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Models of perceived cycling risk and route acceptability
Abstract
Perceived cycling risk and route acceptability to potential users are obstacles to policy support for cycling and a better understanding of these issues will assist planners and decision makers. Two models of perceived risk, based on non-linear least squares, and a model of acceptability, based on the logit model, have been estimated for whole journeys based on responses from a sample of 144 commuters to video clips of routes and junctions.
The risk models quantify the effect of motor traffic volumes, demonstrate that roundabouts add more to perceived risk than traffic signal controlled junctions and show that right turn manoeuvres increase perceived risk. Facilities for bicycle traffic along motor trafficked routes and at junctions are shown to have little effect on perceived risk and this brings into question the value of such facilities in promoting bicycle use. These models would assist in specifying infrastructure improvements, the recommending of least risk advisory routes and assessing accessibility for bicycle traffic.
The acceptability model confirms the effect of reduced perceived risk in traffic free conditions and the effects of signal controlled junctions and right turns. The acceptability models, which may be used at an area wide level, would assist in assessing the potential demand for cycling and in target setting.
... In the field of cycling studies, there is a well-established and growing body of work investigating and modelling cyclist perceived risk and 'risk' behaviour (Aldred, 2016;Bösehans & Massola, 2018;Chataway et al., 2014;Lawson et al., 2013;Kummeneje & Rundmo, 2020;Manton et al., 2016;McCarthy, 2011;Ng et al., 2017;Parkin et al., 2007;Sanders, 2015;Winters et al., 2012). Researchers in this field have investigated perceived risk and 'risk' behaviour using relatively taken-for-granted or explicitly theoretical approaches, such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour (see Kummeneje & Rundmo, 2020;Sanders, 2015), in their design, data collection approach and analysis. ...
... One strand of risk perception research in this field focuses in particular on transport infrastructure (Manton et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2017;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012), examining elements of the built environment such as roundabouts (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007), intersections (Manton et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2017;Parkin et al., 2007), mixed traffic lanes (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012), traffic volumes (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007), and segregated cycling infrastructure (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012) in relation to the perception of risk for a given sample of cyclists. Within this strand, however, matters of social interaction with other public space users have been raised. ...
... One strand of risk perception research in this field focuses in particular on transport infrastructure (Manton et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2017;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012), examining elements of the built environment such as roundabouts (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007), intersections (Manton et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2017;Parkin et al., 2007), mixed traffic lanes (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012), traffic volumes (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007), and segregated cycling infrastructure (Manton et al., 2016;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2012) in relation to the perception of risk for a given sample of cyclists. Within this strand, however, matters of social interaction with other public space users have been raised. ...
In the field of cycling studies, explicit and implicit theories of risk are frequently used for the purposes of research design, data collection, data analysis, and policy. In this article, we argue that this field may benefit from theories and concepts that speak to – but go beyond – theories of risk, and more directly focus on matters of right and recognition. Drawing on grounded theory research involving interviews with 28 cyclists in Dublin, Ireland, we analyse the ‘risk talk’ from five participant accounts through an application of the rights-orientated perspective of precarious entitlement theory. We argue for its utility as a theory, specifically as a complementary alternative to risk-focused approaches. First, we illustrate how precarious entitlement goes beyond the conceptual limits of understanding cycling experience from perspectives of ‘risk’ and ‘safety’, by consolidating a concern with ‘right’ and ‘risk’. Second, we illustrate how interpreting particular cycling practices as patterns of submission and social struggle (privatising vulnerability and provoking responsibility) can transcend individualised interpretations of such practices as ‘risk management’ and ‘risk-taking’. In the discussion, we consider the value of this theory in relation to existing research in this field, with reference to socio-cultural risk theory. In conclusion, we argue for a more transparently rights-based approach to cycle policy in light of the dominance of a specific variety of risk discourse that arguably obscures a consideration of rights to use public space and what a realisation of such rights might require from both the public and the state.
... Although cycling has environmental, social, and environmental benefits as it reduces the vehicular traffic and also has health benefits on the user, unfortunately it is recognized as one of the least safe modes of transportation since the lack of cycling lanes makes safety risks [9]. In addition, the historic districts were not originally designed with consideration of cycling, so there are problems such as lack of continuity of routes, street furniture creating obstacles, poor surfaces and materials used for pavement and lack of bicycle parking [10]. ...
... Satellite image of Freiburg, Germany[15] Fig.9 Restrictions on vehicular movement in Freiburg[22] ...
In recent approaches to heritage conservation, the whole context of historic areas becomes as important as the single historic building. This makes the provision of infrastructure and network of mobility an effective element in the urban conservation. Sustainable urban conservation projects consider the high density of activities, the need for a good quality access system to the transit system, and the importance of the configuration of the mobility network by identifying the best way to connect the different districts of the urban area through a complex unique system that helps the synergic development to achieve a sustainable mobility system. A sustainable urban mobility is a key factor in maintaining the integrity between socio-cultural aspects and functional aspects. This paper illustrates the mobility aspects, mobility problems in historic districts, and the needs of the mobility systems in the first part. The second part is a practical analysis for different mobility plans. It is challenging to find innovative and creative conservation solutions fitting modern uses and needs without risking the loss of inherited built resources. Urban mobility management is becoming an essential and challenging issue in the urban conservation projects. Depending on literature review and practical analysis, this paper tries to define and clarify the guidelines for mobility management in historic districts as a key element in sustainability of urban conservation and development projects. Such rules and principles could control the conflict between the socio-cultural and economic activities, and the different needs for mobility in these districts in a sustainable way. The practical analysis includes a comparison between mobility plans which have been implemented in four different cities; Freiburg in Germany, Zurich in Switzerland and Bray Town in Ireland. This paper concludes with a matrix of guidelines that considers both principles of sustainability and livability factors in urban historic districts.
... Some other authors stressed the importance of infrastructure dedicated to cycling. In particular, it was found that higher levels of bicycle infrastructure are positively and significantly correlated with higher rates of bicycle commuting [7], while the presence of facilities at roundabouts and junctions generally has not had a significant effect on perceived risk or acceptability of cycling [8]. The main implication is that the provision of facilities at a junction may have a counter-intuitive effect and suggest to potential cyclists that the junction is riskier than it might otherwise have been perceived to be. ...
... The main implication is that the provision of facilities at a junction may have a counter-intuitive effect and suggest to potential cyclists that the junction is riskier than it might otherwise have been perceived to be. Bicycle facilities along trafficked routes contribute only a little to the moderation of perceived risk, but the major component of the reducing risk perception effect is for facilities that are offroad or adjacent to the road [8]. ...
In a general urban planning context, in which sustainable active mobility progressively takes up increasing attention, studies of cyclists’ attitudes and behaviors represent a relevant step to help any enhancing measures for urban cycling. Among different categories, university student cyclists represent a still unidentified class, despite the relevant impacts in terms of mass and variability of attitudes in urban areas. The novelty of this paper is to propose an innovative overview on the specific category of university student cyclists. The integrated methodology, based on direct observation through GPS detection, GIS processing, and qualitative survey, permits the evaluation of some interesting issues related to students’ propensity to cycling and their mobility patterns. The approach finds relevance in speed, frequency of movements, routing, and related infrastructure preferences. The methodology has been applied to a sample of more than 300 students of the University of Bologna who were allowed an original university-designed bicycle from February 2021 to June 2021. The analysis was applied in the Bologna urban area and allowed the evaluation of students’ preferences of using existing cycle paths, when available, the limited relevance of speed factors, the main distribution of commuter journeys concentrated in the main avenues directed to city center, and other behaviors.
... Existing literature in motorized paratransit modes has identified different aspects of this transport area across different cities, countries, regions (Harkey & Stewart, 1997;Landis et al., 2003;Klobucar & Fricker, 2007;Parkin et al., 2007;Møller & Hels, 2008). Variables of interest often range from (but not limited to) land use characteristics, road characteristics like pavement quality and traffic signals, outside lane width, weather conditions, experience and confidence of drivers, speed and size of vehicles, trip generation and distribution potential in the surroundings, and so on (Parkin et al., 2007;Sallis et al., 2006;Bopp et al., 2012;Lawson et al., 2013;Nikitas, 2018;Giglio yet al., 2021). ...
... Existing literature in motorized paratransit modes has identified different aspects of this transport area across different cities, countries, regions (Harkey & Stewart, 1997;Landis et al., 2003;Klobucar & Fricker, 2007;Parkin et al., 2007;Møller & Hels, 2008). Variables of interest often range from (but not limited to) land use characteristics, road characteristics like pavement quality and traffic signals, outside lane width, weather conditions, experience and confidence of drivers, speed and size of vehicles, trip generation and distribution potential in the surroundings, and so on (Parkin et al., 2007;Sallis et al., 2006;Bopp et al., 2012;Lawson et al., 2013;Nikitas, 2018;Giglio yet al., 2021). The dominance of informal public transport has been reported by researchers especially in developing countries which are characterized by fast-growing population, low per capita income, deficient and poorly managed transport infrastructure (Shimazaki & Rahman, 1996). ...
Tricycles constitute a major component of the informal transport system in many Nigerian cities. Their operation is fast becoming a parody of urban living and as such, requires urgent regulatory attention. The paper examined the perception of comfort that passengers derive from the use of tricycles for urban mobility in Calabar metropolis, Nigeria. The study modeled different comfort levels based on demographic characteristics of the passengers, as derived from its use. Questionnaire and data from CRDoPT and other published materials were used to make inferences on the study. Analyses were by descriptive and inferential statistics. Ordinal regression analysis using the PLUM method in SPSS analyzed data where the null hypothesis that there is no statistical relationship between passenger demographic parameters and the feeling of comfort from the use of the tricycle in Calabar, was rejected. The feeling of comfort of the tricycle mode users is observed to be dependent (p < .05) on the education (p = .000); monthly income (p = .001); occupation (p = .046); and marital status (p = .003) on the respondents. The study recommended among other things, regulatory policies that are expected to enhance an effective modal regulation that promotes a safe and comfortable use of the mode. Registration and creation of an accurate database of the tricycle operators and operations in order to formalize tricycle operation can enhance the confidence of use and boost comfort levels of passengers.
... However, this gap seems to grow smaller over time [2,10]. Research has also found that men consider cycling more acceptable than women [43]. Figure 2d shows that the CWI of respondents living in northern Norway is less affected by increasing rolling resistances than people from the rest of the country. ...
