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Social anxiety and romantic relationships: The costs and benefits of negative emotion expression are context-dependent
Abstract
In general, expressing emotions is beneficial and withholding emotions has personal and social costs. Yet, to serve social functions there are situations when emotions are withheld strategically. We examined whether social anxiety influenced when and how emotion expressiveness influences interpersonal closeness in existing romantic relationships. For people with greater social anxiety, withholding the expression of negative emotions was proposed to preserve romantic relationships and their benefits. We examined whether social anxiety and emotion expressiveness interacted to predict prospective changes in romantic relationship closeness over a 12-week period. For people with less social anxiety, relationship closeness was enhanced over time when negative emotions were openly expressed whereas relationship deterioration was found for those more likely to withhold emotions. The reverse pattern was found for people with greater social anxiety such that relationship closeness was enhanced over time for those more likely to withhold negative emotions. Related social anxiety findings were found for discrepancies between desired and actual feelings of closeness over time. Findings were not attributable to depressive symptoms. These results suggest that the costs and benefits of emotion expression are influenced by a person's degree of social anxiety.
... It is also suggested that individuals with social anxiety will use relationships as refuges and be more likely to stay even if the relationship is not as successful due to the fear of the task of finding a new partner in the event of a breakup (Porter & Chambless, 2017). Other aspects of anxiety like fear of a reaction or lack of reaction from others, fear of being a burden to others especially to a partner, doubts about self and others, and overthinking situations or interactions can impact relationships negatively (Kashdan et al., 2007). It has been shown that those with a high level of anxiety tend to have more fear surrounding relationships than those with a lower level of anxiety and are more likely to remain in relationships due to the fear of change (George et al., 2020). ...
... When anxious individuals express their negative emotions their self-doubt increases as they worry about the situation and the response of their partner. This causes further worries about the impacts their expressions will have on the relationship and its future (Kashdan et al., 2007). In this way anxiety acts as a barrier when it comes to vital communication within a relationship and which in turn can create more stress within the relationship and lead to a less satisfactory relationship for the other person. ...
... For individuals with a lower level of anxiety it is easier to communicate and be open with their partner because the fears and anxieties about the interaction are not as dominant in their thinking. This frees them to use skills and strategies to combat the anxiety that is present as well as have energy to practice using effective communication techniques (Kashdan et al., 2007). The use of tools and skills to combat anxiety and related thinking can be a significant benefit to romantic relationships and allow for a more balanced and successful relationship that will be maintained and sustained over a longer period of time. ...
This paper examines the impact of mental health on romantic relationships using a symbolic interactionist approach. Specifically, this paper will focus on the dimensions of anxiety/attachment, depression, and mastery/self-esteem and how they impact romantic relationships. The impact of these dimensions is not always negative; some of the aspects can have a positive impact on relationships.
... For example, socially anxious people rate their relationships as lower in emotional intimacy than non-anxious controls, indicating feelings of being neglected, lonely, and as though their partner does not listen or understand (Wenzel, 2002). Individuals with social anxiety are also more likely to be critical of partners during negative interactions (Wenzel, Graff-Dolezal, Macho, & Brendle, 2005), experience reduced closeness to partners when mutual pain/distress is expressed (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007), and experience greater rejection concern following a rejection induction with their partner (Afram & Kashdan, 2015). Further, individuals with social anxiety report lower relationship satisfaction in their intimate relationships (Schneier et al., 1994;Sparrevohn & Rapee, 2009). ...
... Thus, further research is needed to clarify how perceived social support relates to relationship satisfaction for individuals with higher social anxiety. In relation to conflict initiation, individuals with high social anxiety tend to avoid conflict (Davila & Beck, 2002), and conflict avoidance has been associated with higher relationship satisfaction for those high in social anxiety (Kashdan et al., 2007). Further, scant research has been conducted examining trust, particularly dyadic trust, in populations experiencing social anxiety symptoms. ...
... These findings are contrary to expectations and previous research. For example, Kashdan et al. (2007) found that conflict avoidance was related to higher relationship satisfaction in highly anxious women. Similarly, Davila and Beck (2002) had found that individuals with higher social anxiety tended to avoid conflict. ...
Research investigating social anxiety and the impacts on romantic relationships remains scarce. An online questionnaire examining romantic relationship status, social anxiety and depression symptomology, relationship satisfaction, and several relationship processes was completed by 444 adults. Individuals with higher social anxiety were less likely to be in romantic relationships. For the 188 adults in our sample in current relationships, relationship satisfaction was not influenced by social anxiety when controlling for depression. Although it was proposed that self-disclosure, social support, trust, and conflict initiation might influence romantic relationship satisfaction, none of these mechanisms interacted with social anxiety to explain additional variance in relationship satisfaction. These findings indicate that depression symptomology may be a treatment target for socially anxious individuals wishing to improve romantic relationship satisfaction.
... While Negative emotional coping is associated with distress, it also involves focus on negative emotions and seems to be linked to expression of those emotions, with some potential benefits (Forgas & East, 2008;Kashdan et al., 2007;Koch et al., 2013). For example, people in a negative mood better comply with conversational norms during speech (Koch et al., 2013) and are more effective in detecting deception than people in a positive mood (Forgas & East, 2008). ...
... For example, people in a negative mood better comply with conversational norms during speech (Koch et al., 2013) and are more effective in detecting deception than people in a positive mood (Forgas & East, 2008). Interestingly, for people who are not socially anxious, relationship intimacy is greater when negative emotions are expressed openly (Kashdan et al., 2007). Moreover, afflicted individuals expressing negative emotions tend to receive more help from other people (Graham et al., 2008). ...
The aim of the book to present the Coping Circumplex Model (CCM) designed to integrate various coping constructs. The monograph begins with a review of stress theories and coping models. After that, current problems in stress psychology are described. In an attempt to address some of the above issues, the CCM and its development is described. Finally, the book presents an empirical verification of the CCM and provides a discussion of the results.
The CCM offers a new way of thinking about coping with stress. It integrates various coping categories, but it may also elucidate some contradictory findings about relationships between coping (e.g., different forms of problem avoidance) and distress depending on situation controllability. It may provide a suitable space for the integration of coping with other constructs (e.g., personality dimensions, dark triad, emotion regulation processes) and adjustment after trauma. The CCM may also foster the generation of new hypotheses in stress psychology and emotion regulation, (e.g., concerning the relationship between the continuum of reinterpretation and experienced emotions).
The Coping Circumplex Model: A Theoretical Synthesis of Coping Constructs and Its Empirical Verification can be useful for psychology academics interested in coping and stress research, emotion regulation, personality psychology, for researchers in fields close to psychology, such as medicine or sociology, as well as for undergraduate and postgraduate psychology students.
