BIGLOBOSA (JACQ) EXTRACT IN
ALLOXAN-INDUCED DIABETIC RATS§
AA Odetola,* O Akinloye,† C Egunjobi,‡ WA Adekunle‡ and AO Ayoola*
*Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, ‡Laboratory Technology Training School, Faculty of Science and
Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan and †Department of Chemical Pathology, College of Health Sciences,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Osogbo, Nigeria
SUMMARY
1. The hypoglycaemic effect of fermented seeds of Parkia
biglobosa (PB; African locust bean), a natural nutritional con-
diment that features frequently in some African diets as a spice,
was investigated in the present study in alloxan-induced diabetic
rats. Its effect was compared with that of glibenclamide (Daonil;
Sanofi-Aventis, Paris, France), a reference antidiabetic drug. The
effects of PB on lipid profiles were also examined.
2. In order to assess the hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic
effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts of PB on experi-
mental animals, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), total cholesterol,
triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) were determined. In addition, the weight of
each animal was determined to assess any possible weight gain or
loss in the experimental animals (diabetic rats treated with Daonil
(group C), the aqueous extract of PB (group D) or the methanolic
extract of PB (group E)) compared with control groups (non-
diabetic (group A) and non-treated diabetic (group B)).
3. A single dose of 120 mg/kg, i.v., alloxan administered to rats
resulted in significant increases in the FPG (P < 0.001) of test
animals compared with controls. However, dietary supple-
mentation with PB (6 g/kg extract for 4 weeks administered
orally using an intragastric tube) ameliorated the alloxan-
induced diabetes in a manner comparable with that of the
reference antidiabetic drug glibenclamide. Aqueous and
methanolic extracts of PB (6% w/w) elicited 69.2% and 64.4%
reductions, respectively, in FPG compared with 70.4% in
0.01 mg/150 g glibenclamide-treated rats.
4. Although animals treated with the aqueous extract of PB
gained weight in manner similar to normal controls, animals
given the methanolic extract and glibenclamide lost weight in
manner similar to non-treated diabetic rats. In addition, high
levels of HDL and low LDL were observed in animals treated
with the aqueous extract of PB, a pattern similar to that seen in
normal controls. Low levels of HDL and high levels of LDL were
observed in animals treated with the methanolic extract of PB,
a pattern similar to that seen in non-treated diabetic controls.
5. The results of the present study demonstrate that both
aqueous and methanolic extracts of fermented seeds of PB exert
a hypoglycaemic effect; hence, PB has an antidiabetic property.
However, only the aqueous extract of PB ameliorated the loss
of bodyweight usually associated with diabetes. Although the
aqueous extract has a favourable lipid profile, which is probably
an indication of its possible anti-arteriogenic property (hyper-
tension and ischaemic heart diseases being common complica-
tions in diabetes mellitus), the methanolic extract shows possible
contraindication to ischaemic heart diseases.
Key words: diabetes, fasting plasma glucose, lipid profile,
Parkia biglobosa.
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine dysfunction that affects many
people around the world. The condition is usually characterized by
loss of glucose homeostasis resulting from defects in insulin secre-
tion or action, both resulting in impaired metabolism of glucose and
other energy yielding fuels, such as lipid and protein.1 Diabetes
mellitus is a syndrome characterized by a chronic increase in blood
glucose and is usually associated with a loss of weight and energy2
and significant changes in lipid metabolism and structure.3 Experi-
mental diabetes in animals has provided considerable insight into
the physiological and biochemical derangement of the diabetic state.
Many of the derangements have been characterized in hyperglycaemic
animals.
During diabetes, a profound alteration in the concentration and
composition of lipids occurs.3,4 In diabetic rats, increased lipid per-
oxidation is associated with hyperlipidaemia and this is associated
with the development of vascular diseases.5,6
Despite the considerable strides that have been made in the
understanding and management of diabetes, the disease and disease-
related complications are increasing unabated.7 Despite the avail-
ability of known antidiabetic medicines, remedies from medicinal
plants are used with success to treat this disease.8 Many traditional plant
treatments for diabetes are used throughout the world, especially in
Africa. Plant drugs are frequently considered to be less toxic and
have fewer side-effects than do synthetic drugs.9 Based on the World
Correspondence: O Akinloye, Department of Chemical Pathology, College
of Health Sciences Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Osogbo,
Nigeria. Email: oluyemiakinloye@hotmail.com
§Based on a presentation at The Biomedical Science Congress, 26–28
September 2005, Birmingham, UK.
Received 24 October 2005; revision 24 February 2006; accepted 6 March 2006.