... Simultaneously, they are significantly more affected than the respondents between the age of 36 and 65. This agrees with the analyses by Parkin et al. [43], who found that young people and older people consider the risk of cycling in cities to be higher than those in the age band 35 to 44 years. Why the cyclists aged between 35 and 65 in this study are least affected by increasing rolling resistances can also be explained by the differences in CWI for people living in different climatic regions, indicating that cyclists with a vast winter cycling experience are less affected by increased rolling resistances due to snow and ice. ...
Harsh winters reduce utilitarian cycling in many cities. Using an online survey, we examined how increasing rolling resistance due to snow and ice affect people’s cycling willingness. The respondents (N = 1318) reported their willingness to cycle on various winter cycling conditions presented in photos. The answers were compared to the rolling resistance levels on the presented conditions, measured in a previous study. Respondents’ cycling willingness dropped from 91.2% at very low to 18.3% at very high rolling resistances. The cyclist’s age, gender, local climate, winter cycling experience and studded tire use affected the cycling willingness significantly. Electric bike usage did not affect cycling willingness. “Summer-only” cyclists did not cycle during the winter due to low temperatures (29%), lacked feeling of safety (27%), bicycle wear (17%), increased travel time (17%) and increased physical effort (10%). Hence, lower rolling resistance and increased use of studded tires can increase the cycling frequency of existing winter cyclists. To recruit new winter cyclists, the surface conditions should not only offer a low rolling resistance but should also be perceived as safe and comfortable.
... Consequently, there is a rich body of research geared towards identifying individual and infrastructural factors that contribute to the risk of cycling crashes (e.g., Aldred, Goodman, Gulliver, & Woodcock, 2018;Prati, Puchades, Angelis, Fraboni, & Pietrantoni, 2018;Vandenbulcke, Thomas, & Int Panis, 2014). And indeed, the risk associated with typical urban traffic conditions has been found to be one of the major deterrents to cycling (Aldred, 2016;Parkin, Wardman, & Page, 2007;Winters, Davidson, Kao, & Teschke, 2011). The volume, speed and proximity of cars, the availability of designated cycling lanes, as well as the individual cyclist's demographics and experience are among the most prominent factors affecting subjective risk perception. ...
... Most studies on this topic base their conclusions on questionnaires. Parkin et al. (2007) assessed the perceived cycling risk for complete routes. Chaurand and Delhomme (2013) instructed participants to imagine themselves in several prototypical traffic situations, and to rate the probability of being involved in a crash in such a situation within the next three years. ...
In this research, we investigate how gaze behavior during urban cycling is affected by subjective risk perception and the local spatial configuration. For this purpose, participants cycled at five defined test locations while wearing a mobile eye tracking system. Next to the fixation duration, we extracted sight vector lengths (i.e., the distance between the current body location and the gaze location) and gaze angles (i.e., the degree to which the gaze deviates from the current travel direction). Concerning risk perception, participants provided a hazard estimate for each test location, as well as information about specific areas they experienced as dangerous. This information was aggregated into a local hazard level across all participants. Finally, the vista space (i.e., the space visible from the current position during a fixation) was quantified via isovist analysis. The results imply that spatially open locations, extending about equally into all directions, increase the level of perceived risk. Depending on the local spatial properties, participants also gaze into different directions, rather than further ahead and into their travel direction. Higher cycling experience and greater familiarity with a location enabled a more foresighted and focused gaze behavior. Our findings underline the importance to provide cyclists not only with enough space and with unobstructed views, but also to limit the space they are required to distribute their attention to.
... Naturalistic and semi-naturalistic approaches are often used. These approaches focus on more quantitative methods to capture human responses to risky environments, such as using physiological data using wearable sensors [16], showcasing cycling videos [17], use of virtual reality [18], or eye tracking devices [19]. Yet, these approaches are often not scalable as they are time-consuming and resource-intensive, require precise preparation and monitoring of special devices, or may require individual training. ...
Today, many cities seek to transition to more sustainable transportation systems. Cycling is critical in this transition for shorter trips, including first-and-last-mile links to transit. Yet, if individuals perceive cycling as unsafe, they will not cycle and choose other transportation modes. This study presents a novel approach to identifying how the perception of cycling safety can be analyzed and understood and the impact of the built environment and cycling contexts on such perceptions. We base our work on other perception studies and pairwise comparisons, using real-world images to survey respondents. We repeatedly show respondents two road environments and ask them to select the one they perceive as safer for cycling. We compare several methods capable of rating cycling environments from pairwise comparisons and classify cycling environments perceived as safe or unsafe. Urban planning can use this score to improve interventions' effectiveness and improve cycling promotion campaigns. Furthermore, this approach facilitates the continuous assessment of changing cycling environments, allows for a short-term evaluation of measures, and is efficiently deployed in different locations or contexts.
... Shorter lateral distances and higher speeds of motorized vehicles overtaking bicycles are often associated with higher cyclist discomfort (7-9) and an increased accident severity (38)(39)(40). As indicated in the literature, the high perception of risk resulting from this situation produces a psychological barrier that keeps people away from adopting bicycles as a means of transport (3,10,11). Therefore, the present research aimed to identify and measure the factors that possibly influence the lateral distance and speed of motorized vehicles overtaking bicycles. The proposed monitoring device effectively measured lateral distance, geographical coordinates, and bicycle speed for all the overtaking events. ...
This research analyzed the factors influencing lateral distance and speed of motorized vehicles overtaking cyclists. The measurement apparatus consisted of an instrumented bicycle equipped with an ultrasonic sensor, a speed radar, GPS devices and a GoPro camera. The experiment was carried out along a predetermined route in the urban area of Londrina, in the state of Paraná, Brazil. A total of 36 tours were performed, wherein 2032 overtaking maneuvers were identified. Several factors were regressed on two dependent variables, namely the overtaking speed and the lateral distance, within a path analysis modeling framework to assess their contributions to the cyclist safety. The presence of painted bike lanes was shown to be the most important aspect, as lateral clearance increased by an average 31 cm compared with that for streets without this intervention. It should be noted though that this effect is higher for lanes with larger widths, with practically no influence on narrower lanes. Larger lateral distances were found in wider streets, whereas heavier vehicles and higher speed limits were associated with faster overtaking maneuvers. The most critical factor was related to cycling in commercial city zones where the combined effects posed a greater risk to cycling (i.e., higher overtaking speeds with shorter lateral distances). These findings shed light on relevant policies to promote cyclist safety and cycling attractiveness, such as expanding cycling infrastructure, decreasing street speed limits and informing citizens about the safest cycling routes in their urban environment.
... Within the spatial context, traffic conditions and road characteristics strongly affect perceived safety. The speed and volume of motor traffic, width of a street, number of lanes, or presence of parked cars have a negative effect on cyclists' perceived safety (Parkin et al., 2007;Manton et al., 2016). Beyond interactions with motor vehicles, external conditions related to weather (snow, rain), road surfaces (slippery surfaces, debris) and low visibility decrease perceived safety (Winters et al., 2011;Kummeneje et al., 2019). ...
Electrically-assisted bicycles (E-bikes) may broaden cycling to a wider spectrum of users, territories, and trips. But what are e-bike users’ experiences of safety in a low-cycling city, and how do they vary among different users? This paper conceptualizes perceived safety based on vélomobility as the meeting point between users with specific characteristics (age, gender, etc.) and an environment more or less amenable to cycling. It is based on data from a survey of 1260 e-bike users who received a subsidy in Lausanne, Switzerland. We use 13 variables to measure perceived safety, finding 3 components: comfort for cycling in different situations, satisfaction with cycling conditions, and barriers to e-bike use. Based on these components, we identify four groups of e-bike users: (1) confident all-rounders, (2) recreational on-roaders, (3) worried traffic-avoiders and (4) unconfident path-users. We find gender and age to be the main factors associated with being a member of a group with lower perceived safety. Low weekly frequency of e-bike use, reduced winter e-bike use, and cycling for recreational trips exclusively also reduce perceived safety. Despite the benefits of electrical assistance compared to conventional bicycles, low safety due to unwelcoming road conditions remains a major concern for many e-bike users.
... In Barcelona, the main deterrent factor is interaction with motorized traffic, and it is especially critical in the most congested streets, as well as the area around the eastern part of Sant Martí. This supports the need for providing infrastructure that not only enable cycling but also encourages it by making it safe and having cyclists perceive it as such (Handy and Xing, 2011;Parkin et al., 2007). Previous research such as Kamel et al. (2020) had already established that safety from motorized traffic was an important attribute to incorporate to the index, and our results fully agree with that assessment. ...
Background
Many cities are putting cycling at the centre of their sustainable transportation policies after the COVID pandemic. Cycling is seen as a desirable mode of transport in dense and compact areas and needs to be promoted accordingly. However, to date, only a handful of different bikeability indexes exist attempting to map biking conditions and the built environment’s potential to promote biking as a modal choice on a city scale.
Methods
In this article, we use objective GIS data to map bikeability potential in the city of Barcelona. To do so we extracted the main bikeability components from an adhoc cycling survey and then create an index using ten spatial indicators. This bikeability index is mapped at a 100 × 100 m scale in the city of Barcelona. We then use actual travel behavior data extracted from a local representative travel survey to test the reliability of the index in predicting daily bike use.
Results
Results confirm the validity of the bikeability index as a predictor of the frequency of cycling. People living in areas with higher levels of built environment features associated with bikeability such as dedicated infrastructure, low accident rates and small slopes are more likely to use the bike more often.
Conclusions
Results validate our approach providing new methods to be used in further biking studies and a useful tool for policy and decision making. The use of our new bikeaiblity index is especially indicated for highly-dense, compact, Mediterranean-style cities.
... Isso está relacionado ao fato de que, na ausência de infraestrutura, os ciclistas precisam compartilhar vias com veículos motorizados, aumentando o potencial de colisões e situações perigosas (Parkin e Meyers, 2010;Hull e O'Holleran , 2014). Parkin et al. (2007) argumentam que a ultrapassagem muito próxima da bicicleta, mesmo quando não resulta em colisões, faz com que os ciclistas se sintam inseguros e os desencoraja a pedalar. ...
Este trabalho teve como objetivo identificar os fatores que influenciam a distância lateral de ultrapassagem de bicicletas por veículos motorizados. Dados de sensores foram coletados a partir de uma bicicleta instrumentada em um percurso de rota fixa na zona urbana da cidade de Londrina-PR. Foram realizadas 36 viagens, nas quais foram identificadas 2019 manobras de ultrapassagem. Um modelo de regressão linear múltipla indicou que a distância lateral aumenta em 22 cm na presença de ciclofaixas, é 31 cm maior nas vias com largura de faixa de rolamento de 4,0 m (em relação às vias de 2,5 m de largura) e é 19 cm maior em locais com zoneamento residencial (comparado com zonas comerciais). Tais evidências podem contribuir para o debate sobre os fatores que influenciam a segurança dos ciclistas e auxiliar na proposição de políticas urbanas de fomento à mobilidade ativa.
