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Chemical Composition and Nutritional Quality of Soybean Meals Prepared by Extruder/Expeller Processing for Use in Poultry Diets
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This research examined variation in chemical composition and nutrient quality of soybeans (SBs) and soybean meals (SBMs) produced at seven commercial extruder/expeller plants in the United States (experiment 1), as well as differences in amino acid digestibilities when roosters were fed SBMs extruded at 121, 135, 150, or 160 degrees C at a U.S. pilot processing plant (experiment 2). In experiment 1, limited variation existed in the composition of SBs arriving at the plants, whereas substantial differences were noted in amino acid composition and protein quality of the resultant SBMs. In experiment 2, the SBMs extruded at 121 and 135 degrees C were underprocessed as noted by high urease activities and lower amino acid digestibilities. Soybean meals extruded at 150 and 160 degrees C resulted in higher amino acid digestibilities and lower urease activities, indicating adequate processing. Large variation exists in the nutritional quality of extruder/expeller SBMs currently in the marketplace. Optimal processing temperatures should be >135 degrees C, and temperatures as high as 165 degrees C do not result in overprocessing.
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... Indeed, growth rate and chemical composition are influenced by sunlight, salinity, sea depth and water currents (Øverland et al., 2019). Protein values reported are low compared to terrestrial, vegetable plant protein sources such as soybean that can contain~40% protein on a DW basis (Karr-Lilienthal et al., 2006). Protein content values of up to 47% of the DW of seaweeds were reported previously for some species such as Porphyra sp. ...
This study collates compositional analysis of seaweeds data with information generated from in vitro gas production assays in the presence and absence of seaweeds. The aim was to assess and rank 27 native northern European seaweeds as potential feed ingredients for use to reduce methane emissions from ruminants. It provides information for use in future in vivo dietary trials concerning feed manipulation strategies to reduce CH4 emissions efficiently from domestic ruminants based on dietary seaweed supplementation. The seaweeds H. siliquosa and A. nodosum belonging to phylum Phaeophyta displayed the highest concentration of phlorotannins and antioxidant activity among the macroalgae giving anti-methanogenic effect in vitro, while this explanation was not valid for the observed reduction in methane when supplementing with C. filum and L. digitata in this study. D. carnosa and C. tenuicorne belonging to phylum Rhodophyta had the highest protein content among the macroalgae that reduced methane production in vitro. There were no obvious explanation from the compositional analysis conducted in this study to the reduced methane production in vitro when supplementing with U. lactuca belonging to phylum Chlorophyta. The strongest and most complete methane inhibition in vitro was observed when supplementing with Asparagopsis taxiformis that was used as a positive control in this study.
... Moreover, heat-damaged protein, eluding its digestion in the small intestine, is subsequently fermented in more distal parts by adjacent organisms [9]. Last but not least, soybeans or other feed commodities of different varieties, regions and growing conditions usually exhibit different responses to heat treatments [17,18]. This is especially important considering that European politics aim to reduce dependency on soybean imports by establishing local production, which might increase the variability of soybean commodities in the future (2017/2116(INI)). ...
Soybean products are of high importance for the protein supply of poultry. Heat treatment of soybeans is essential to ensure optimal digestibility because of intrinsic antinutritive factors typical for this feed category. However, excessive treatment promotes the Maillard reaction and reduces protein digestibility. Furthermore, Europe's efforts are to decrease dependence on imports of soybean products and enlarge local production. This process will include an increase in the variability of soybean batches, posing great challenges to adequate processing conditions. Intrinsic soybean properties plus heat treatment intensity might be able to modulate the gut microbiota, which is of crucial importance for an animal's health and performance. To assess the influence of heat treatment and soybean variety on gut microbiota, 2 soybean cakes from 2 varieties were processed at 110 °C or 120 °C and subsequently fed to 336 one-day-old broiler chickens. After 36 days, the animals were slaughtered, and the digesta of the ileum and caecum was collected. Next, 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing of the extracted DNA revealed a high discrepancy between gut sections, but there were no differences between male and female birds. Significant differences attributed to the different soybean varieties and heat intensity were detected for certain bacterial taxa. However, no effect on specific families or genera appeared. In conclusion, the results indicated the potential of processing conditions and soybean variety as microbiota-modulating factors.
... Ether extracts were relatively higher for sunflower (33.7%) and lower for cowpea (0.7%). The current study's findings were lower than those of Karr-Lilienthal et al., (2006) in terms of CP content of soybean meal, which ranged from 45.1% to 52.6%, but the EE content of soybean in this study was higher than that of the same author, which ranged from 4.1% to 9.0%. ...
... Ether extracts were relatively higher for sunflower (33.7%) and lower for cowpea (0.7%). The current study's findings were lower than those of Karr-Lilienthal et al., (2006) in terms of CP content of soybean meal, which ranged from 45.1% to 52.6%, but the EE content of soybean in this study was higher than that of the same author, which ranged from 4.1% to 9.0%. ...