© 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
P. biglobosa on alloxan-induced diabetic rats 809
© 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, hypoglycaemic
agents of plant origin used in traditional medicine have received
renewed attention.10
Par kia biglobosa (Jacq) Benth (African locust bean) belongs to
the family Mimosaceae of the order Leguminisae. The fermented
seeds of P. biglobosa (PB) are used in all parts of Nigeria and, indeed,
the west coast of Africa to season traditional soups.11,12 Parkia biglo-
bosa species have found traditional use as foods and medicine and
are of high commercial value. The use of PB in the treatment of
leprosy, hypertension and diarrhoea is increasing in importance.12
Chemical investigations of the seeds of PB have shown that they
contain cardiac glycosides and alkaloids11 in addition to a high protein
and amino acid content.14
In general, there is very little biological knowledge on the specific
mode of action in the treatment of diabetes, but most plant products
used in the treatment of diabetes have been found to contain sub-
stances such as glycosides, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids etc. that
are frequently implicated as having antidiabetic effects.15
Although antihypertensive,11,12 analgesic, anti-inflammatory16 and
antidiarrhoeal13 activities of PB extract have been documented, its
antidiabetic and possible anti-arteriogenic properties have not been
reported.
Therefore, the present study was designed to examine the effects
of aqueous and methanolic extracts of PB on fasting plasma glucose
and lipid levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The effects were
compared with glibenclamide (Daonil; Sanofi-Aventis, Paris, France),
a reference antidiabetic drug.
METHODS
Chemicals
Alloxan was obtained from British Drug House (London, UK). Diagnostic
kits for glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein
(HDL) precipitants were purchased from Randox Laboratories (Antrim,
UK). Glibenclamide (Daonil) was purchased from a local chemist in Ibadan,
Nigeria. All reagents were of analytical grade and the purest quality available.
Plant materials
Par kia biglobosa fermented seeds were obtained locally in Ibadan, Nigeria.
The plant was identified and authenticated in the Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of Ibadan, Nigeria. The seeds were sun dried and milled into powder
using an electronic milling machine. A total of 2.5 kg sun-dried powder of
PB was extracted with n-hexane (boiling point 40–60∞C) in a soxlet extractor
(Sri Rudram Instrument, Chennai, India) for 18 h. The defatted, dried marc
was repacked and then extracted with methanol and distilled water to yield
the methanolic and aqueous extracts, respectively. Briefly, the dried marc was
extracted with methanol in the soxlet apparatus for 10 h. The methanol solu-
tion was subsequently concentrated in a rotatory evaporator at 40∞C. The
aqueous extract was prepared by soaking the dried marc in deionized water
for 72 h. The supernatant was collected and the residue squeezed in Whatman
filter paper to collect all the extract. The extract was evaporated under reduced
pressure at a temperature of between 50 and 60∞C.
Animal preparation
Thirty male albino rats (Wistar strain), weighing between 150 and 200 g,
were used. After 2 weeks acclimatization, rats were kept in stainless-steel
cages in a room maintained at 26–29∞C with a 12 h light–dark cycle. Animals
were fed on normal laboratory chow purchased from Ladokun Feeds (Ibadan,
Nigeria) and contained 12% fibre, 14.5% protein, 4.8% crude fat, 8% crude
ash, 7% cellulose and 5% carbohydrate (w/w). Rats had access to food and
water ad libitum.
Animals were then distributed randomly into five different groups with
six animals in each group. Group A served as the control group and received
normal saline (no treatment). Groups B–E were given a single injection of
freshly prepared alloxan solution using saline (0.9% w/v NaCl) as the vehicle
at a dose of 120 mg/kg alloxan.17 The diabetic state was ascertained by a
level of fasting blood glucose above 15 mmol/L. Blood was collected from
the eyes (venous pool). One group of animals (group B) was used as a dia-
betic control group (no treatment); another group (group C) was treated with
the reference antidiabetic drug glibenclimide administered orally with an
intubator at a dose of 0.01 mg/150 g bodyweight; animals in groups D and E
were treated with aqueous and methanolic extracts of PB, respectively.9 These
animals were treated with 6 g/kg extract for 4 weeks administered orally
using an intragastric tube.
Sample collection
In the 7th week (2 weeks of acclimatization, 1 week of alloxan induction
and 4 weeks of treatment), rats were fasted overnight and killed by cervical
dislocation 24 h after the last dose of drugs. Blood was collected from the
inferior vena cava of the heart into EDTA-containing tubes and fluoride
oxalate bottles. Plasma was prepared by centrifugation of the tubes at 3000 g
for 10 min in an MSC bench centrifuge (Beckman and Hirsch, Burlington,
IO, USA).