... Parents rate the items on a three-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not true) to 2 (very true). The items Table 1 Sample and descriptive statistics No Diagnosis 262 (67) can be aggregated to eight syndrome scales (Anxious/ Depressed, Withdrawn/Depressed, Somatic Complaints, Social Problems, Thought Problems, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Aggressive Behavior) and three broadband scales (Externalizing Problems, Internalizing Problems, Total Problems). In this study, we assessed scales of the CBCL dysregulation profile [47,48], which includes the scales Anxious/Depressed (part of the Internalizing Problems scale), Attention Problems (part of the total problems scale) and Aggressive Behavior (part of the Externalizing Problems scale). ...
... This points at the important issue of whether a strategy should be classified as functional or dysfunctional. It has been suggested that the functionality of a certain strategy depends on the individual's symptom background [67], the combination with other strategies (e.g. distraction has been found to be functional when combined with acceptance strategies and dysfunctional when combined with avoidance strategies [68];, the extent and flexibility of use of a strategy (e.g. more expression regulation might lead to overregulation and inhibition [69];), as well as the context [4]. ...
Objective
To examine and validate the self-report Questionnaire on the Regulation of Unpleasant Moods in Children (FRUST), which is a modified and shortened version of the Questionnaire for the Assessment of Emotion Regulation in Children and Adolescents (FEEL-KJ).
Methods
The data comprised child and parent ratings of a community-screened sample with differing levels of affective dysregulation (AD) ( N = 391, age: M = 10.64, SD = 1.33, 56% male). We conducted latent factor analyses to establish a factor structure. Subsequently, we assessed measurement invariance (MI) regarding age, gender, and AD level and evaluated the internal consistencies of the scales. Finally, we examined the convergent and divergent validity of the instrument by calculating differential correlations between the emotion regulation strategy (ERS) scales and self- and parent-report measures of psychopathology.
Results
A four-factor model, with one factor representing Dysfunctional Strategies and the three factors Distraction , Problem-Solving and Social Support representing functional strategies provided the best fit to our data and was straightforward to interpret. We found strong MI for age and gender and weak MI for AD level. Differential correlations with child and parent ratings of measures of psychopathology supported the construct validity of the factors.
Conclusions
We established a reliable and valid self-report measure for the assessment of ERS in children. Due to the reduced number of items and the inclusion of highly specific regulatory behaviors, the FRUST might be a valuable contribution to the assessment of ER strategies for diagnostic, therapeutic, and research purposes.
... Individuals with high social anxiety might fear and feel compelled to limit the development of intimacy in their relationships for a number of self-protective and relationship-protective reasons. Individuals with high social anxiety and SAD avoid self-disclosure (e.g., Meleshko & Alden [37]; Sparrevohn & Rapee [38]) and have difficulty in expressing personal beliefs, intentions and preferences to their intimate partners for fear of being rejected or abandoned [39][40][41]. This pattern of interpersonal difficulties is spread in Western societies and appears as an important risk factor for UM because highly socially anxious individuals tend to fear rejection [42]. ...
... Previous research (e.g., Sparrevohn & Rape [38]; Bodinger et al. [43]) has demonstrated that socially anxious individuals report lower satisfaction with various aspects of their relationships, including lower sexual satisfaction, in comparison to non-anxious individuals. Moreover a good communication about sexuality within the couple is related to a better intimacy and sexual satisfaction [39,44]. ...
Objective: In the middle eastern (MES) and western (WS) societies, sexuality follows different patterns in terms of meaning and rules. Moreover the evolution of societies all around the world created new contexts and kinds of relationship. This could hamper a correct taxonomy of such sexual dysfunctions where social variables are crucial. The aim of the present work is to collect and review data on Unconsummated Marriage (UCM) all around the world, to understand if in different societies it refers to the same situation. Design and Method: A review of published literature on UCM from different areas of the world was conducted. Results: Substantial difference emerged from MES to WS. In MES, sexuality is allowed only in marriage, while in WS sexuality and relationship are not strongly linked. This could suggest that the term “marriage” is unable to cover the phenomenon in such different countries. Moreover, the mean time before the consultation, causal attribution and prevalence are very different in such societies. Conclusions: We found that the term “Honeymoon impotence” could better describe male, female or both difficulties related to ignorance about sexuality or state/performance anxiety, typical in MES. On the other hand in WS over the individual category of sexual dysfunctions, we suggest a new term as “Unconsummated relationship”, where individual difficulties are involved creating a couple’s dysfunction.
... Individuals with high social anxiety might fear and feel compelled to limit the development of intimacy in their relationships for a number of self-protective and relationship-protective reasons. Individuals with high social anxiety and SAD avoid self-disclosure (e.g., Meleshko & Alden [37]; Sparrevohn & Rapee [38]) and have difficulty in expressing personal beliefs, intentions and preferences to their intimate partners for fear of being rejected or abandoned [39][40][41]. This pattern of interpersonal difficulties is spread in Western societies and appears as an important risk factor for UM because highly socially anxious individuals tend to fear rejection [42]. ...
... Previous research (e.g., Sparrevohn & Rape [38]; Bodinger et al. [43]) has demonstrated that socially anxious individuals report lower satisfaction with various aspects of their relationships, including lower sexual satisfaction, in comparison to non-anxious individuals. Moreover a good communication about sexuality within the couple is related to a better intimacy and sexual satisfaction [39,44]. ...
The most shared definition of Unconsummated Marriage (UM) refers to "the failure to perform successful sexual intercourse at the beginning of the marriage. UM usually occurs in the first few nights of marriage and so it is frequently referred to as "honeymoon impotence" or "wedding night impotence". In the Middle-Eastern (MES) and Western (WS) societies, sexuality follows different patterns in terms of meaning and rules. Moreover the evolution of societies all around the world created new contexts and kinds of relationship. This could hamper a correct taxonomy of such sexual dysfunction where a social variable seems crucial. Aim: To analyze and review data on UM all around the world, to understand if in different societies it refers to the same situation. Method: A review of published literature on UM from 1970 to date, was conducted. Results: Substantial difference emerged from MES to WS. In MES, sexuality is allowable only in marriage, while in WS sexuality and relationship are not strongly linked. This could suggest that the term "marriage" is unable to cover the phenomenon in such different countries. Moreover, the average time before the consultation, causal attribution and prevalence are very different in Western and Middle Eastern countries. Conclusion: We found that the term "first attempts dysfunction" could be better used to describe male, female or both difficulties related to ignorance about sexuality or state/performance anxiety. On the other hand over the individual category of sexual dysfunctions, we suggest a new term as "Unconsummated relationship", where individual difficulties toward sexuality are involved creating a couple's dysfunction.