... Indeed, motorists passing cyclists with an insufficient lateral distance is a crucial safety problem on road segments ( Johnson et al., 2010;Pai, 2011;Stone and Broughton, 2003). Even when passes with a low lateral distance do not result in a collision or critical interaction, the comfort and subjective safety of the cyclist is decreased (Beck et al., 2021), which can lead to reduced bicycle use in the long term (Parkin et al., 2007) and a decrease in the uptake of cycling (Aldred and Crosweller, 2015). ...
This chapter provides an overview of the literature about selected interactions between cyclists, pedestrians, motorists, heavy-duty vehicles, busses, pedestrians in urban areas. Hydén's Safety Pyramid is used as a framework for organizing interactions as frequent, inconsequential encounters, potential, slight and serious conflicts or crashes with varying levels of severity. The interactions are organized in this chapter by where they occur and by the interacting road user. First, cyclists’ interactions on road segments are investigated, focusing on cyclist-pedestrian interactions, interactions between cyclists and passing motorists, interactions at bus stops, and interactions between cyclists. Interactions that take place at intersections are then explored and the gap acceptance of cyclists and motorists and the problematic interactions between cyclists and heavy-duty vehicles are examined. Finally, a short overview of interactions in shared space is given. Most of the literature concerns dangerous interactions between cyclists and other road users or those at the top of Hydén's Safety Pyramid. Fewer studies were found that investigate normal encounters and the potential benefits of interacting. The chapter concludes with a discussion about the mechanisms behind dangerous interactions in general and what can be done by urban and infrastructure planners, traffic and vehicle engineers, and developers of technologies to transform dangerous interactions into normal encounters.
... According to Ewing et al. [55], there is a substantial link between cycling preference and increased urban density. In a similar study, Parkin et al. [56] discovered that urban density (as measured by proximity to work sites) was associated with the percentage of people who cycled. ...
Cycling is a particularly favoured for short urban trips because it is a healthy and environmentally benign activity. As a result, urban mobility, quality of life, and public health are enhanced, while traffic congestion and pollution are decreased. In looking beyond the street network in terms of how it affects cyclists’ behavior choices, Bill Hillier’s (1984) outstanding legacy research on spatial space syntax is investigated in this study. The goal of this study is to determine if an urban area’s street network morphology influences commuters’ inclination to ride their bicycles to work. To further understand the nonlinear consequences of street network geometry on the estimation of cycling to work, a logarithmic-transformed regression model that includes base socioeconomic components, urban form, and street network variables represented by space syntax measure factors is developed. In conclusion, this model determined that bike commuting choice is significantly associated with the centrality index of Connectivity, although this is in combination with socioeconomic factors (age, gender, affluence, housing type, and housing price) and built environment factors (share of commercial, educational activities and distance to the CBD) factors. The findings of this study would be of value to planners and policy makers in support of evidence-based policy formulation to improve the design of bicycle networks in suburban regions.
... A number of studies examined the factors preventing people from using their bikes (see Fernández-Heredia et al., 2014;Heinen et al., 2010, for overviews). One major deterrent to cycling is the perceived risk of crashes (Aldred, 2016;Parkin et al., 2007;Winters et al., 2011), which appears justified in light of the higher crash rates on bike trips as compared to car trips (Winters et al., 2012). Consequently, a rich body of research has been geared toward identifying individual and infrastructural factors that contribute to the risk of cycling crashes (e.g. ...
There is ample evidence that adequate cycling infrastructure increases cyclists' safety. There is less research to what extent the specific design of cycling lanes affects subjective safety. We address this question by analysing data from a large-scale online survey, where participants rated images illustrating a wide range of cycling infrastructure designs for the anticipated level of subjective safety when imagining to cycle at the displayed location. Cycling tracks are perceived as safer than cycling lanes, which in turn are preferred over cycling on the street. Physical separations from the car lane, a greater lane width, and a coloured surface contribute most to a high subjective safety of cycling lanes. Additional buffers on the left-and right side of cycling lanes can have varying effects. On narrower cycling lanes, people experience extensive buffer designs as rather constraining and as impairing their safety. Combining several safety features (i.e. a sufficient demarcation of the left buffer and a coloured surface) is not necessarily beneficial for subjective safety. Our findings are mostly in line with findings on the factors benefitting or impairing objective safety. However, the relation of subjective and objective safety requires further attention.
... In recent years, there has been a growing interest towards bicycles followed by an increasing number of studies on cyclist's behavior. Especially, the bicycle as a mode of transportation can reduce pressure on urban roads as stated by Parkin and Wardman (2007), use of fuel and consequently air pollution, according to Federal Highway Administration (1993), Kendrick et al. (2011) and Koorey and Mangundu (2010). Moreover, cyclist infrastructure's cost is considerably lower than other modes of transport, according to Gotschi (2011). ...
Speed and travel time of cyclists play important roles in the cyclist’s route choice and therefore there is a growing need on estimating the dynamic attributes of cyclists. Being able to quantify bicycle speeds on various facilities can help provide suitable accessibility measures based on estimates of travel time by bicycle and to calibrate and validate microsimulation models of cyclist’s behavior. Route choice and speed profiles may vary significantly among cyclists, depending on infrastructure characteristics as well as their personal characteristics (e.g., physical fitness and risk perception). The aim of this paper is to quantify how the personal and network attributes influence the cyclist’s speed, combining a big data sample of 270,000 GPS traces recorded in the city of Bologna, Italy, with a manual traffic survey. The novelty of the study regards the application to the data set of an algorithm that estimates travel times from map matched GPS traces and associates them with infrastructure attributes, after a successful validation of the data sample with manual observations and after testing its representativeness. The algorithm first estimates cyclist’s trip waiting times and those recorded on specific infrastructure elements from the GPS traces – which represents an innovation in the literature - and then obtains travel time as a difference with the trip duration. Results are sometimes different from those obtained in other studies, show a high correlation between the cyclist’s dynamic attributes and both cyclist’s typology and infrastructure attributes. The most interesting results are that average travel speed increases with road width, the number of lanes, road length and road priority. In the case study, average speeds on larger roads shared with motorized vehicles are even greater than those on separate level bikeways, which contradict previous studies. Male cyclists record on average an 11% higher speed than women, and faster cyclists have an age between 25 and 35 years old. Frequent cyclists are on average 5% faster than infrequent cyclists and cyclists even increase the average speed during rush hour of approximately 2%, without being affected by traffic congestion.
... Ma et al. [13] presented 12 risky riding behaviors and noted that illegal lane-taking and riding with others resulted in the highest likelihood of traffic accidents. Parkin et al. [17] established the model between the perceived cycling risk and route acceptability and assessed the potential demand for cycling. Existing research on risky riding behaviors mainly focuses on red-light running, not wearing helmets, risk perception, and so on. ...
Cyclists occupying motorized vehicle lanes disrupt road traffic order and increase collisions. Exploring the contributing factors could help develop countermeasures to regulate such behaviors. The purpose of this study is to explore the intrinsic features influencing the behavior of cyclists in occupying motorized vehicle lanes at different bicycle facilities. We investigated a total of 34,631 cycling behavior samples in the urban area of Pingdingshan, China. A Bayesian random parameter logit model was used to account for the unobserved heterogeneous effects. The experimental results of all bike facilities demonstrate that the bike type, dividing strip type, bike lane width, temporary on-street parking, and whether it is a working day significantly affect cyclists’ occupying motorized vehicle lane behaviors. Factors associated with unobserved heterogeneity are age, barriers dividing strip, vehicle lane numbers, bike volume, vehicle volume, and daily recording time intervals. Comparing the estimated model of five type bike lane facilities across different dividing strips, we find that cyclists have a significantly different occupying probability and the heterogeneity factors of the various bike facilities also have their focus. When the non-motorized road conditions become more open, the cyclist behavior becomes more random and the heterogeneity factors become broader.
... Surveys have been widely used as methods of studying bicyclists and pedestrians, particularly when faced with a lack of real-world data. Surveys, when composed carefully, can reliably and efficiently assess large populations of people and have been used to study a wide variety of topics including: perceived safety/comfort (Parkin et al. 2007;Chaurand and Delhomme 2013;Abadi and Hurwitz 2018), route choice (Sener et al. 2009) and crash history (Robartes and Chen 2018;Poulos et al. 2012;Yang et al. 2019). However, stated preference surveys have limitations, such as being subject to hypothetical bias where responses to hypothetical situations are not the same as they would be in real-world situations (Fitch and Handy 2018). ...
Injuries and fatalities for vulnerable road users, especially bicyclists and pedestrians, are on the rise. To better inform design for vulnerable road users, we need to conduct more studies to evaluate how bicyclist and pedestrian behavior and physiological states change in different roadway designs and contextual settings. Previous research highlights the advantages of Immersive Virtual Environment (IVE) in conducting bicyclist and pedestrian studies. These environments do not put participants at risk of getting injured, are low-cost compared to on-road or naturalistic studies and allow researchers to fully control variables of interest. In this paper, we propose a framework ORCLSim, to support human sensing techniques within IVE to evaluate bicyclist and pedestrian physiological and behavioral changes in different contextual settings. To showcase this framework, we present two case studies where we collect and analyze pilot data from five participants' physiological and behavioral responses in an IVE setting, representing real-world roadway segments and traffic conditions. Results from these case studies indicate that physiological data is sensitive to road environment changes and real-time events, especially changes in heart rate and gaze behavior. Additionally, our preliminary data indicates participants may respond differently to various roadway settings (e.g., intersections with or without traffic signal). By analyzing these changes, we can identify how participants' stress levels and cognitive load is impacted by the simulated surrounding environment. The ORCLSim system architecture can be further utilized for future studies in users' behavioral and physiological responses in different virtual reality settings.
... Surveys have been widely used as methods of studying bicyclists and pedestrians, particularly when faced with a lack of real-world data. Surveys, when composed carefully, can reliably and efficiently assess large populations of people and have been used to study a wide variety of topics including: perceived safety/comfort (Parkin et al. 2007;Chaurand and Delhomme 2013;Abadi and Hurwitz 2018), route choice (Sener et al. 2009) and crash history (Robartes and Chen 2018;Poulos et al. 2012;Yang et al. 2019). However, stated preference surveys have limitations, such as being subject to hypothetical bias where responses to hypothetical situations are not the same as they would be in real-world situations (Fitch and Handy 2018). ...