Assay of glucose and lipids
Plasma glucose was determined by an enzymatic method using amino-
phenazone as the oxygen acceptor.19 Plasma triglyceride and cholesterol
levels were assayed using commercial kits (Randox Laboraties). The HDL
was measured using the enzymatic colourimetric method. Very low-density
lipoprotein (VLDL) and LDL were precipitated by the addition of phospho-
tungstic acid and magnesium chloride. After centrifugation at 3000 g for
10 min at 25∞C, the clear supernatant contained the HDL fraction, which
was assayed for cholesterol using a Randox kit. Low-density lipoprotein–
cholesterol (LDL-C) was calculated using the formula of Friedwald et al.20
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using spss for Windows version 10.0
(SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Results are expressed as the mean±SD (n = 6).
One-way analysis of variance (anova) was used for data analysis. Significant
differences between groups were detected in the anova using Duncan’s
multiple range test at P < 0.05. Statistical differences between mean values
of individual tests and control were detected using paired-sample Student’s
t-test.
RESULTS
Tab le 1 gives the effect of PB on bodyweight of the alloxan-
induced rats compared with controls. The administration of alloxan
(120 mg/kg) significantly reduced bodyweight (P < 0.05) compared
with the controls, which gained significant weight. Although the
aqueous extract of PB ameliorated this weight loss, glibenclamide
and the methanolic extract of PB did not demonstrate a significant
beneficial effect.
Figure 1 shows the level of fasting plasma glucose (FPG) in
controls and experimental animals. The administration of alloxan
(120 mg/kg) caused a significant increase (P < 0.01) in the FPG of
experimental animals compared with control. The FPG was signif-
icantly reduced after 4 weeks of treatment in all animals except non-
diabetic controls. However, the reduction was more significant in
treated rats compared with diabetic controls (P < 0.05).
810 AA Odetola et al.
© 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
Tab le 2 gives the lipid profile in control and experimental animals.
There was a significant increase in total cholesterol and triglyc-
eride levels in diabetic rats (group B) compared with normal control
(group A; P < 0.05). Both the aqeuous and methanolic extracts
of PB reduced the triglyceride level significantly compared with
diabetic controls and rats treated with glibenclamide (group C;
P < 0.05). However, the aqueous extract of PB increased HDL and
reduced LDL-C significantly compared with diabetic controls to
value similar to that seen in normal controls. Conversely, the
methanolic extract reduced HDL and increased LDL-C significantly
compared with normal controls, a pattern similar to that seen in the
diabetic controls.
DISCUSSION
An abnormal increase in glucose, especially as in diabetes
mellitus, one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide,
is associated with hyperlipidaemia in both clinical and experi-
mental diabetes.21 This was evident in the present study, with the
diabetic rats exhibiting hyperglycaemia, hypercholesterolaemia and
hypertriglyceridaemia.
Both aqueous and methanolic extracts of PB reduced the glucose
level significantly to a level that was not significantly different from
that of glibenclamide-treated diabetic and non-diabetic control rats.
Because alloxan is known to destroy pancreatic b-cells, the present
finding suggests that these extracts may have an extrapancreatic anti-
hyperglycaemic mechanism of action. This is in agreement with the
earlier suggestion of Jackson and Bressler.22 A number of other
plants and extracts have also been reported to have an antihyper-
glycaemic and an insulin-stimulatory effect.23–27 Most of the plants
with hypoglycaemic properties have been found to contain meta-
bolites such as glycosides, alkaloid, flavonoids etc.15 Chemical inves-
tigation of PB seeds has shown that they contain cardiac glycosides
and alkaloids.11 These chemical substances may then be responsible
for the antidiabetic effect of PB observed in the present study.
Dehydration and loss of bodyweight have been associated with
diabetes mellitus.2 Observations in the present study further sub-
stantiated the loss of bodyweight as a complication of diabetes. It
was observed that the aqueous extract of PB ameliorated the weight
loss noticed in the diabetic control and glibenclamide-treated
rats. Although food consumption in the diabetic control group was
not significantly higher than that in the normal control group, the
diabetic controls lost considerable weight. The observation in the
present study that the aqueous extract of PB prevented weight loss
could be the result of the high protein and amino acid content of
this seed.14 An inability of the methanolic extract of PB to prevent
weight loss in diabetic rats may be the result of the abscence of
nutrients such as proteins and lipids in the methanolic extract.
Apart from the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism, insulin
plays an important role in lipid metabolism. Insulin insufficiency,
as in diabetes mellitus, is associated with hypercholesterolaemia and
hypertriglyceridaemia, which have been reported to occur in experi-
mental diabetic rats.28–32 Hypercholesterolaemia could result in a
relative molecular ordering of the residual phospholipids, resulting
in a decrease in membrane fluidity.32 Accumulation of triglycerides
is one of the leading risk factors in coronary heart disease (CHD).