... Gli individui con alta ansia sociale potrebbero avere una tale paura del rifiuto, da sentirsi costretti a limitare il possibile instaurarsi di una situazione di intimità, nel tentativo di proteggere se stessi o la loro relazione. Gli individui con alta ansia sociale tendono ad evitare tutti questi movimenti di autorivelazione (e.g., Meleshko, Alden, 1993;Sparrevohn, Rapee, 2009) ed hanno quindi delle difficoltà ad esprimere le loro personali convinzioni, intenzioni e preferenze ai loro partner intimi, per paura di essere respinti o abbandonati (Kashdan et al., 2007;Keltner, Haidt, 1999;Keltner, Kring, 1998). Questo modello di difficoltà interpersonale, è osservato in misura molto superiore nelle società occidentali e appare come un importante fattore di rischio per il MB (Davila, Beck, 2002). ...
... Diverse ricerche (e.g., Bodinger et al., 2002;Sparrevohn, Rapee, 2009) hanno dimostrato che gli individui socialmente ansiosi riportano alta soddisfazione per vari aspetti delle loro relazioni, ma una soddisfazione sessuale più bassa rispetto agli individui non ansiosi. La mancanza di una comunicazione esplicita circa i propri desideri e necessità potrebbe in parte spiegare il minore benessere sessuale, visto che, è piuttosto condiviso il concetto che una buona comunicazione sulla sessualità all'interno della coppia, sia correlata ad un'intimità migliore e ad una maggiore soddisfazione sessuale (Descutner, Thelen, 1991;Kashdan et al., 2007). Nelle società occidentali e mediorientali o orientali, seppur in diverso modo, le persone sentono la pressione sociale sulla loro sessualità, con rischio di sviluppare diverse forme di ansia sociale. ...
... Along with fewer positive behaviors, socially anxious individuals also appear to engage in more negative behaviors in their romantic relationships. Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, and Han (2007) found that for individuals low in social anxiety, the ability to express negative emotions in an open and uninhibited way fostered a good-quality romantic relationship; however, for individuals high in social anxiety, the expression of negative emotions in the context of a romantic relationship was associated with deteriorating relationship quality. Socially anxious young adults also have been found to demonstrate more negative and fewer positive interactions with their romantic partner during an observed communication task (Wenzel et al., 2005). ...
... At present, many of the relationship variables studied are disorder specific. Thus, for example, romantic relationship variables-such as selfdisclosure, emotional expression, and levels of intimacy (Sparrevohn & Rapee, 2009), as well as negative emotional expression (Kashdan et al,, 2007)-have been examined among socially anxious individuals; negative interactions, aggression, and antisocial talk have been examined among youth at risk for conduct problems (e.g., Shortt et al., 2003); and excessive reassurance seeking (Starr & Davila, 2008) and self-silencing (Harper & Welsh, 2007) have been examined among depressed adolescents and young adults. Given the high co-morbidity across psychological disorders, efforts to measure romantic relationship variables comprehensively, and to capture both positive and negative aspects of such interactions, would be important and desirable. ...
Navigating romantic relationships in adolescence/young adulthood is a normative developmental task that can be both pleasurable and challenging for youth. The success with which one does so is both predicted by and subsequently affects psychological well-being. This chapter reviews the literature on the associations between psychopathology and youth romantic relationships and experiences. We focus particularly on internalizing and externalizing disorders, for which the bulk of the literature exists. We also cover eating disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as well as other disorders and issues of comorbidity. Following the reviews of specific disorders and symptoms, we review the emerging literature on psychopathology and same-sex relationships among youth. We then address key peer and family contexts in which psychopathology and skills for romantic relationships are developing, and we discuss the intergenerational transmission of psychopathology and romantic dysfunction. The chapter closes with discussions of methodological issues and implications for prevention and intervention, emphasizing the need for ongoing basic research that can translate into novel approaches that can treat or prevent youth romantic dysfunction and psychopathology.
... Social anxiety (SA) is characterized by fear and avoidance of social interactions, particularly with unfamiliar individuals (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Individuals high in SA experience profound impairments in social functioning, including smaller social networks (Cheng et al., 2019), fewer and less satisfying close relationships (Alden & Taylor, 2010;Kashdan et al., 2007), as well as academic and occupational performance decrements (Aderka et al., 2012;Stein & Kean, 2000). SA often precedes the development of additional psychological disorders, most commonly major depression, substance use, and substance abuse (Grant et al., 2005;Kessler et al., 2012). ...
Social anxiety (SA) is characterized by significant impairments in social functioning, yet the processes maintaining such impairments are understudied. Reduced nonverbal synchrony has been highlighted as a possible mechanism underlying these impairments. To understand the nature of synchrony in SA, individuals (N = 150) were invited to participate in an unstructured playful 3-person group social interaction–drumming together. We examined physiological synchrony during this activity using cardiac interbeat intervals (IBI) and skin conductance levels (SCL). Behavioral coordination was operationalized as the number of times group members drummed together at the same time. Additionally, affect and task difficulty were assessed following the interaction. Mean group-level (but not individual-level) SA-severity negatively predicted IBI synchrony and positively predicted SCL synchrony. As expected, individual-level SA-severity negatively predicted mood and perceived task difficulty. Behavioral coordination was not predicted by SA. As playful, unstructured, and non-goal-directed interactions constitute a central social context for the formation and maintenance of group bonds, SA may contribute to social impairments via intrapersonal and interpersonal mechanisms. Clinical implications include the fact that diagnostically, in addition to intrapersonal measures (such as measures of anticipatory anxiety and felt anxiety during the interaction) we may also assess interpersonal measures—degrees of synchrony and enjoyment during group interactions. In terms of treatment—exposures may include not only situations in which one needs to achieve a certain intra-personal goal, but also situations in which one can be invited to be a leader in a fun, unstructured group activity.
... In this regard, if infidelity is noted, the perpetrator of the betrayal could feel strong emotional distress [37], especially if the infidelity is of a sexual nature, because such infidelity has been estimated as the most intransigent and causes greater distress in both the adult population [12,39] and the university-age and adolescent ones [3,7]. More specifically, if this last population were to be taken into account, the motivations for infidelity during adolescence (i.e., sexual and emotional dissatisfaction) could be weighed as internal and individual needs [1,40]. Such motivations could play a relevant role in balancing adolescents' emotional levels, especially of negative affect. ...
Background:
Infidelity is a relational process common in all types of romantic relationships and has been established as one of the main causes of relationship breakdown. However, little is known about this type of transgression in adolescent romantic relationships, although it manifests as a fairly frequent behavior involving different motivations. Even less is known about the emotional impact of infidelity on the offending person and its association with hostile behavior and psychological well-being.
Methods:
Through an experimental study (N = 301 Spanish adolescents (190 female and 111 male; Mage = 15.59, SD = 0.69; range from 15 to 17), we sought to analyze the effect of manipulating two types of motivations for infidelity (sexual vs. emotional dissatisfaction) on negative affect, hostility, and psychological well-being.
Results:
The main results revealed that committing infidelity motivated by hypothetical sexual (vs. emotional) dissatisfaction was indirectly related to lower psychological well-being through its effects on increased negative affect and hostility.
Conclusions:
Last but not least, we discuss these findings, highlighting the possible implications of infidelity for the psychosocial and psychosexual development of adolescents.