Injuries and fatalities for vulnerable road users, especially bicyclists and pedestrians, are on the rise. To better inform design for vulnerable road users, we need to conduct more studies to evaluate how bicyclist and pedestrian behavior and physiological states change in different roadway designs and contextual settings. Previous research highlights the advantages of Immersive Virtual Environment (IVE) in conducting bicyclist and pedestrian studies. These environments do not put participants at risk of getting injured, are low-cost compared to on-road or naturalistic studies and allow researchers to fully control variables of interest. In this paper, we propose a framework ORCLSim, to support human sensing techniques within IVE to evaluate bicyclist and pedestrian physiological and behavioral changes in different contextual settings. To showcase this framework, we present two case studies where we collect and analyze pilot data from five participants' physiological and behavioral responses in an IVE setting, representing real-world roadway segments and traffic conditions. Results from these case studies indicate that physiological data is sensitive to road environment changes and real-time events, especially changes in heart rate and gaze behavior. Additionally, our preliminary data indicates participants may respond differently to various roadway settings (e.g., intersections with or without traffic signal). By analyzing these changes, we can identify how participants' stress levels and cognitive load is impacted by the simulated surrounding environment. The ORCLSim system architecture can be further utilized for future studies in users' behavioral and physiological responses in different virtual reality settings.
... Cycle design guidance focuses upon improving the environment (materials) in which a bicycle is operated, and, in doing so, typically identifies five factors which have the biggest influence on cycling: 'Coherent, Direct, Attractive, Safe and Comfortable' (CROW, 2016). This approach relies upon the logic drawn from a rational decision-making process, whereby a series of factors are traded off against others, which can result in choosing a different mode if they cannot be satisfied (Parkin et al., 2007). ...
There has long been evidence of the benefit of a modal shift toward cycling can bring to meeting several pressing urban challenges including ill-health, climate change, and poor air quality. In the wake of COVID-19, policy-makers have identified a modal shift toward cycling as part of the solution to mobility challenges introduced by social distancing measures. However, beyond exemplar areas, cycling has been largely characterized by a stubbornly-low modal share. In this paper, we use the ‘ordinary city’ – in cycling terms – of Liverpool as a case study to understand this. We apply practice theory in doing so, finding the provision of materials for cycling is the key factor in supporting a modal shift. Not only do they provide the means to support the practice of cycling in the city, but they also have a key role in shaping individuals perceptions of, and the skills required to cycle. We then reflect upon the utility of practice theory in understanding the patterns of everyday life, finding it was particularly well suited in understanding the interactions between different factors which influence modal choice. We go on to identify practical challenges in its application within our analysis raising questions around an inconsistent analysis of influential factors including ‘driver behavior’ and ‘political commitment’. We suggest how this might be overcome, through the isolation of such factors within a category of ‘action of others’, this we argue means the findings in this paper have broad relevance to researchers and policy-makers alike.
... Studies that do not account for the differences among cyclists remain useful, but the obtained data are limited in their interpretive conclusions. It was found that the presence or absence of bike lanes and other facilities with respect to heavy traffic routes, intersections, and roundabouts do not influence the perceived risk factors (Møller & Hels, 2008;Parkin et al., 2007). This inconsistency in the outcomes might be due to the fact that such studies did not account for the skill level or age group. ...
Over the last decade, there has been a growing number of individuals using cycling for transport. However, a fraction of workers in the United States of America (USA) are riding bicycles for commuting due to different risk and need factors. Cycling still has serious obstacles to be utilized as alternative transportation. Therefore, there is a need to have a better understanding of the perceived risk/need factors among cyclists. This survey study clarifies the awareness among cyclists of different categories of Risk/Need Factors (RNF) and it contributes to a better understanding of the differences in perceived risks/needs within age groups, genders, and skill levels. An online survey was conducted that included three main categories of Risk/Need Factors (RNF) related to cycling: infrastructure-related, traffic-related, and facility-related. Mean Score Analysis and Ordered Probit Model were used to examine the differences in risk/need perception among cyclists of different ages, genders, and skill levels. According to the study outcomes, older cyclists are influenced more than young cyclists with the infrastructure-related RNF's. Moreover, gender was not statistically significant when related to perceived RNF. Also, it was found that there are significant differences in the RNF's among cyclists' skill levels, infrastructure-related, and facility-related. The study findings emphasize the importance of improving cyclists' safety and promoting cycling for transportation. Meanwhile, beginner-skilled cyclists are more likely to be influenced by infrastructure-related RNF when compared to other skill levels. The findings of this study give clarifications for potential issues that contribute to a better understanding of the differences in perceived risks/needs among age groups, genders, and skill levels. This reflects among the efforts to promote cycling safety and support cycling for transportation. Therefore, policymakers and city planners should consider the differences in RNF's in developing cycling infrastructures and traffic management. This allows the urban street system to operate more efficiently, safely, and reliably for all users. Which will enhance the safety awareness of cyclists, reduce the risk factors in the long run, and play a leading role in increasing the number of cyclists.
... For instance, the perceived risk of crashing in private transport encourages a shift to public transport (Nordfjaern et al., 2014;Nguyen-Phuoc et al., 2018). Also, there are reports that perceptions of risk influence risk-taking behaviour as well as route choice behaviour (Oviedo--Trespalacios and Scott-Parker, 2017;Parkin et al., 2007;Oviedo-Trespalacios et al., 2020a). In the ride-sourcing service context, Acheampong (2021) identified different factors affecting passenger safety and security, including identification of driver and vehicle, trackability and traceability, exposure to malicious and criminal activities, privacy, app security, emergency use and driver behaviour which could have implications on customers' purchasing behaviour. ...
The present study quantitatively investigates the influence of booking app-related risk and vehicle & driver-related risk on ride-sourcing passengers' trust, satisfaction and loyalty. A conceptual model was developed and tested with data collected from 545 ride-sourcing users in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The findings indicated that perceived vehicle & driver-related risk directly affected passengers' satisfaction and loyalty significantly. At the same time, trust mediated the relationships between perceived booking app-related risks and satisfaction and loyalty. These findings enable practitioners and policymakers to better prioritise risk dimensions when developing strategies to increase passengers' trust, satisfaction and loyalty. Finally, the insights provided in this investigation can be used as a guide for ride-sourcing companies to improve risk manangement and risk communication efforts to increase patronage.
... The built environment can likewise hinder trip generation, with certain features discouraging the presence of cyclists. A visible example are busy roads with motorised traffic which cyclists generally dislike due to perceptions of route safety (Parkin et al. 2007). Such a reaction is observed in the work of Faghih-Imani et al. (2014), where the length of major roads within the vicinity of bikeshare stations is associated with reductions to trip production and attraction. ...
This paper investigates the spatial demand for bikesharing through the application of a series of trip generation models for the London Bicycle Sharing Scheme (LBSS). The production of trips from and the arrival of trips at scheme stations are evaluated in reference to how they connect with features of the built environment, demographics of the resident and workplace populations, and attributes of the scheme's structure. A spatial econometrics approach is taken to specify the models, with four different time windows considered throughout the day for all trips taken during 2016. The built environment features show a consistent pattern of results in the model, indicating that proximity to cycling infrastructure, rail stations, parks, university facilities, as well as the density of shops and conventional roads in the vicinity of stations is linked with trip generation rates. The presence of males and Caucasians are associated with higher station demand, aligning with other work on the introduction of new mobility solutions elsewhere, though we do find that greater distances to work tend to depress use. Trip generation is also reduced at the minority of stations located south of the River Thames, indicating that the presence of natural barriers can affect the operation of schemes. The results carry implications for scheme integration in other cities.
... Cyclists' perception of risk regarding safety outcomes is deemed to shape mode choice (Puchades et al. 2018;Ul-Abdin et al. 2019). Specifically, the risk of having a crash is found to be one of the most frequently mentioned deterrents to cycling (Parkin et al. 2007;Heinen et al. 2010), including among those who cycle regularly (Bauman et al. 2008). Authors have shown that when people are asked to rate their chances of experiencing certain illnesses, accidents, and other problems, it is essential to address the unrealistic optimism bias (Friedman 2011) thus assessing risk perception in comparison to an average peer of the same age and gender. ...
This study uses cluster analysis on a sample of regular cyclists from six European countries (the U.K., the Netherlands, Sweden, Hungary, Italy, and Spain) to shed light on common cycling patterns, demographic characteristics, and attitudes. Participants completed an online survey on cycling behaviour, attitudes towards cycling, discomfort while cycling in mixed traffic, cycling environment and comparative cycling risk perception. A two-step cluster analysis was performed to identify segments of cyclists based on cycling patterns, and a multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to profile the segments. The two-step cluster analysis yielded three components. Leisure-time cyclists cycled almost exclusively for leisure/training, had a clear preference for car use relative to bicycle, and low riding frequency. Resolute Cyclists were characterised by a high variety of cycling trip purpose, a clear preference for bicycle use relative to the car, and high riding frequency. Convenience Cyclists were characterised by cycling for personal business or leisure/train-ing but not for commuting, no evident preference for bicycle vs car, and medium riding frequency. The value of the present study is to highlight commonalities in patterns, characteristics , and attitudes of cyclists in Europe. Our study showed that cycling patterns and habits are linked to psychosocial variables such as attitudes and the cycling environment, explicitly highlighting the importance of discomfort in mixed traffic and the relationship with cycling culture.
... The existing literature in this research area also identifies manifold aspects, which vary from region to region-e.g., either cities or countries [11][12][13][14][15]. Area-and projectspecific variables include (but are not limited to) speed and size of vehicles, trip generation potential in the surroundings, driver's experience and confidence, weather conditions, number of traffic lanes and side roads, outside lane width, integration of land use and transportation planning, pavement surface quality and traffic signals [4,[16][17][18]. ...