... Ether extracts were relatively higher for sunflower (33.7%) and lower for cowpea (0.7%). The current study's findings were lower than those of Karr-Lilienthal et al., (2006) in terms of CP content of soybean meal, which ranged from 45.1% to 52.6%, but the EE content of soybean in this study was higher than that of the same author, which ranged from 4.1% to 9.0%. ...
... Although heat is an essential step in soybean processing, excessive heat treatment can result in decreased nutrient digestibility, especially for protein due to the formation of other potentially harmful substances such as Maillard products [6]. Owing to these factors and experiences, local and decentral processing plants have been challenged by the high variability of nutrients in raw soybeans, as they may in turn affect optimum processing conditions needed to ensure a highly digestible feed compound [19,20]. Besides processing temperature and time, factors such as moisture, bean or particle size, dehulling and the presence of reducing substances interact with the soybean´s response to heat [13,[21][22][23][24]. Useful indicators have thus been sought to assess the influence of thermal processing on the protein quality of soybean products. ...
As production of European soybeans is expected to grow, optimal processing conditions need to be ensured for small and heterogeneous batches of soybeans. The effect of different soybean varieties, as well as heat treatments, on the growth performance and nutrient digestibility in broiler chickens was investigated. Two varieties, regarded as heat stable and heat labile after preliminary experiments, were partially de-oiled and thermally processed at 110 °C for 20 min and 120 °C for 20 min. The resulting soybean cakes were integrated into a mash diet and subjected to a 36-day long feeding experiment. A total of 336 one-day-old broiler chickens were divided into 24 pens, resulting in 6 replicates per treatment. With application of the 110 °C treatment, analysis of soybean cakes showed that the commonly required reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) was only reached with one soybean variety. The higher processing temperature of 120 °C ensured sufficient TIA reductions in both soybean varieties. Elevated TIA concentrations resulted in decreased growth performances (p < 0.05) of the chickens, whereas no negative effect from overheating on growth performance appeared. Total-tract nitrogen retention (p < 0.05) and pre-caecal digestibility of several amino acids (p < 0.10) decreased with higher processing temperatures but had no negative effects on growth performance. In conclusion, the results indicate that processing conditions adjusted to the different varieties are essential to ensure optimal product quality.
... Ether extracts were relatively higher for sunflower (33.7%) and lower for cowpea (0.7%). The current study's findings were lower than those of Karr-Lilienthal et al., (2006) in terms of CP content of soybean meal, which ranged from 45.1% to 52.6%, but the EE content of soybean in this study was higher than that of the same author, which ranged from 4.1% to 9.0%. ...
This study was conducted to determine the proximate composition and amino-acid profile of selected poultry feedstuffs found in North Western Ethiopia. Samples of selected feed ingredients were collected from local markets in the northwestern part of the Amhara region. The feed ingredients were analyzed at Tokachi Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives Obihino Hokkaido, Japan for proximate composition, amino acid profile, and mineral content determination. The crude protein content ranges from 6 to 38.5% for soybean toasted and Finger millet, respectively. The metabolizable energy content ranges from 3802.70 (soybean) to 2440.06 kcal/kg (lentil bran). Toasted soybean, Lupine vitabor, Noug seed cake, Lupine Sanabor, Cowpea, Lentil bran, Haricot Bean had relatively higher lysine and threonine content. Except for toasted soybean and Noug seed cake, all feed ingredients available in the study area were deficient in methionine. Noug seed cake, finger millet, and lentil bran have higher calcium value than other feedstuffs. Whereas Noug seed cake, wheat bran, and sunflower were rich in phosphorous over other feedstuffs. Moreover, some of the ingredients like Lupine sanabor and vitabor, cowpea, haricot bean, sunflower, and safflower were observed as both energy and protein sources for chicken diet formulation. In conclusion, this study provided preliminary basic information on the available poultry feedstuffs along with their amino acid profile in which chicken producers can use the optional feed formulations based on the resources available in their localities. However, further study is recommended to evaluate the performance of those optimal diets using an in-vivo feeding experiment.
... The protein content of H. fusiformis ranged from 9.9-18.41% DW. Brown seaweeds, especially the genus Sargassum, have low protein contents (9-20% DW) compared to other seaweed groups [28] and terrestrial vegetable protein sources, such as soybean (40% DW) [30]. Despite their low protein content, seaweeds may be considered potential sources of protein for human and animal nutrition because protein is the building block of living tissues and organs, making it essential in human and animal diets [29]. ...