... In addition, negative emotions have been associated with partner blaming and engaging in demandwithdraw patterns (Tashiro & Frazier, 2007). However, some studies indicated that negative emotions do not negatively affect intimacy in couple relationship (Campos et al., 2015;Taylor et al., 2017), while other studies revealed positive association between expression of negative emotions and couple relationship outcomes, by eliciting support from partners and intimacy (Graham et al., 2008;Kashdan et al., 2007). ...
... For example, individuals who are more sensitive to social signals (e.g., those high in rejection sensitivity, high in social anxiety, or low in selfesteem) may be better off suppressing their emotions in contexts where emotions would be met with low social support. In line with this notion, prior work shows that the relational costs and benefits of sharing emotions with romantic partners are influenced by one's social anxieties and desire to avoid rejection (Kashdan et al., 2007). ...
While emotion regulation often happens in the presence of others, little is known about how social context shapes regulatory efforts and outcomes. One key element of the social context is social support. In two experience sampling studies (Ns = 179 and 123), we examined how the use and affective consequences of two fundamentally social emotion-regulation strategies-social sharing and expressive suppression-vary as a function of perceived social support. Across both studies, we found evidence that social support was associated with variation in people's use of these strategies, such that when people perceived their environments as being higher (vs. lower) in social support, they engaged in more sharing and less suppression. However, we found only limited and inconsistent support for context-dependent affective outcomes of suppression and sharing: suppression was associated with better affective consequences in the context of higher perceived social support in Study 1, but this effect did not replicate in Study 2. Taken together, these findings suggest that the use of social emotion-regulation strategies may depend on contextual variability in social support, whereas their effectiveness does not. Future research is needed to better understand the circumstances in which context-dependent use of emotion regulation may have emotional benefits, accounting for personal, situational, and cultural factors.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-022-00123-8.
... SAD is characterized by a fear of evaluation and avoidance of social situations, which can negatively affect social functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013;Clark and Wells, 1995). Indeed, individuals with SAD report having more interpersonal problems and difficulty maintaining relationships (Davila and Beck, 2002;Kashdan et al., 2007;Tonge et al., 2020). These issues extend beyond close relationships and can have a substantial negative impact on occupational and educational functioning (Schneier et al., 1994;Wittchen et al., 2000) above and beyond the effects of comorbidities including depression (Aderka et al., 2012). ...
Previous research has shown a weak association between self-reported empathy and performance on behavioral assessments of social cognition. However, previous studies have often overlooked important distinctions within these multifaceted constructs (e.g., differences among the subcomponents of self-reported empathy, distinctions in tasks assessing lower- vs. high-level social cognition, and potential covariates that represent competing predictors). Using data from three separate studies (total N = 2,376), we tested whether the tendency to take the perspective of others (i.e., perspective-taking), and the tendency to catch the emotions of others (i.e., emotional contagion for positive and negative emotions), were associated with performance on tasks assessing lower- to higher-level social-cognitive ability (i.e., emotion recognition, theory of mind, and empathic accuracy) and affect sharing. Results showed little evidence of an association between any of the self-reported empathy measures and either social-cognitive ability or affect sharing. Using several large samples, our findings add additional evidence to previous work showing that self-report measures of empathy are not valid proxies of behaviorally assessed social cognition. Moreover, we find that the ease with which individuals recognize and understand their own emotions (i.e., alexithymia) is more related to social-cognitive abilities and affect sharing, than their tendency to take the perspective of others, or to vicariously experience the emotions of others. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... SAD is characterized by a fear of evaluation and avoidance of social situations, which can negatively affect social functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013;Clark and Wells, 1995). Indeed, individuals with SAD report having more interpersonal problems and difficulty maintaining relationships (Davila and Beck, 2002;Kashdan et al., 2007;Tonge et al., 2020). These issues extend beyond close relationships and can have a substantial negative impact on occupational and educational functioning (Schneier et al., 1994;Wittchen et al., 2000) above and beyond the effects of comorbidities including depression (Aderka et al., 2012). ...
Background
Social anxiety is highly prevalent and has increased in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since social anxiety negatively impacts interpersonal functioning, identifying aspects of social cognition that may be impaired can increase our understanding of the development and maintenance of social anxiety disorder. However, to date, studies examining associations between social anxiety and social cognition have resulted in mixed findings.
Methods
The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the literature on the association between social anxiety and social cognition, while also considering several potential moderators and covariates that may influence findings.
Results
A systematic search identified 48 studies. Results showed mixed evidence for the association between social anxiety and lower-level social cognitive processes (emotion recognition and affect sharing) and a trend for a negative association with higher-level social cognitive processes (theory of mind and empathic accuracy). Most studies examining valence-specific effects found a significant negative association for positive and neutral stimuli.
Limitations.
Not all aspects of social cognition were included (e.g., attributional bias) and we focused on adults and not children, limiting the scope of the review.
Conclusions
Future studies would benefit from the inclusion of relevant moderators and covariates, multiple well-validated measures within the same domain of social cognition, and assessments of interpersonal functioning outside of the laboratory. Additional research examining the moderating role of attention or interpretation biases on social cognitive performance, and the potential benefit of social cognitive skills training for social anxiety could inform and improve existing cognitive behavioral interventions.
... On the other hand, negative expressivity generally imposes critical disruptions to interpersonal relatedness by eroding social support and relationship functioning (Halberstadt et al., 1995;Kashdan et al., 2007;Rauer & Volling, 2005). Accordingly, several findings focusing on specific types of emotion suppression provide indirect evidence that the suppression of negative emotions may be better tolerated within the Eastern cultural context, where interdependent values are prominent. ...
Despite a general consensus on the negative consequences of emotion suppression in Western cultures, cross-cultural explorations to date have yielded many inconsistencies on whether such phenomena can be generalized to Eastern cultures. A set of two studies were conducted to examine the role of emotional valence in resolving such inconsistencies on both relationship satisfaction and subjective well-being. In accordance with our hypotheses, our results consistently revealed that the habitual suppression of emotions was associated with lower relationship satisfaction and subjective well-being, regardless of valence, for American participants. However, the effects of emotion suppression significantly varied by valence for Korean participants, such that suppressing negative emotions was less detrimental than suppressing positive emotions. Overall, the present study highlights the importance of considering the nature of different emotions and cultural contexts when examining the adaptiveness of emotion regulation strategies on individuals’ interpersonal and intrapersonal well-being.
... Emotion expression also appears to play a role in feelings of closeness and connectedness within the relationships of those with social anxiety. In one study, researchers observed that, among those low in social anxiety, openly expressing negative emotions fostered feelings of closeness within the relationship (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007). In contrast, among those high in social anxiety, feelings of closeness were intensified only when negative emotions were withheld from one's partner. ...