The aim of this paper is to investigate whether and which specific, distinctive characteristics of European cycle logistics projects and the corresponding supporting policies have an impact on their economic performances in terms of profit and profitability. First, we identify project success factors by geographic area and project-specific characteristics; then, we statistically test possible dependence relationships with supporting policies and economic results. Finally, we provide a value-based identification of those characteristics and policies which more commonly lead to better economic results. This way, our work may serve as a basis for the prioritization and contextualization of those project functionalities and public policies to be implemented in a European context. We found that cycle logistics projects in Europe achieve high profit and profitability levels, and the current policies are generally working well and supporting them. We also found that profit and profitability vary across the bike model utilized: mixing cargo bikes and tricycles generates the highest profit and profitability, whilst a trailer-tricycle-cargo bike mix paves the way for high volumes and market shares.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter collected data from 374 households from rural areas in Sichuan, China, to examine the effects of the built environment on the number of cars in a household. It considered family structure, socioeconomic characteristics, and individual’s perceptions of the built environment, preferences towards the built environment and attitudes towards car ownership (shortened to perceptions, preferences and attitudes from now on). Geographic information system (GIS) technology, combined with on-site measurement, was used for data collection. The multinomial logit model was applied for estimation. Household structure and the built environment (including the perceived built environment and the objective built environment) significantly influence the number of cars in a household. By contrast, preference and attitude attributes have less influence on car ownership. Most of the findings are in line with the literature that considers Chinese urban centers. Nevertheless, new results are also found. For example, rural hukou, and building density have significant positive impacts on household car ownership in China’s rural areas, which is in contrast with their effects on cities. As the first study on rural areas in China, this research provides some insights for rural planners and policymakers to understand better the relationship between built environment and household car ownership.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter utilized a random survey in the form of a sample questionnaire in the areas most affected by the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008, combined with exploratory factor analysis and binary logistic regression analysis. Results show that residents’ BE and risk perceptions positively affected their evacuation choice behavior. Specifically, when rural residents perceived a reasonable evacuation route and good quality of village roads, they would flee their homes as soon as an earthquake struck. With regard to seismic risk perception, if the residents perceived highly negative consequences from earthquakes, they would escape immediately as soon as an earthquake occurred. This conclusion highlights the importance of strengthening the construction of BE in disaster-prone areas, and raising residents’ awareness and risk perception of earthquake disasters. This study has practical significance in further construction of earthquake-stricken areas.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter combines on-site measurement methods, geographic information system (GIS) technology, and activity diary survey to obtain basic data regarding the built environment and the daily activities of rural residents. The multinomial logit (MNL) model is used to explore the relationship between the rural built environment and the travel mode choice of rural residents. Results show that building density significantly positively affects private car trips. This finding challenges earlier urban built environment research conducted in the urban context. An increase in road density increases the travel frequency of electric bicycles and motorcycles. Accessibility perception and preferences positively affect the likelihood of choosing to walk. Safety and neighborhood harmony perception positively affect the travel frequency of motorcycles and private cars. Rural residents who prefer a safe living environment are likely to choose walking as their means of daily travel. Despite the considerable achievements in the construction of rural roads, the frequency of public transportation remains low for rural residents. Therefore, additional attention should be given to the investment and construction of public transport facilities commensurate with the level of rural urbanization.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This is a second survey, following an earlier study of rural facilities that found that the toilet was the most significant influencing factor affecting farmers’ satisfaction. The quality of rural sanitary latrines in China has been low, and the health of rural residents and the environmental sanitation in rural areas has not been effectively guaranteed. Factor analysis and logistic regression models are used to study the current situation of rural household latrines, rural residents’ satisfaction and its influencing indicators within Sichuan. This research led to three key findings: (1) the present situation of rural household latrine construction in Sichuan is less than ideal; (2) rural residents are relatively satisfied with rural household latrines; (3) rural residents’ satisfaction is affected mainly by village committee performance, response time, the quality of latrine construction, transparency of village affairs, sources and subsidies of funds, construction participants and construction methods. Results of this study lay a foundation for further research regarding rural household latrines, and provide a theoretical basis for the construction and reform of rural household latrines in Sichuan.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This study revised the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) model and selected a performance appraisal index for rural infrastructure based on this revised model. Then, the study adopted an interpretive structural model (ISM), analyzed the influence of each index factor, and developed a hierarchical directed graph. Finally, based on the mutual-influence relationships among the index factors in the hierarchical directed graph, a performance appraisal analytic network process (ANP) model was established. Based on discussions with rural college students and rural households in Sichuan, China, 246 questionnaires were obtained pertaining to rural infrastructure, and an empirical analysis was conducted. The results indicated that the performance of rural infrastructure construction is not very good. In particular, the full use of infrastructure and its role in improving the environment were found to be the worst. Meanwhile, the possibility of building information transparency and the longitudinal comparison of perceived performance appraisal results were the best. The performance of rural infrastructure construction was evaluated based on the perceptions of the direct users of rural infrastructure, and the relationship between the factors and the weight was measured reasonably. The proposed method was found to be workable and the analysis results reliable and effective.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter contributes to the understanding of the impacts of the rural built environment on travel-related CO2 emissions by considering the mediating effects of household car ownership, travel frequency, travel distance, and individual travel attitudes through structural equation modeling. The travel data were collected from an activity diary survey in rural Sichuan. Geographic information system technology, combined with on-site measurement, was used to obtain data on the built environment. After controlling for socio-demographic factors, the model results confirm that all built environment variables have a significant total impact on car ownership, travel distance, travel frequency, and travel emissions. Specifically, residents living in villages with more accessible markets, better roads, and higher building density travel shorter distances and consequently generate less CO2. Meanwhile, residents living in villages with a centralized living style and higher transit and destination accessibility, travel less frequently but emit more CO2. Individual travel attitudes have a limited effect on travel behavior and CO2 emissions. This study suggests that planners and policymakers should consider shortening the distance between destination/transit and residential areas and increasing road and building densities. Moreover, promoting the construction of cycling facilities and separate bicycle lanes to encourage rural residents to ride electric bicycles, bicycles, and motorcycles, will reduce transport CO2 emission in Chinese rural areas.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
The disparity between construction targets and the real needs of farmers in the construction of rural facilities is a problem that has led to a failure in meeting farmers’ demands. This chapter investigates farmers’ satisfaction and the influencing factors of rural facilities through factor analysis and logit regression model. This research led to three key findings: (1) overall satisfaction of farmers of rural facilities is below average level; (2) farmers’ satisfaction is affected mainly by the horizontal comparison, road facilities, electricity and signal facilities, reconstruction of public toilets, irrigation facilities, cultural and recreational facilities, renovation of fuel and kitchen, healthy facilities, village planning and renovation, and income factor; (3) farmers’ needs are shifting from production to life type. This paper is the foundation of further analysis of the effects of significant factors on farmers’ satisfaction, providing a theoretical basis for the construction of a “bottom-up” and “top-down” decision-making mechanism.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter systematically overviews the current state of research on the built environment and its impact on residents’ daily activity behavior. It comprises an overview of the research background of this book, the theoretical basis of traffic behavior and the concept of built environment and measurement indexes. It considers the impact of the built environment on household car ownership, residential self-selection, travel preferences and water conservation behaviors. Additionally, the emergency preparedness of residents with regard to seismic and flood disasters are provided. These themes constitute a research framework from which further detailed research analysis proceeds in the subsequent chapters of this book.
... This implication is crucial for the future transition to a sustainable city. Evidently, promoting active transportation through bicycling and walking is recognized as among the effective methods to build an environment-friendly and healthy city (Handy and Xing 2011;Parkin et al. 2007). In the past two decades, cities and metropolitan areas in the US have used a significant proportion of their federal funds to improve their respective bicycling systems (Handy and McCann 2011). ...
This chapter takes rural residents from four villages in Chengdu as the research object in order to conduct research on the impact of building features and attitudes to water conservation. A total of 165 valid questionnaires are collected after face-to-face interviews. First, descriptive analysis is used to analyze the current situation of rural residents’ water conservation behavior. Second, exploratory factor analysis and the binary logistic regression model are used to explore the relationship between building characteristics, water conservation attitudes, and water conservation behavior. Results show that: (1) rural residents’ water conservation attitude plays an important role in water conservation behavior; with “environmental values” being the most significant factors, followed by “saving money and joint participation;” (2) rural building characteristics such as layout of the kitchen and shower facilities significantly affect the water conservation behavior of rural residents. Based on the analysis, several suggestions are offered for improving water-saving in rural Chengdu. These are strengthening the publicity and education of water-saving behavior, and subsidizing water-saving facilities. This research provides a theoretical basis for local government departments to formulate relevant policies, and serves as a reference for the protection of water resources in other rural areas.
... The supply-based determinants can include the data on demographics, level of safety, characteristics of public transportation, road characteristics and existing bicycle routes as these provide available conditions for cycling (Rybarczyk and Wu 2010). Sense of safety, for instance, can also relate to characteristics of the built environment in terms of crime rates, street network lighting and separation of routes from motorized traffic (Allen-Munley et al. 2004, Parkin et al. 2007). ...
As a case study about İzmir (the third biggest metropolitan city in Turkey), this paper focuses on how to determine bicycle routes in already developed built environments of densely populated cities. To do so, it identifies how to deploy certain geographic information system (GIS) tools for analyzing multilayered spatial data not only at the city but also at the neighborhood level. When interrelating multiple characteristics of majorly topography, land use and population with each other, the study deploys mainly the overlay analysis and also network analysis as complementary to each other respectively at the city level and the neighborhood level. The results confirms that the use of these GIS tools for analyzing socio-spatial data especially at multiple spatial scales can support policy-makers' decision-makings about route choices in the immediate future of their city even in a "data-poor" context," such as Turkey. ÖZ İzmir (Türkiye'nin üçüncü büyük metropol kenti) hakkında bir örnek olay incelemesi olarak gelişen bu makale, yoğun nüfuslu şehirlerin hali hazırda gelişmiş yapılı çevrelerinde, bisiklet rota-larının nasıl belirleneceğine odaklanmaktadır. Bunu yapmak için, sadece şehirde değil mahalle düzeyinde çok katmanlı mekansal verilerin analizi için, birtakım coğrafi bilgi sistemi (GIS) araçlarının nasıl kullanılacağını açıklamaktadır. Çalışma, büyük ölçüde topoğ-rafya, arazi kullanımı ve nüfusun özelliklerini birbirleriyle ilişkilen-dirirken, temel olarak şehir düzeyinde çakıştırma (overlay) analizi ve ve mahalle düzeyinde tamamlayacı olarak ağ analizini uygular. Sonuçlar, bu CBS araçlarının Türkiye gibi "veri yetersiz" bağlam-larda, sosyo-mekansal verileri çoklu mekansal ölçeklerde analiz etmek için kullanılmasının, mekansal politika üretiminde, özellikle ulaşım-rota planlaması konusunda, destekleyici mekanizmalar ol-duğunu doğrulamaktadır.