The hypercholesterolaemia and hypertriglyceridaemia observed
Tab le 1 Effect of normal diet and various treatments on bodyweight
Group Initial weight (g) Final weight (g) Weight) lost/gained (g)
A175.2 ± 0.2 195.2 ± 0.1 20.0 ± 0.4
B176.6 ± 0.1 158.3 ± 0.3 -18.3 ± 0.4†
C175.5 ± 0.1 168.0 ± 0.6 -7.5 ± 0.6†
D176.7 ± 0.4 193.3 ± 0.3 16.3 ± 0.1*
E176.5 ± 0.3 166.5 ± 0.2 - 10.0 ± 0.1†
Data are the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05 compared with the non-treated diabetic
control (group B); †P < 0.05 compared with the normal (non-diabetic)
control (group A).
C, diabetic rats treated with glibenclamide; D, diabetic treated with the
aqueous extract of Par kia biglobosa; E, diabetic rats treated with the
methanolic extract of P. biglobosa.
Fig. 1 Histograph of fasting plasma glucose (FPG) before () and after ()
treatment. Glib, glibenclamide; AqPB, aqueous extract of Pa rkia biglobosa;
MeOHPB, methanol extract of P. biglobosa.
Tab le 2 Lipid value of controls and test animals 4 weeks after treatment
P
arkia biglobosa extract and glibenclamide
Group
Cholesterol
(mmol/L)
Triglyceride
(mmol/L)
HDL
(mmol/L)
LDL
(mmol/L)
A1.32 ± 0.43 0.58 ± 0.30 0.91 ± 0.58 0.29 ± 0.14
B3.27 ± 0.11 1.36 ± 0.07 0.95 ± 0.22* 2.04 ± 0.12*
C3.49 ± 0.74 1.71 ± 0.04 1.29 ± 0.13*†1.86 ± 0.13*
D3.05 ± 0.21 0.84 ± 0.11*†‡ 2.03 ± 0.51†‡ 0.85 ± 0.12*†‡
E2.98 ± 0.11 0.38 ± 0.02*‡0.66 ± 0.11*‡2.24 ± 0.14*‡
Data are the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05 compared with the non-treated diabetic
control (group B); †P < 0.05 compared with the normal (non-diabetic)
control (group A); ‡P < 0.05 compared with diabetic rats treated with
glibenclamide (group C).
HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; D, diabetic
treated with the aqueous extract of Par kia biglobosa; E, diabetic rats treated
with the methanolic extract of P. biglobosa.
P. biglobosa on alloxan-induced diabetic rats 811
© 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
in the diabetic control rats in the present study was worsened by
glibenclamide treatment. However, both hypercholesterolaemia and
hypertriglyceridaemia were significantly reduced by treatment with
the aqueous and methanolic extracts of PB, with the effect of the
methanolic extract being more pronounced. Therefore, there is an
indication that PB may prevent the progression of CHD in diabetics.
Despite the availability of known antidiabetic medicines, remedies
from medicinal plants are used with increasing success to treat this
disease and manage its complications better.8 Furthermore, it has
been suggested that plant drugs and herbal formulations are less
toxic and are free from side-effects compared with synthetic drugs,
leading to an increasing preference for traditional plants over syn-
thetic drugs.4 Increased evidence of therapeutic effectiveness of
herbal medicines may have influenced the interest of the WHO in
hypoglycaemic agents of plant origin used in the traditional treat-
ment of diabetes.10
Interestingly, the aqueous extract of PB caused a significant
increase in the serum level of HDL-C, which is usually termed the
‘good cholesterol’.34 The combined effect of increased HDL-C (‘good
cholesterol’) and decreased LDL-C (termed ‘bad cholesterol’)
resulted in an increased HDL-C/LDL-C ratio in the test animals.
This strongly supports the notion that dietary supplementation
with the aqueous extract of PB can lead to a reduction in the risk
of developing heart diseases, because a high HDL-C/LDL-C ratio
has been shown to be beneficial and is indicative of a lower risk of
CHD.35 This is a notable advantage over synthetic drugs: in the
present study, treatment with glibenclamide resulted in an HDL-C/
LDL-C ratio that was significantly lower than the value in PB-treated
rats and mimicked the pattern seen in non-treated diabetic rats.
Evidence from the present study shows that both aqueous and
methanolic extracts of PB have a glucose-lowering effect on alloxan-
induced diabetic rats. The aqueous extract of PB was found to be
highly effective in managing some of the complications associated
with diabetes, especially loss of bodyweight and hyperlipidaemia.
Therefore, the aqueous extract of PB shows therapeutic promise in
preventing the progression of arteriosclerosis and possible related
cadiovascular pathogenesis in diabetes. However, the methanolic
extract increases serum LDL levels, resulting in a reduced HDL-C/
LDL-C ratio. This is not favourable to cardiovascular pathogenesis;
therefore, the methabolic extract shows possible contraindication in
cardiovascular diseases. Further studies are in progress to isolate the
active ingredient and elucidate the exact mechanism of action of
these extracts.
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