... The scale barely needs any explanation and is almost free of language, providing no cultural bias and few cognitive requirements (Gächter et al., 2015). Besides, because the scale is sensitive to change (Aron et al., 2003;Kashdan et al., 2007;J. A. Simpson et al., 2003) is not too surprising, as studies have indicated that female gender might be a risk factor for developing PGD (Lobb et al., 2010). ...
Pathological grief has received increasing attention in recent years, as about 10% of the bereaved suffer from one kind of it. Pathological grief in the form of Prolonged grief disorder (PGD) is a relatively new diagnostic category which will be included into the up-coming ICD-11. To date, various risk and protective factors, as well as treatment options for pathological grief, have been proposed. Nevertheless, empirical evidence in that area is still scarce. Our aim was to identify the association of interpersonal closeness with the deceased and bereavement outcome.
Interpersonal closeness with the deceased in 54 participants (27 patients suffering from PGD and 27 bereaved healthy controls) was assessed as the overlap of pictured identities via the Inclusion of the Other in the Self Scale (IOS-scale). In addition to that, data on PGD symptomatology, general mental distress, and depression were collected.
Patients suffering from PGD reported higher inclusion of the deceased in the self. By contrast, they reported feeling less close towards another living close person. Results of the IOS-scale were associated with PGD-severity, general mental distress, and depression.
Inclusion of the deceased in the self is a significant statistical predictor for PGD-caseness.
... Although the majority of research on closeness in romantic relationships is based on the assumption that closer relationships are better relationships, emerging research shows that individuals vary in the amount of closeness they want within their relationships (Aron et al., 2004;Fletcher et al., 1999;Goodboy & Booth-Butterfield, 2009;Kashdan et al., 2007;Mashek & Sherman, 2004). Recent research indicates that the role of closeness in determining the quality of romantic relationships is most accurately understood in the form of closeness discrepancies (e.g., Frost & Forrester, 2013;Frost et al., 2017). ...
Closeness is often considered synonymous with better quality romantic relationships. However, individual differences exist in the degree of closeness people desire in their relationships. This study examined the implications that discrepancies between actual and ideal closeness have for relationship quality in romantic couples. A questionnaire was administered to a sample of 103 cohabiting couples ( N = 206) in the United States, who were randomly selected from a nationally representative survey panel. Dyadic analysis using actor–partner interdependence models with latent outcomes revealed that internal discrepancies between actual and idealized closeness were associated with poorer relationship quality for both individuals and their partners. These associations persisted above and beyond the effects of actual closeness and dyad-level differences in actual and ideal closeness. The association between closeness and relationship quality may be more individual than dyadic in nature, warranting renewed attention to the idiographic experience of closeness and its association with relational well-being.
... Indeed, there is direct evidence showing that feelings of inauthenticity mediated the link between one's daily use of suppression and both one's own and partner's report of relationship quality (Impett et al., 2012). However, the use of suppression might also have some positive effects on romantic relationships, at least for individuals with certain personality characteristics (Kashdan et al., 2007). Therefore, it might be possible that some positive effects of suppression often undo its detrimental consequences, which might partly explain the absence of its partner effects in our study. ...
Studies investigating the effects of emotion regulation on romantic partners’ relationship satisfaction (RS) found that proneness to use cognitive reappraisal exerts positive, whereas expressive suppression negative effects on both one’s own and partner’s satisfaction. However, no studies explored the effects of partner reported use of the two emotion regulation strategies on RS, which might allow the exclusion of method-related explanations of the previous findings and offer new insights into the mechanisms involved. We tested the hypotheses about the effects of reappraisal and suppression on RS on a sample of 205 romantic couples by using round-robin design and actor-partner interdependence modelling (APIM). Although the effects were relatively small, they were still in line with the assumptions that cognitive reappraisal has positive intra- and interpersonal effects on RS, that they can be generalized across self- and partner reports to a certain extent, and that they are somewhat stronger in women. Considering expressive suppression, only women’s self-reported suppression exerted significant negative intrapersonal effect on RS. Implications of self- and partner reports of emotion regulation for the understanding of the mechanisms mediating its effects on RS are discussed.
... Although most of the pictures classified as momentarily unhappy depict some negative emotion, negative affect does not always impair a relationship and can even promote intimacy [42]. Soft emotions, the tendency to express vulnerability, including pro-social emotions such as sadness or anxiety, are more likely to elicit caring behavior and support from the partner, in contrast to anger for instance [20]. ...
Detecting momentary relationship state and quality in romantic couples is an important endeavor for relationship research, couple therapy, and of course couples themselves. Yet current methods to achieve this are intrusive, asynchronous, plagued by ceiling effects, and only assess subjective responses to questionnaires while trying to capture the objective state of a relationship. According to social appraisal theory, human beings rely on emotional responses to assess interpersonal situations, a key element for relationship functioning in couples. Using couples is particularly advantageous as strong emotional reactions are triggered in romantic relationships. Here, we employ deep learning methods to assess the momentary relationship state of romantic couples from predominantly stock images via facial and bodily emotion expression and other features. Our new model, DeepConnection, comprises pre-trained residual neural networks, spatial pyramid pooling layers, and power mean transformations to extract relevant features from images for binary classification. With this, we achieved an average accuracy of nearly 97% on a separate validation dataset. We also engaged in model interpretation using Gradient-weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM) to identify which features allow DeepConnection to detect binarized momentary relationship state. To demonstrate generalizability and robustness, we used DeepConnection to analyze videos of couples exhibiting a range of different postures and facial expressions. Here, we achieved an average accuracy of about 85% with a trained DeepConnection model. The work presented here could inform couples, advance relationship research, and find application in couple therapy to assist the therapist.
... This enabled the calculation of closeness discrepancy scores by subtracting the current level of IOS from the desired level for each participant. Closeness discrepancies have been incorporated into research before (e.g., Frost & Forrester, 2013;Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007), but Frost et al. (2017) were the first to incorporate sexual closeness discrepancies. In summary, the IOS scale proved very flexible, easy to administer and highly adaptable to a variety of research objectives. ...
To better understand the effect relationship closeness has on couple’s sexuality a scoping review was conducted, that focused on the inclusion of other in the self scale (IOS). Authors reviewed quantitative journal articles published between 2000 and 2020 by searching PsychInfo, Medline, and PubMed, resulting in 24 studies. Results suggest positive associations between IOS and sexual well-being, functioning, desire, frequency and satisfaction, and negatively related to sexual distress. Also, the benefits of positive sexual experiences expand well beyond the sexual domain onto different personal and relational factors of health and well-being. Sampling designs considerably limit the generalizability of results.
... What do the social networks of highly psychologically flexible people look like and how do they differ from the average person? We are beginning to learn more about the interpersonal consequences of psychological phenomena that explicitly involve other people, such as social anxiety (e.g., Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007;Stevens & Morris, 2007;Van Zalk, Van Zalk, Kerr, & Stattin, 2011), but more work must be done to understand the social implications of psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility can build off and extend new models in affective science that detail how and why emotion regulation is an interpersonal process that must be studied accordingly (Zaki & Williams, 2013). ...