The brown seaweed Hizikia fusiformis (syn. Sargassum fusiforme), commonly known as “Hijiki”, has been utilized in traditional cuisine and medicine in East Asian countries for several centuries. H. fusiformis has attracted much attention owing to its rich nutritional and pharmacological properties. However, there has been no comprehensive review of the nutritional and pharmacological properties of H. fusiformis. The aim of this systematic review was to provide detailed information from the published literature on the nutritional and pharmacological properties of H. fusiformis. A comprehensive online search of the literature was conducted by accessing databases, such as PubMed, SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, for published studies on the nutritional and pharmacological properties of H. fusiformis between 2010 and 2021. A total of 916 articles were screened from all the databases using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses method. Screening based on the setdown criteria resulted in 59 articles, which were used for this review. In this review, we found that there has been an increase in the number of publications on the pharmacological and nutritional properties of H. fusiformis over the last 10 years. In the last 10 years, studies have focused on the proximate, mineral, polysaccharide, and bioactive compound composition, and pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, photoprotective, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, osteoprotective, and gastroprotective properties of H. fusiformis extracts. Overall, further studies and strategies are required to develop H. fusiformis as a promising resource for the nutrition and pharmacological industries.
Spirulina is a kind of blue-green algae (BGA) that is multicellular, filamentous, and prokaryotic. It is also known as a cyanobacterium. It is classified within the phylum known as blue-green algae. Despite the fact that it includes a high concentration of nutrients, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids—in particular, the necessary omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids—the percentage of total fat and cholesterol that can be found in these algae is substantially lower when compared to other food sources. This is the case even if the percentage of total fat that can be found in these algae is also significantly lower. In addition to this, spirulina has a high concentration of bioactive compounds, such as phenols, phycocyanin pigment, and polysaccharides, which all take part in a number of biological activities, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. As a result of this, spirulina has found its way into the formulation of a great number of medicinal foods, functional foods, and nutritional supplements. Therefore, this article makes an effort to shed light on spirulina, its nutritional value as a result of its chemical composition, and its applications to some food product formulations, such as dairy products, snacks, cookies, and pasta, that are necessary at an industrial level in the food industry all over the world. In addition, this article supports the idea of incorporating it into the food sector, both from a nutritional and health perspective, as it offers numerous advantages.
Three experiments were conducted to determine the relationships between trypsin inhibitor contents, urease index, and color
of soybean meal, and the effect on broiler performance. Either 0, 8, 10, 12, 14, or 16% moisture (Experiment 1) or 0, 2, 4,
6, 8, or 10% moisture (Experiment 2) was added after dehydrating raw, flaked, solvent-extracted soybeans to 2% moisture. Each
sample was then sealed in .473-liter jars, autoclaved for 0 to 135 min, with 15-min intervals, and dried at 37 C in a vacuum
oven to remove all remaining moisture. In Experiment 3 commercial soybean meal with 12.12 μg trypsin inhibited/mg protein
(μg/mg) was autoclaved for 0 to 25 min with 5-min intervals to determine the effect of additional heat on broiler performance
and SBM color.
Commercial soybean meal with 12.12 μg/mg trypsin inhibitor, tristimulus +a color value of 3.21, and a urease index of .19
Δ pH supported poorer growth and feed efficiency in broilers than the same soybean meal heated an additional 10 min and, thus,
1.77 μg/mg trypsin inhibitor, a + a color value of +4.76, and urease index of .02 Δ pH. Results indicated that color is a
good predictor of trypsin inhibitor content and broiler performance. Additional heating resulted in higher +a color values
and poorer broiler performance, indicating that color may also be used to determine overprocessing.
Particle size of the soybean meal influenced the color. The soybean meal ground to pass a 20 mesh screen supported the best
broiler performance when tristimulus color values ranged from +4.5–5.5 ±a color values or 58–65 L color values. These results confirm that color is a quick and reliable method of determining soybean meal quality.
Two 10-day chick bioassays and two amino acid digestibility trials using cecectomized cockerels were conducted to assess the effects of steam heating and commercial processing on in vivo protein quality of canola meal. In vitro protein solubility measurements in .2 or .5% KOH were evaluated as predictors of in vivo protein quality. Commercial solvent-extracted canola meal autoclaved at 121 C and 105 kPa (international pressure units) for 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, or 90 min, was fed to 8-day-old chicks in corn-canola meal diets containing 20% CP. Growth performance of chicks fed autoclaved canola meal decreased linearly (P ≤ .001) as autoclaving time increased. The analyzed lysine content in canola meal was reduced markedly by increased autoclaving time, with little or no effects observed for other amino acids. True digestibilities of indispensable amino acids decreased (P ≤ .05) as autoclaving time increased, with lysine providing the most notable change. The decreased digestibility of lysine was due both to reduced concentration of analyzed lysine and to reduced digestibility of the analyzed lysine remaining after autoclaving. Protein solubility in .2 and .5% KOH decreased as autoclaving time increased. Use of .5% KOH provided a larger range in solubility values over autoclaving times. Four samples of canola from different stages of processing (full-fat seeds, flaked or conditioned meal, expeller meal, and solvent-extracted meal) were also evaluated. Protein solubility in .2% KOH decreased upon solvent extraction, but there were no significant changes in amino acid digestibility due to stage of processing.