Understanding the determinants of cycling and thus creating optimal cycling conditions is still a challenge. The current study addresses this challenge by providing in-depth exploration of attributes of bicycle infrastructure, traffic volume, gradients, urbanisation degrees in stimulating cycling for various population categories. Participants had to cycle in a simulated VR environment mirroring the streetscape of a real Dutch city. The cognitive (e.g., safety perception) and affective (e.g., enjoyment, attractiveness) response was measured, real time.
The results suggest that various attributes impact the cognitive and affective components to different extents. In particular, bicycle path presence and intersection absence had a positive impact on safety perception. Greenness of the environment contributed for lifting the attractiveness of the cycling experience. Hight car traffic had a negative impact on the way safety, enjoyment and attractiveness of cycling was perceived. Current outcomes should be implemented in creating bicycle infrastructure that appropriately meets the demand for attractive cycling experience that is safe and enjoyable for all.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss guidance and tools for decision-making and planning. The discussion starts with methods to assess policy, strategy and program level development. This is followed by the technical processes that include mode and route choice modeling that feed into network planning. Design and operational appraisal tools are then considered and they include visualization tools, the modeling of interactions and the operation of the network. As part of a discussion of scheme appraisal, the important topic of the evaluation of health benefits is considered, after which there is a discussion of the generic cost-benefit analysis and multicriteria analysis methodologies. Level of service assessment and auditing is considered before finally turning to monitoring and evaluation.
Due to their ability to reduce conflict points, roundabouts are considered one of the safest infrastructure typologies for motorized traffic. While the increase in drivers’ safety was largely demonstrated, and some efforts were spent on the side of cyclists, pedestrian safety was not extensively analysed. The present paper analyses pedestrian safety at roundabouts set in two different locations, Italy and Slovenia. This research highlights differences and similarities in pedestrian behavior at the same infrastructure typology, considering the effects risen by diverse road habits. Starting from footages recorded at the two locations, behavioral analysis and a proactive safety analysis are run. Statistical tests are developed to compare the two data samples. Behavioral results show for both locations faster pedestrian paces than expected. As for safety, the surrogate safety measures’ percentages overcoming the thresholds for dangerous events underline the need to find solutions from both the infrastructural side and pedestrian safety awareness.
As roundabouts become increasingly common, there is very limited research about bicycle safety at roundabouts and, specifically, a lack of information about preferences for roundabouts among people bicycling. To address this gap, we conducted a discrete choice experiment involving an online survey of 613 US adult bicyclists to understand stated preferences for roundabouts with different design and operational characteristics: central island size, number of circulating lanes, bicycle facility type, motor vehicle volumes, and approach speed limit. For each respondent, the experiment included six (from among 18) choices between two roundabouts with different attributes, represented using text and simulated images. We analyzed these data using panel mixed multinomial logit models with random and systematic preference heterogeneity due to respondent characteristics. Overall, US bicyclists seem to prefer roundabouts with: smaller central islands, fewer travel lanes, lower traffic volumes, lower speed limits, and separated bicycle lanes; although, shared lane bicycle markings and signs were also preferred over bicycle ramps to the sidewalk or no bicycle facilities. Additionally, there were significant variations in preferences for bicycle facilities at roundabouts. Women, infrequent cyclists, and “interested but concerned” cyclists had stronger preferences for separated bicycle lanes, but “strong and fearless” and/or “enthused and confident” cyclists had significantly weaker preferences for these more protected facilities. This research offers insights into bicycling preferences that may help to create roundabouts that are safer and more attractive for people bicycling of all ages and abilities.
Motorized traffic discourages cycling, but the relative influence of different aspects of traffic intensity on commuter cycling rates is under examined. This paper investigates these influences. It employs census data that describes the origins, destinations and mode choices of commuters traveling 2–5 km in Surrey, UK (n = 172,665) and derives the shortest cycling route available for each commuter. Observed and modeled transport data are used to characterize traffic on these routes. The relationship between route-level traffic characteristics and the probability a commuter chooses to cycle is then examined using logit models for all commuters, males (42%) and females (58%). Two models consider the following aspects of traffic intensity both along the cycling route and crossing (intersecting) the route at junctions: speed, volume and the proportion of heavy goods vehicles. The models also consider the influence of separated cycle paths, hilliness and distance. Above-median traffic speeds (>29 km/h) along a commuting route is shown to have the greatest negative influence on cycling propensity, followed by above-median traffic volumes (>273 veh/h) and above-median speeds (in combination) crossing the commuting route. Cycle paths have a positive influence on cycling propensity, whereas the proportion of heavy goods vehicles does not show a significant relationship. The results imply that careful management of traffic at the route scale or the provision of separated cycle paths could encourage cycling on key commuting corridors. The relative influence of different characteristics could also identify the optimal locations for intervention. Findings support 30 km/h (20 mph) speed limits as a mechanism for encouraging cycling.
The Level of Traffic Stress (LTS) framework is widely used to assess the suitability of roadway environments for cycling. Its main strength is the identification of infrastructure characteristics that meet the needs of different cyclist groups. The four levels of infrastructure ratings, LTS 1 to LTS 4, roughly map to the cyclist types defined by the Four Types of Cyclist typology. Despite its popularity, the LTS framework has several limitations, including reliance on a cyclist typology that was developed subjectively, and a lack of empirical evidence to define thresholds between levels. This work builds on our previous empirically-based findings that cyclists form three groups rather than four: Uncomfortable or Uninterested, Cautious Majority, and Very Comfortable Cyclists. We use survey data from Edmonton, Canada, to update the LTS framework such that levels match the three types of cyclists. Direct infrastructure ratings, binary logistic regression, and route choice data provide the empirical foundation to determine infrastructure characteristics that are suitable for the three types of cyclists. This adjusted framework is called Level of Cycling Comfort (LCC). We apply the framework to Edmonton and compare connectivity outcomes using both LTS and LCC frameworks. Overall, the LCC framework yields more conservative estimates of connectivity.
A cyclist is a vulnerable road user whose interaction with the road infrastructure depends on several factors, including variable environmental conditions of lighting and meteorological road surface. This paper is concerned with nanoscopic crash modelling under the riskiest environmental conditions. There are very few works in the literature dealing with such modelling. An intelligent methodological framework consisting of the data collection unit and a knowledge processing unit (KPU) is proposed. In the knowledge processing unit, a combination of a) Statistical, b) Data learning and c) Casual inference methods are applied for investigating crashes on the study area of Tyne and Wear county in North-East of England. Three predictive nanoscopic road safety models are constructed (with 86% accuracy) using a) Spatial, b) Personal, and c) Infrastructure input variables. The importance of each of the identified input variable is estimated by deep learning and statistically validated through chi-square test and Cramer’s
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statistic. It is found that unsafeness of interaction between rider and infrastructure depends on lighting and road surface meteorological conditions. Different environmental conditions present a varying degree of risk to different types of infrastructure. The riskiest environment conditions are significantly affected by rider’s gender and age, traffic flow regime, specific riding manoeuvre, and the road hierarchy difference. The increase in the number of variables, a rider encounters during his entire trip, imparts risky riding behaviour, affecting its safe interaction with the infrastructure. A novel infrastructure variable, i.e. ‘functional road hierarchy level and direction’ introduced in this work, is found to be a critical road safety variable. A shift in road safety analysis towards nanoscopic modelling can help achieve zero-vision road traffic fatality. The study reinforces the need to plan and design infrastructure to move towards a more holistic approach while considering this vulnerable road user’s limitations.
Cycling cities have one point in common: they are characterized by high levels of “filtered permeability” (FP), a principle that still isn’t widely known or studied. In these cities, a cyclist’s freedom of movement is considerably greater than a motorist’s. The objective of this article is to highlight and operationalize this principle for the first time. For this purpose, a FP index has been developed and calculated in 60 cities throughout the world. The results demonstrate that the freedom of movement of a cyclist in a European city is on average 44% greater than a motorist’s, which is a FP level about three times greater than what was measured in the other geographic areas studied (South and Central America, North America, Asia and Oceania). As other well-known factors (e.g. safety, accessibility, traffic calming measures), FP could be an effective dimension to create a conducive urban environment for cycling and thus, promote more sustainable mobility behaviours.
In Australia, cycling hospitalisations are increasing and the cycling participation rate is stagnating. In an effort to improve cyclist safety, many Australian jurisdictions have mandated a minimum passing distance that vehicles much provide when overtaking a cyclist on a public road, including the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). However, it is not currently clear how vehicle-cyclist passing distances are affected by various parameters such as the road environment, the vehicles involved, or the speed limit. This naturalistic bicycle riding study examined data from passing distance measurement devices that were installed on the bicycles of volunteer cyclists who ride in the ACT, to explore how passing distances and compliance with the minimum passing distance were affected by several parameters. Over a four-week period, 23 volunteer cyclist participants undertook 465 journeys and travelled 6531 km over a total period of 271 h. There were 10,959 passing events identified on roads zoned greater than 60 km/h (high speed roads) of which 1349 (12.3 %) were non-compliant. On roads zoned 60 km/h or less (low speed roads) there were 5517 passing events of which 153 (2.8 %) were non-compliant. Regression analyses showed that differences in passing distance and non-compliance with the minimum passing distance were associated with road classification, bike lane presence, and speed limit. The results were mixed but, in general, passing distances were greater on roads with a lower (hierarchy) classification and on motorways as well as on roads with higher speed limits. An exception to this was roads with a speed limit of 50 km/h where passing distances were closer in comparison to roads with a speed limit of 60 km/h. Bike lanes were generally associated with an increase in passing distance except on ‘trunk’ classified roads, where a bike lane resulted in closer passing events. This suggests that on trunk roads, which are assumed to carry large amounts of traffic, bike lanes may be insufficient to offer protection to cyclists and additional measures may be required.
As roundabouts become increasingly popular, and as many communities promote bicycle use, the safety of roundabouts for people bicycling is of major concern. Although converting an intersection to a roundabout may reduce crashes overall, some research from northern Europe suggests that roundabouts may actually increase the frequency of bicycle crashes. We perform a systematic literature review on this topic, reviewing 49 different resources with empirical findings (most from Europe, some from Australia/New Zealand, few from the US). Many studies analyse (limited) bicycle crash data or observe driver/cyclist behaviours and interactions, while a few survey cyclists’ safety perceptions. Consistent with design guidance, bicycle safety performance is worse for higher-speed, multilane roundabouts and when on-roadway bike lanes are provided. Crash data and observations suggest that when cyclists “take the lane” and operate as vehicles – as is allowed or even recommended in some current design guidelines – this leads to conflicts and crashes between circulating cyclists and entering drivers who may have “looked but failed to see” (and thus failed to yield to) the cyclist. Providing separated cycle paths around the roundabout seems to be a lower-risk and more comfortable design solution, although care must be taken to encourage appropriate yielding at crossings. Future research should investigate more design features, socio-demographic characteristics, cyclist safety perceptions, and impacts outside of Europe. Studies should continue to explore ways to overcome limited bicycle crash and exposure data and to utilise naturalistic methods, driving simulators, and stated choice experiments.