Psychological flexibility is the tendency to respond to situations in ways that facilitate valued goal pursuit. Psychological flexibility is particularly useful when challenges arise during goal pursuit that produce distress. In acceptance and commitment therapy, psychological flexibility is considered the pinnacle of emotional health and well-being. A growing body of research demonstrates that psychological flexibility leads to psychological benefits and adaptive behavior change. Yet, much of what we know, or think we know, about psychological flexibility hinges on a single measurement approach using the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ and AAQ-II). Research suggests the AAQ-II is highly correlated with distress itself rather than flexible responses to distress. Existing approaches that assess psychological flexibility ignore the context in which flexibility matters most: the pursuit of valued goals. Below, we review theory and research on psychological flexibility, including its associations with healthy functioning, its measurement, and its overlap with related constructs. We discuss how gaps between theory and measurement impede our understanding and review promising evidence for a new measure of psychological flexibility. We provide new research directions in an effort to create a more generalizable foundation of knowledge. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2020;e12566. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/spc3
... Este proceso sería equivalente al concepto de "fusión cognitiva", ampliamente descrito en la literatura (p.ej., Wilson & Luciano, 2002). Por ejemplo, se ha observado que la dificultad para expresarse y realizar autorrevelaciones en personas con elevada ansiedad social podría deberse a la presencia de fusión cognitiva (lo contrario de aceptación psicológica) con sus propias emociones y pensamientos en el contexto de la interacción (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen & Han, 2007). ...
Intimate relationships matter for both human's physical and psychological health. Although many theories have been developed to study this topic, there is no consensus about the underlying processes in human relationships. The Interpersonal Process Model, which has well-established empirical support, aims to address the development of intimate relationships describing them as observed behaviors. This has important implications in psychotherapy, especially for those approaches that understand the interpersonal patient-therapist relationship as a tool for change. That is the case of Functional Analytic Psychotherapy. In this paper we articulate a model of intimate relationships based on Interpersonal Process Model and the principles of Functional Behavioral Analysis, connecting it with previous results on the field of intimate relationships. Likewise, a discussion about its implications in psychotherapy and its utility to solve some Functional Analytic Psychotherapy's limitations is presented.
... An important consideration concerns the extent to which this behavior is adaptive for socially anxious individuals, as Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, and Han (2007) demonstrated that, for individuals with higher levels of social anxiety, relationship closeness improved over a 12-week period for those participants who actively withheld the expression of negative emotions. Given the frequency of perceived intimate partner rejection among socially anxious individuals, reacting by expressing negative affect may create further discord. ...
Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) demonstrate impaired functioning in intimate relationships, yet little is known about how socially anxious individuals respond to perceived intimate partner rejection. In the present study, individuals with SAD (n = 30) and healthy controls (HCs; n = 33) who were involved in current intimate relationships completed daily diaries each evening for 14 days. Daily diaries assessed the extent to which participants experienced feelings of rejection in their intimate relationships, as well as the extent to which they responded to feelings of rejection by using behaviors characterized by withdrawal (“withdrawal” processes) versus efforts to reaffiliate with their partners (“approach” processes). Results revealed that overall, individuals with SAD exhibited greater use of withdrawal-focused processes, whereas HC participants exhibited greater use of approach-focused processes. However, on days following intimate partner rejection, only individuals with SAD restricted their use of withdrawal-focused processes. These findings provide insight into the nature of rejection concerns and responses to rejection among individuals with SAD as compared with HC participants.
... Sosyal anksiyete bozukluğuyla ilgili alan yazında sosyal anksiyetenin başa çıkma becerileri, akademik başarı, benlik saygısı, depresyon, ebeveyn tutumları, akran ilişkileri, romantik ilişkiler, beden imajı, mükemmeliyetçilik gibi birçok farklı değişkenle ilişkisinin incelendiği araştırmalar mevcuttur. 8,[25][26][27][28][29][30] Bu araştırmada ise; sosyal anksiyete bozukluğunun benlik saygısı, anne-baba tutumları ve mükemmeliyetçilik özelliği ile ilişkisi birlikte incelenerek sosyal anksiyete bozukluğunun kaynağını anlamaya yönelik araştırmalara katkı sağlaması beklenmektedir. Bu kapsamda araştırmanın amacı sosyal anksiyete bozukluğu ile benlik saygısı, anne-baba tutumları ve mükemmeliyetçilik arasındaki ilişkiyi ve bu bağımsız değişkenlerin sosyal anksiyeteyi nasıl açıkladığını tespit etmektir. ...
Objectives:The present study was conducted to examine the relationship between social anxiety levels and self-esteem, perceived parental attitudes and perfectionism traits in secondary school students.Materials and Methods:In this study, 970 students (503 females and 467 males) were recruited from secondary schools in Trabzon in the 2016-2017 academic year. The Social Anxiety scale for Children Updated Form, Two Dimensional Self- Esteem scale (Self-Liking/Self Competence scale, Parental Attitude scale, Adaptive-Maladaptive Perfectionism scale were administered to the participants.Results:It was found that there was a significant negative correlation between social anxiety levels and self-esteem of the students. Social anxiety had a significant negative correlation with over-involvement and authoritative parental attitudes; however, there was not a significant relationship between democratic parental attitude and social anxiety. While the findings indicated that there was a significant positive correlation between the students’ social anxiety levels and negative perfectionist traits, there was not a significant correlation between positive perfectionism and social anxiety. It was confirmed that self-liking and self-competence, which are two dimensions of self-esteem, authoritative and over-involvement parental attitudes, and negative perfectionism significantly predicted social anxiety.Conclusion:Social anxiety which individuals have during adolescence period can be described as a psychological term associated with their self-assessment manner, some of their parents’ parental attitudes, and their perception about making everything the best.
... In fact, people high in social anxiety tend to evade their emotions in order to avoid the potential to be rejected or ridiculed by others, and oft en recall failed social interactions more strongly, mainly because they are hyperaware of past hurtful interactions (Clark, 2005). That is, highly anxious people are often worried about and aim to avoid rejection even while wanting to have closeness with others (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007). Given that avoidance goals are associated with anxiety, we explored whether people's feelings of anxiety on Tinder accounted for the association between avoidance goals while using Tinder and dating success on Tinder. ...
Tinder, the mobile dating app, is widely used for meeting potential dating partners, but little research has investigated the dating experiences of users. In two studies, we applied the approach-avoidance theory of social motivation to understand the association between people’s goals for Tinder use and their perceived and actual dating success. In Study 1 we found that higher approach goals for using Tinder, such as to develop intimate relationships, were associated with more positive beliefs about people on Tinder, and in turn, associated with reporting greater perceived dating success, initiating more conversations on Tinder, and going on more second dates with people from Tinder. In contrast, people who had higher avoidance goals when using Tinder, such as aiming to avoid embarrassment, reported feeling more anxious when using Tinder and in turn, perceived less dating success and reported fewer second dates. In Study 2—a preregistered replication of Study 1—we largely replicated the effects from Study 1. Additional analyses in both studies revealed that the results were not accounted for by attractiveness of the user and were consistent between men and women, but differed based on the age of the user. The associations between approach goals and dating success were stronger for younger, compared to older users and the association between avoidance goals and dating success were stronger for older, compared to younger, users. The findings have implications for understanding the role of motivation in dating success on Tinder and reveal novel mechanisms for the associations between dating goals and dating success.