Two experiments were conducted to compare urease activity, orange G-binding capacity, trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), and
protein solubility (PS) in a potassium hydroxide solution as indicators of underprocessed soybean meal (SBM). Subsamples of
raw dehulled, hexane-extracted SBM (RSBM) were autoclaved for varying lengths of time at 121 C. Orange G binding capacity
of the meal did not vary substantially and did not clearly differentiate between raw and heated SBM. Urease activity, TIA,
and PS all reflected degrees of heat treatment. However, PS values were more closely correlated with chick performance and
paralleled with trypsin inhibitor concentration in meals for all autoclaving times used. Chick growth was optimized when RSBM
was autoclaved for 15 min with a resulting PS of 75%. Diets containing this meal gave lowest pancreas weight (as percentage
of body weight). It appears that PS is of value in the detection of underprocessed SBM. Protein solubility values in excess
of 85% or less than 70% indicate under- or overprocessing of SBM, respectively.
Five 10-day chick growth experiments and an amino acid digestibility assay were conducted to assess the effect of steam heating on in vivo protein quality of raw, full-fat Kunitz trypsin inhibitor-free soybeans (KFSB) compared with raw, conventional full-fat soybeans (CSB). Protein solubility in .2% KOH was also evaluated as an in vitro test of in vivo protein quality for underprocessed CSB. The CSB and KFSB were autoclaved for 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, or 21 min at 121 C and 124 kPa. The soybeans were then fed to 8- or 9-day-old chicks as the sole source of protein in dextrose and soybean diets containing 23% protein. Growth performance of chicks fed raw KFSB was superior to that of chicks fed raw CSB. Growth performance of chicks fed autoclaved KFSB or CSB increased and pancreas weight (percentage of body weight) decreased as autoclaving time increased. Slightly less autoclaving time was consistently required to achieve maximum chick performance for KFSB compared with CSB. Less autoclaving time was also required to obtain maximum digestibility of amino acids in KFSB compared with CSB. Urease activity of the soybeans decreased as autoclaving time increased, whereas protein solubility in .2% KOH for CSB did not change consistently in response to heating time. The results of the present study indicate that raw KFSB must be heated to obtain maximum protein quality for chicks and that protein solubility in KOH is not a sensitive indicator of underprocessing of CSB soybeans.
Refining of soybean oil, to make a neutral, bland-flavored, and light-colored oil, results in several by-products. The by-products consist of various mixtures of phosphatides, unsaponifiables, glycerides, free fatty acids, and soap. Lecithin contains mostly hydratable phosphatides, together with some free fatty acids and neutral oil (glycerides). It is used, in various modifications, for many food and industrial purposes. Soapstock, or refining byproduct lipids, consists of soap, neutral oil, phosphatides, and some unsaponifiables. It is valuable as an animal feed additive and as a source of fatty acids for soap and oleochemicals. Soapstock is the traditional name for the byproduct resulting from caustic refining of soybean and other oils. Crude soybean byproduct lipids consist of soaps of soybean fatty acids, triglycerides, phosphatides, and degradation products as well as small amounts of sterols, tocopherols, pigments, proteins, and carbohydrates. To reduce weight and stabilize the product for storing and handling, raw soapstock is commonly acidulated with sulfuric acid. Traditionally, soapstock acidulation has been done in a batch process, where soapstock is charged to a corrosion-resistant tank.
Several laboratories are currently using the rapid excreta collection assay desoribed by Sibbald (1979), or a modification thereof, to measure digestibility of amino acids (AA) in feedingstuffs for poultry. The use of faecal or excreta collection assays to measure utilization of dietary AA has been frequently questioned because of the unknown effects of gut micro-organisms on AA excretion. These effects may be large with swine (Holmes et al. 1974) and thus many researchers have used ileal digesta collection to measure AA digestibility with pigs (Zebrowska, 1978). The question on significance of microbial effects is less clear with poultry. Some studies with germ-free chicks suggested that influence of the hindgut microflora on digestibility of protein and AA was significant (Salter & Coates, 1971; Elwell & Soares, 1975), whereas others indicated that these effects were small and probably negligible (Salter, Coates & Hewitt, 1974; Salter & Fulford, 1974). More recently, Parsons, Potter, Brown, Wilkins & Bliss (1982) concluded that microbial fermentation in the hindgut may have a significant effect on AA excretion by poultry, but to a much lesser extent than swine.(Received July 20 1984)