Introduction
The physical and mental health benefits of cycling are well established. During the COVID-19 pandemic cycling has also presented additional health benefits by enabling social distancing compared to public transport modes. In low-cycling countries these benefits are unevenly realised, with substantial differences in cycling mode share by age and gender. In England and Wales women are four times less likely to commute by bicycle than men; and commuters aged 35–49 cycle more than other age categories.
Methods
This paper explores these demographic effects and their interactions. It uses logit models to examine the relationship between 17 determinants of cycling mode share and cycling rates for six demographic groups (males and females in age categories of 18-34, 35–49 and 50–74) across 29,694 small geographic units in England and Wales. The determinants comprise: distance; population density; cycle paths; cycle lanes; traffic density; hilliness; temperature; sun; rain; wind; wealth; lower social status; children; green votes; bicycle performance; traffic risk and parking costs.
Results
Determinants associated with physical effort (hilliness and distance) and traffic (traffic density and cycle lanes) are more important in the older age groups for both men and women. More important than the qualitative mix of determinants is their combined effect, or utility. Women require a higher threshold of utility to start cycling than men; and in higher utility environments gender differences are almost non-existent. Differences in cycling rates by age-group also reduce in higher utility environments, although the effects are less pronounced and older commuters still cycle less than other age-groups even in the highest utility environemnts.
Conclusions
The results provide insight into the relative importance of gender versus age, and illustrate that cycling rates are more strongly associated with gender than age. For both dimensions, better cycling environments are shown to be more equal cycling environments.
This chapter considers bicycle use behavior of rural residents by controlling for the socio-demographic characteristics on the bases of face-to face questionnaire survey and an on-site measurement. Exploratory factor analysis reveals three common attitudinal factors impacting cycling infrastructure, namely, bicycling ancillary facilities, bicycle lane conditions, and safety. Moreover, cycling motivation factors, are revealed, of which convenience is most prominent. Multiple linear regression is estimated. Results of the models are consistent. Individual cycling psychology and built environment factors significantly influence the acceptable cycling distance of rural residents. The socio-demographic variables are revealed to be insignificant in influencing the acceptable cycling distance, which is inconsistent with the existing literature. Research results provide a broad empirical base for the complex relationships among individual cycling psychological factors, objective and perceived built environment, and cycling behavior. This study presents the first research on bicycle use in Chinese rural areas and provides guidance for the development of effective measures in constructing ecovillages.
There is a need for methods that provide a better understanding of bicyclists’ perceived safety and preferences on currently unavailable and/or unknown bicycle facilities. Different survey methods have been used to study bicyclists’ behavior, experiences, and preferences; ranging from verbally described facilities to surveys including images and videos. Virtual Reality (VR) experiments blur the boundaries between stated preference (SP) surveys and revealed preference (RP) surveys and provide a realistic sense of design. This research introduces a novel research method in bicycling research and discusses the results of an experiment using a bicycle simulator combined with immersive VR. In total, 150 participants participated in this experiment and were asked about demographics and perceptions and preferences after bicycling in five different environments with an instrumented bicycle in VR. A 5 × 2 mixed design was used with bicycling environment as within-subject factor and pedestrian / traffic volume as between-subject factor. ANOVA tests revealed how each environment and ambient pedestrian / traffic volume affected perceived level of safety (PLOS) and willingness to bicycle (WTB). Pairwise comparison showed that participants felt safer bicycling on the segregated bicycle path compared to bicycling on the painted bicycle path on the road and roadside. There was no meaningful difference between WTB for less than 10 min and WTB for more than 10 min between bicycling on a painted bicycle path on the sidewalk and painted bicycle path on the road. PLOS and WTB ratings of men and women were not significantly different from each other. The older segment of the sample was more worried about roadside bicycling and bicycle commuters were more confident to ride on the roadside. Despite having several limitations, immersive 360-degree VR was found a powerful presentation tool to evaluate future street designs which can inform transport and urban planning.
The Florida Department of Transportation (DOT) has initiated multimodal level-of-service (LOS) methodologies, including that for the bicycle travel mode. It has already adopted a bicycle LOS methodology for the roadway segment portion of the transportation network, the Bicycle Level of Service Model. Florida DOT's ultimate goal is to develop corridor- and facilities-level LOS methodologies. Toward that goal, Florida DOT sponsored research to develop the first part of an intersection bicycle LOS methodology, the Intersection LOS for the bicycle through movement. This Intersection LOS for the bicycle through movement would provide a measure of the level of safety and comfort experienced by bicyclists riding through an intersection. The Intersection LOS model for the bicycle through movement is based on Pearson correlation analyses and stepwise regression modeling of approximately 1,000 combined real-time perceptions from bicyclists traveling a course through a typical U.S. metropolitan area's signalized intersections. The study's participants represented a cross section of age, gender, and geographic origin of the population of cyclists. Although further hypothesis testing is being conducted, the resulting general model for the Intersection LOS for the bicycle through movement is highly reliable, has a high correlation coefficient (R 2 = 0.83) with the average observations, and is transferable to the vast majority of U.S. metropolitan areas. The study reveals that roadway traffic volume, total width of the outside through lane, and the intersection (cross street) crossing distance are primary factors in the Intersection LOS for the bicycle through movement.
The primary focus of this study by Sprinkle Consulting Engineers, Inc. is to develop a bicycle-quality, or level-of-service, model for applications in U.S. metropolitan areas. Although there are several model forms being used throughout the United States that attempt to quantify road suitability or the quality of service afforded bicyclists traveling the street and roadway networks of urbanized areas, to date there have been no statistically calibrated models published. The statistically calibrated level-of-service model described here is based on real-time perceptions from bicyclists traveling in actual urban traffic and roadway conditions. The study's participants represented a cross section of age, gender, experience level, and geographic origin of the population of cyclists that use the metropolitan road networks in the United States. The test course is representative of the collector and arterial street systems of North American urban areas. Although further hypothesis testing is being conducted and additional studies are planned to test the need tor disaggregate models for central business district streets with high turnover parking, truck routes, and two-lane high-speed rural high-ways the general bicycle level-of-service model reported here is highly reliable has a high correlation coefficient (R2 = 0.73), and is transferable to the vast majority of United States metropolitan areas. The study reveals that pavement-surface conditions and striping of bicycle lanes are important factors in the quality of service.
The development of a rural bicycle compatibility index (RBCI) is described. A recent FHWA research project developed a Bicycle Compatibility Index (BCI). This index was developed for urban and suburban roadway segments, and it incorporated those variables that bicyclists typically use to assess how compatible a roadway segment is for travel by bicycle. The FHWA BCI can be used by bicycle coordinators, transportation planners, traffic engineers, and others to evaluate existing facilities. With it, they can determine what improvements may be required, as well as the geometric and operational requirements for new facilities to achieve the desired level of bicycle service. No such tool exists for the rating of rural roadway segments, however. There was work done to develop a rural equivalent of the BCI. Roadways in rural Nebraska were used to develop the RBCI. Although the specific results of this work are clearly applicable to Nebraska and other similar rural areas, the general methodology and concepts could easily be used to develop a more general RBCI that would have national applicability. An RBCI will provide bicycle coordinators, transportation planners, traffic engineers, and others with the capability to better plan and design bicycle-compatible roadways. Specifically, an RBCI model can be used for operational evaluation, design, and planning.
Long-run and short-run policies to increase the share of bicycle transportation for commuting to and from work are discussed. Analyses of data collected in the Philadelphia metropolitan area show that two general approaches can be taken to promote bicycle transportation. One is a set of policies geared to making bicycling safer and more convenient, essentially short-run ‘pro-bike’ policies. The other set is aimed at reducing the convenience of automobile commuting. This is an ‘anti-auto’ policy which can only be implemented in the long run. Since much of the sample had no choice but to commute by automobile, the impact of this constraint on the policy options is examined. In the long run it is assumed that commuters will have the choice of at least two modes by adjusting the distance between home and work locations. Specific proposals are discussed to implement some of the policies considered.
Before-and-after study methodology was developed and applied to evaluating the effect on bicyclists' safety of raising urban bicycle crossings by 4 to 12 cm. In total, 44 junctions were reconstructed in this way in Gothenburg, Sweden. Four of these were studied in detail. Before the implementations, bicyclists were riding either in the roadway or on separate paths parallel to the roadway. The paths then ended with short ramps or curb cuts at each cross street, and bicyclists used nonelevated, marked bicycle crossings, similar to pedestrian crosswalks but delineated by white painted rectangles rather than zebra stripes. The results show that the paths with raised crossings attracted more than 50 percent more bicyclists and that the safety per bicyclist was improved by approximately 20 percent due to the increase in bicycle flow, and with an additional 10 to 50 percent due to the improved layout. However, the increased bicyclist volume means that the total number of bicycle accidents is expected to increase. Besides accident analysis, the change in risk was estimated using four different methods: surveys of bicyclists and experts, respectively; conflict data; and a quantitative expert model. Using a Bayesian approach for combining the results shows that the most likely effect of raising the bicycle crossing is a risk reduction of around 30 percent, compared with the before situation with a conventional bicycle crossing. Motorists and pedestrians also saw safety benefits from this traffic-calming measure.
To examine the relationship between the numbers of people walking or bicycling and the frequency of collisions between motorists and walkers or bicyclists. The common wisdom holds that the number of collisions varies directly with the amount of walking and bicycling. However, three published analyses of collision rates at specific intersections found a non-linear relationship, such that collisions rates declined with increases in the numbers of people walking or bicycling.
This paper uses five additional data sets (three population level and two time series) to compare the amount of walking or bicycling and the injuries incurring in collisions with motor vehicles.
The likelihood that a given person walking or bicycling will be struck by a motorist varies inversely with the amount of walking or bicycling. This pattern is consistent across communities of varying size, from specific intersections to cities and countries, and across time periods.