... "Anne-Baba Eğitim Düzeyinin İlköğretim 1.Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Duyguları İfade Etme Becerilerine Etkisinin İncelenmesi", Eğitim Orhan Akova, Gürel Çetin, Fazıl Kaya; Lisans ve Önlisans Turizm Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma73Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 2(1) 2014ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(2), pp. 254-262.Kashdan, T.B., Volkmann, J.R.,Breen, W. and Han, S., (2007). "Social anxiety andRomantic Relationships: The Costs and Benefits of Negative Emotion Expression are Context-Dependent", Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, pp. ...
The tourism sector is affected directly or indirectly by the presence of museums. As a center of attraction, the museums play an important role to attract people to the destination. The visits of museums in the tourism sector are affected by a wide range of factor and the most important factor is the using of museum card. Since 2008 when museum cards started being used, according to statistics, museum visits have been affected positively. The purpose of this study is to reveal importance of using museum card. For this purpose, the statistics of visits to museum and using of museum card is given in this study. According to this study, it has been seen that visits with museumcard increased by 49% between the years of 2011-2012.
Key Words: Museum, museums of Çanakkale, museum card.
... Although results of Study 1 suggest that the hypothesized context-sensitive emotional responses are shown most clearly by individuals in the midrange of S-NA inertia, our studies do not offer direct evidence that stronger emotional reactivity to interpersonal situations of adaptive importance contribute to perceptions of responsiveness from one's partner. Prior research has reported a link between expression of negative emotions and relationship closeness (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007), and between negative affective reactions in conflict situations and stable levels of relationship satisfaction, but those findings were based upon couples facing severe relationship problems (McNulty & Russell, 2010). Clear negative affective reactions can be understood as alert signals in situations involving threat to the self or the relationship (Fischer & Manstead, 2016) and may be adaptive to the extent that they communicate and raise awareness of the threat to couples and encourage relationship partners to deal with the issues at stake. ...
Responding appropriately to an intimate partner’s emotional signals and needs requires that one’s emotional responses be reactive to significant interpersonal experiences. The adaptive function of emotions is likely compromised if an individual’s emotional states are insufficiently attuned to interpersonal events. The present studies examine how individual differences in moment-to-moment emotion dynamics affect interpersonal responsiveness and relationship satisfaction. Study 1 examines associations between emotion dynamics and emotional reactivity to positive and negative relationship events. Emotion dynamics were operationalized using assessments of emotional inertia, which is defined as the degree to which emotions are resistant to change over time. Momentary assessments from 44 participants were collected four times per day over 4 weeks. Emotional inertia showed a curvilinear association with context-sensitive emotional responses to conflict, with individuals high or low in emotional inertia experiencing blunted emotional reactions to conflict. Study 2 assessed emotion dynamics based on four emotion reports per day over 10 days of both partners in a total of 103 couples. Associations of emotion dynamics with perceptions of partners’ responsiveness and relationship satisfaction over 12 months were examined. Partners of individuals with high (inert) or low (erratic) emotional inertia perceived them to be less responsive, which then predicted steeper declines in their relationship satisfaction across 12 months. The results suggest that individuals with inert or erratic emotion dynamics exhibit less context-sensitive emotional responding to conflicts and are perceived by their partners to be less responsive which subsequently undermines the quality of their intimate relationships.
... There is increasing recognition that intimate relationship quality influences the onset and maintenance of many forms of psychopathology [87,88]. Research suggests individuals who exhibit high social anxiety symptoms report less satisfying intimate relationships [6], experience diminished closeness to partners during times of distress [89] experience lower levels of intimacy [90], and are more likely to assign blame and responsibility for conflicts in their intimate relationships on stable traits of their partners when compared to non-socially anxious individuals [91]. Such difficulties may be seen to result from, and/or be exacerbated by, the behaviours associated with each attachment dimension. ...
Despite extensive evidence relating attachment dimensions to maladaptive interpersonal behaviours and dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies, few studies have explored social anxiety in the context of adult attachment dimensions. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether attachment-related anxiety and avoidance are associated with symptoms of social anxiety and whether cognitive emotion regulation strategies (reappraisal and suppression) play a role in the relationship between adult attachment and social anxiety. A sample of 253 adults (male n = 47, 18.6%; female n = 202, 79.8%; gender not disclosed n = 4, 1.6%) ranging in age from 18 to 74 years (M = 33.12, SD = 11.56) completed an online questionnaire that consisted of the Experience in Close Relationships–Revised Questionnaire (ECR-R); The Inventory of Interpersonal Situations Discomfort scale (IIS-D); and The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Results indicated that both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance have a direct effect on indices of social anxiety symptomology. Reappraisal partially mediated the relationship between attachment anxiety and social anxiety. However, the relationship between attachment avoidance and social anxiety was not mediated by the use of reappraisal and suppression. Findings of the study have implications for the development of clinical interventions targeting mediators of psychological distress associated with social anxiety.
... In comparison with hard emotions, soft emotions have a negative impact when they are chronic or extreme. Kashdan (2006) indicates that partners which listen everyday soft emotions which require responsiveness, provision of reassurance and comfort will feel fatigue, burnout and negative mood contagion. Moreover, McNulty (2010) suggests in his review that the majority of interventions for treating marital distress are tending to use thoughts and behaviours associated with positive emotions, but these positive processes tend to have results in the case of relatively healthy couple, while for couples with severe problems, the more-negative processes tend to be more efficiently. ...
The universal human tendency to form close relationships, the basic needs satisfied by social relationships and the centrality of them to human existence were ones of the most important reasons why people started to research the concept of close relationships and its impact on the daily life. In the last 4 decades, the studies of the interpersonal relationships have been one of the favorite areas in the social psychology. The several strong theories and highly generative research paradigms on interpersonal relationships are the result of researchers' interest in this concept. A central role was played by the romantic relationships concept. At the beginning of the 1980s, the publication of studies on relationship types began, and later on, articles on theories about factors of formation, development, maintenance and dissolution of one romantic relationship were published. Across time, they discover that social relationships represent the context in which people experience their most intense emotions, both positive and negative. Especially, the experience and expression of emotions are influencing the formation, maintenance and dissolution of close relationships. Thus, based on these assumptions, this paper is an overview of synthetizing (a) how the concept of romantic relationships is view by different theories; (b) what are the benefits of them; and (c) which type of negative emotions are experienced within a romantic relationship.