This result is unexpected. Since it is unlikely that the people walking and bicycling become more cautious if their numbers are larger, it indicates that the behavior of motorists controls the likelihood of collisions with people walking and bicycling. It appears that motorists adjust their behavior in the presence of people walking and bicycling. There is an urgent need for further exploration of the human factors controlling motorist behavior in the presence of people walking and bicycling.
A motorist is less likely to collide with a person walking and bicycling if more people walk or bicycle. Policies that increase the numbers of people walking and bicycling appear to be an effective route to improving the safety of people walking and bicycling.
Presently, there is no methodology that is widely accepted by engineers, planners, or bicycle coordinators that will allow them to determine how compatible a roadway is for allowing efficient operation of both bicycles and motor vehicles. Determining how existing traffic operations and geometric conditions affect a bicyclist's decision to use or not use a specific roadway is the first step in determining the bicycle compatibility of the roadway. The Federal Highway Administration sponsored a study in which a methodology for deriving a bicycle compatibility index was developed. This tool can be used by bicycle coordinators, transportation planners, traffic engineers, and others to evaluate the capability of specific roadways to accommodate both motorists and bicyclists. It is intended to provide practitioners with the ability to assess the bicycle level of service present on existing facilities or on proposed facilities and can be used for operational, design, and planning analyses.
This project examined the factors that determine how suitable a road is for cycling (its level of service for cycling, here termed `cyclability'). Using a specially equipped instrumented bicycle, 51 cyclists road a 9.2km route and made subjective assessments of the `cyclability' of its 11 links. The authors then tried to explain the subjective scores in terms of objective road and traffic data. These included road width, surface quality, traffic flow and speed, passing distance, gradient, `lateral conflict', effort and aesthetics. This approach has potential applications in the field of cycle route planning as it can provide engineers with reassurance that certain types of conditions are likely to be deemed satisfactory by the majority of cyclists.
This research considers the links between leisure cycling, purely for the enjoyment of it, and cycling for more utility purposes, such as to work. Surveys of more than 500 leisure cyclists, non-cyclists and those who cycle to work have been completed along with depth interviews and discussion groups. The main focus of the work is to understand what are the differences between the perceptions of leisure cycling and utility cycling and to determine how this might be overcome in order to increase the use of cycling for utility journeys. Recommendations are made of the type of facility and promotional means that might encourage more people to move from leisure cycling to utility cycling.
Cycle sales have increased substantially but overall cycle use has not. This project investigated the expectations and experiences of new cycle owners to see how they might be encouraged to cycle more, particularly for utility purposes. 76 adults who did not regularly cycle, who were buying a new cycle for themselves, were interviewed in cycle shops immediately after their purchase, about their planned cycle use and expectations. After one month they completed a four-day travel diary. After another month, they were interviewed in-depth regarding their cycle use, experiences and attitudes. Almost all those who completed the survey were pleased with their purchase. The majority cycled at least once a week, some much more frequently. Leisure was the main journey purpose but those who cycled to work tended to cycle more frequently. Physical effort, practical difficulties, the weather and the danger and unpleasantness from motor traffic were the main deterrents. One quarter reported using their cars less. However, most continued to use cars for the majority of journeys, including many under one mile. The report concludes that measures are needed to overcome practical barriers to greater cycle use, and to make cycling more enjoyable, for both new and existing cyclists.
Route choice modeling with observed choice data is hampered by the cost of processing network data and by the difficulty of assessing the alternative routes and the perceived attributes of the routes considered by individual travelers. An alternative approach is to obtain stated evaluations of well-defined hypothetical routes. Such data were collected from commuting cyclists in the city of Delft in the Netherlands and analyzed by using functional measurement to estimate the relative importance placed on such route attributes as time, traffic, level, and surface quality. Though the techniques used are well founded in the marketing and psychology literature, the route choice context raises issues that are particularly important for their application in transport analysis. A case study of the application of stated-preference techniques to route choice is discussed and empirical results obtained for urban bicycle trips are presented
The Department of Transport's recently launched National Cycling Strategy has the aim of doubling the number of cycle trips by 2002 with a further doubling by 2012. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution recommended a quadrupling of cycle trips to 10% of all journeys by 2005. Given the increased level of interest in cycling and the role it could play in alleviating congestion and environmental problems, it is important that there are mode choice models which can evaluate the impact and benefits of investment in cycle schemes. The contribution of the research reported here is in the development of an enhanced mode choice model which examines cycling in a greater level of detail than is typically the case. The Stated Preference model provides values of the benefits of unsegregated cycle lanes and segregated cycle paths. Although investment in such facilities could lead to significant increases in cycle demand, such that even costly investments may be worthwhile in economic terms, our results indicate that they could not on their own achieve target levels of increased cycle use. Unsegregated facilities could not even satisfy the Department of Transport's medium term objective whilst only in the most favourable set of circumstances could segregated facilities achieve the longer term objective, in the commuting market, of a quadrupling of cycle share. Our results indicate, as might be widely expected, that other traffic management and restraint measures are needed in order to achieve target levels of increased cycle use.
There are many studies which report attitudes to cycling and factors affecting the propensity to cycle but very few which evaluate the detailed costs and benefits of new cycle facilities. As part of a review of cycle facility provision in Bradford, West Yorkshire, a large scale survey of current and potential cyclists was conducted in 1994. A stated preference survey design was used to estimate the value placed on the different attributes of four alternative cycle routes under consideration. The results found that safety is more highly valued than time and that some new cycle schemes can be economically justified on the basis of benefits to current cyclists, even in circumstances of relatively low cycle use. The findings are important in the context of the current promotion of cycle facilities and highlights the need for further research and monitoring.
Bicycle accident and injury data collected by two different samples of North Carolina hospital emergency rooms during the summers of 1985 and 1986 are examined and compared with state police-reported bicycle accident data for the same time periods. Of the 649 emergency room treated bicyclists, 62% were children aged 5-14 and 70% were male. Nineteen percent of the riders suffered moderate or worse injuries (AIS greater than or equal to 2), and 6% were hospitalized. In contrast, less than half of the police-reported accidents involved riders under 15 years of age, 85% of the riders were male, and two-thirds suffered moderate or worse injury. Whereas virtually all of the police-reported accidents involved a motor vehicle, less than a fifth of the emergency room cases did. Only 10% of the emergency room cases were duplicated on the state accident files. It is estimated that 800 children ages 0-19 are hospitalized annually in North Carolina for bicycle-related injuries, and an additional 13,300 children receive emergency room treatment.
This paper presents a quantitative meta-analysis of studies evaluating, by means of the Bayesian method, the safety effectiveness of different bicycle facilities at road junctions. This is preceded by a discussion of background theories and an up-to-date presentation of today's knowledge of the cyclist's safety at intersections; alternative layouts in Scandinavia, and Sweden in particular, are shown. The project consists of a literature survey as well as interviews with experts and cyclists, and an attempt to weave together these different sources in estimating the effect of a particular layout. In summary, few studies from the Scandinavian countries exist that have treated this area with an acceptable methodology. Combined results, with the Bayesian technique, are therefore presented for only one layout comparison: accident risks for cyclists at signalized intersections with and without a cycle path. The results of this aggregation may be unreliable as well, due to deficiencies in the studies. New field studies should be initiated. The "experts'" prior opinion was that the introduction of the cycle path would, on average, increase the risk by about 20%, while interviewed cyclists considered that a cycle path would decrease the risk by about 20%. The conclusion that can be drawn so far from combining results shows that the most likely effect of introducing a cycle path is that the risk will increase by about 40% for a passing cyclist. The probability that the effect will be the opposite, i.e. that the risk will decrease, is very small (about 2%). These combined results are based primarily on cross-section studies, where the layouts have not been "randomly allotted". It is therefore likely that the risk increase may have been overestimated. The probability that the "real" effect is accident reduction is therefore somewhat greater than 2%. How much greater cannot be estimated from these studies.
The paper extracts and tabulates selected incidence and fatality rates of cycling accidents recorded by the police in Great Britain during 1990-1999, in a database of over 30,000 standardised reports of fatal or serious injury accidents. Since usable estimates of exposure to risk in cycling are not available, the concept of exposure invariance is developed to estimate the relative risk of different sorts of bicycle/vehicle encounter. Any bias from under-reporting of serious injury accidents is shown to be boundable if the probability of under-reporting is constant.
Collisions between bicycles and motor vehicles have caused severe life and property losses in many countries. The majority of bicycle-motor vehicle (BMV) accidents occur at intersections. In order to reduce the number of BMV accidents at intersections, a substantial understanding of the causal factors for the collisions is required. In this study, intersection BMV accidents were classified into three types based on the movements of the involved motor vehicles and bicycles. The three BMV accident classifications were through motor vehicle related collisions, left-turn motor vehicle related collisions, and right-turn motor vehicle related collisions. A methodology for estimating these BMV accident risks was developed based on probability theory. A significant difference between this proposed methodology and most current approaches is that the proposed approach explicitly relates the risk of each specific BMV accident type to its related flows. The methodology was demonstrated using a 4-year (1992-1995) data set collected from 115 signalized intersections in the Tokyo Metropolitan area. This data set contains BMV accident data, bicycle flow data, motor vehicle flow data, traffic control data, and geometric data for each intersection approach. For each BMV risk model, an independent explanatory variable set was chosen according to the characteristics of the accident type. Three negative binomial regression models (one corresponding to each BMV accident type) were estimated using the maximum likelihood method. The coefficient value and its significance level were estimated for each selected variable. The negative binomial dispersion parameters for all the three models were significant at 0.01 levels. This supported the choice of the negative binomial regression over the Poisson regression for the quantitative analyses in this study.
On the treatment of flow in traffic safety analysis; a non-paramteric approach applied on vulnerable road users Institutionen för Trafikteknik Safety implication of bicycle paths at signalised intersections
- L Ekman
- Sweden Lund
- P Gårder
- L Leden
- T Thedéen
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- G Kocur
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- M T Brannick
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Determination and measurement of factors which influence propensity to cycle to work
- J Parkin
Parkin, J., 2004. Determination and measurement of factors which influence propensity to cycle to work. PhD Thesis, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds.
On the treatment of flow in traffic safety analysis: a non-paramteric approach applied on vulnerable road users
- L Ekman
Ekman, L., 1996. On the treatment of flow in traffic safety analysis: a non-paramteric approach applied on vulnerable road users. Bulletin 136. Institu-tionen fö Trafikteknik. Lunds Tekniska Hö, Lund, Sweden.
Analysis of cycling deterrence factors in Greater Manchester
- R R Henson
- A Skinner
- N Georgeson
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Analysis of cycling deterrence factors in Greater Manchester
- Henson