Keywords:emotion, romantic relationships, soft, hard, fear-based, flat emotions.
... As a result of the research, it has been seen that the increase of social anxiety will decrease the emotional attachment that includes the participation, communication, sharing and performance of the individual. Kashdan et al. (2007) are similar to the result obtained. As the level of social anxiety increased, the qualities of expressing the emotions of the persons were found to decrease significantly in terms of individual attractiveness perceptions and interpersonal intimacy. ...
Çalışmanın amacı, havacılık sektöründe istihdam edilen kabin personelinin
sosyal kaygı düzeylerinin örgütsel bağlılık üzerindeki etkisini incelemektir. Çalışmada,
havacılık sektörünün önde gelen şirketinde görev yapan 130 kabin personeline yönelik
uygulamalı bir araştırma yapılmış ve anket formu ile toplanan veriler analiz edilmiştir.
Araştırma grubunda yer alan kabin personelinin demografik faktörleri incelenmiştir.
Cinsiyette ve öğrenim durumunda, sosyal kaygı üzerinde istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir
fark olmadığı görülürken; medeni durum, çalışma süresi, yaş ve görevde fark olduğu
tespit edilmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucunda, kabin personelinin sosyal kaygı düzeylerinin
düşük olduğu ve örgütsel bağlılıklarının da yüksek olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sosyal
kaygının örgütsel bağlılığın alt boyutları olan duygusal ve devamlılık bağlılığı üzerinde
negatif yönlü bir etkisi olduğu görülmektedir.
The aim of the study is to determine whether the levels of social anxiety of cabin
personnel employed in the aviation sector on organizational commitment. In the study,
an applied research was carried out on the 130 cabin personnel working in the leading
enterprises of the aviation sector and the collected data were analyzed by the
questionnaire form. The demographic factors of the cabin staff in the research group
were observed. While there was no statistically significant difference in social anxiety in
terms of gender and education, there was statistically significant difference in social anxiety in terms of marital status, duration of study, age and duty. As a result of the
study, it was detected that the level of social anxiety of cabin personnel is low and
organizational commitment of cabin personnel is high. It has been found that the social
anxiety has a negative effect on the subordinate dimensions of emotional and
organizational commitment.
... Mental health concerns may lead one to feel less sure of their ability to maintain a relationship. Anxiety and other issues with social relations are associated with poorer relationship functioning (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007), and poor emotional well-being or distress might indicate depressive symptomology or other conditions, which are associated with poorer relationship functioning and less success in maintaining long-term relationships (Sandberg-Thoma & Kamp Dush, 2014). General well-being is closely associated with intimate relationships and might also be associated with expectations of divorce (Kamp Dush & Amato, 2005;Kim & McKenry, 2002). ...
Expectations that one may eventually divorce may predict behavior in young adulthood and beyond, but studies that have looked at individuals’ assessments of their divorce likelihood have been limited. Guided by the expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation, we tested five categories of potential predictors of divorce expectations in a sample of 1,610 unmarried young adults from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Transition to Adulthood Study. Predictors were tested separately by gender and partnership status. Results suggested that some predictors mattered more for some groups than others, such as employment for single men or certainty of marriage for partnered women. Consistent with prior research, caregiver divorce was significantly associated with expectations to divorce but was only one of many factors found to predict these expectations. Socioeconomic factors and experiences and expectations of other relationships consistently predicted expectations. Expectations to divorce are multifaceted and complex.
... The regression analysis carried out in this study supports this qualitative account, as having both autism and high anxiety accounted for a significant reduction in relationship closeness on the URCS. While the impact of anxiety on relationships has usually been studied through the lens of attachment style, there is evidence to suggest that high social anxiety makes people less likely to express their emotions to their partner, and that this can have a negative effect on relationship closeness (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007). Those with higher levels of anxiety are also likely to perceive more conflict in their romantic relationships, and these conflicts are more likely to escalate rather than be easily resolved, both of which result in lower levels of relationship closeness and more relationship distress (Campbell, Simpson, Boldry, & Kashy, 2005). ...
Despite a wealth of interest in, and research on, gender differences in the friendships and social relationships of neurotypical children and adults, there is a paucity of research on such differences in individuals on the autism spectrum. Only three published papers focus specifically on the friendships of autistic individuals in the same age range as the work of this PhD, and these have included predominantly male participants, who do not represent the range of female experiences. This PhD therefore sought to redress this imbalance by focussing on the peer relationship, friendships, and conflict experiences of adolescent girls, as well as women on the autism spectrum, in comparison to their autistic male and neurotypical female peers. Parental views on the relationships of autistic girls were also sought. In Chapter One, I review the literature investigating peer relationships amongst autistic adolescents, neurotypical adolescents, and autistic adults, focussing on their experiences of conflict within those relationships and their potential impact. Chapters Two and Three focus on data from adolescents. In Chapter Two, I present data from a mixed-methods study showing that autistic adolescents rate their best-friendships as like those of neurotypical adolescents, but that autistic adolescents experience far more peer conflict, and these experiences are qualitatively different for autistic girls compared to all other groups. In Chapter Three, I examine the factors that potentially underpin friendship strength and victimisation for male and female adolescents, following the results of Chapter Two and using data from the same participants. In Chapter Four, which focuses specifically on adult women, I report data from autistic and neurotypical adult women, examining similar constructs and questions to the adolescent study (Chapter Two). In Chapter Five, I directly compare the qualitative data from autistic girls, autistic women, and the girls’ parents. I take a developmental perspective, examining which factors might lead to the potential vulnerability described in Chapter Four, to understand which preventative measures might be used to support autistic girls as they grow up. In Chapter Six, I discuss the significance of these findings in the context of the extant literature on both autism in girls and women, and of the peer relationships of autistic adolescents. I conclude by suggesting that the relationships and social experiences of autistic girls and women are qualitatively different to those of both autistic boys and neurotypical girls and women. These findings suggest that autistic girls and women require specialised and targeted support to enable them to successfully and safely engage with their peers in adolescence and beyond.
... Research has only recently begun to explore social anxiety in the context of close relationships. For example, people with higher levels of social anxiety show lower levels of self-disclosure with their romantic partners (Cuming & Rapee, 2010;Sparrevohn & Rapee, 2009;Wenzel, 2002), along with decreased closeness to their romantic partners during mutual expressions of pain or distress (Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007). However, it is not clear why people with elevated social anxiety might be less close. ...
Socially anxious people report less closeness to others, but very little research has examined how social anxiety is related to closeness in real-time social interactions. The present study investigated social anxiety, closeness, and cortisol reactivity in zero-acquaintance interactions between 84 same-sex dyads (168 participants). Dyads engaged in either a high or low self-disclosure discussion task and completed self-report measures of closeness and desired closeness post-task. Salivary cortisol was collected before, during, and after the self-disclosure task. Multilevel models indicated that in the high self-disclosure condition, individuals higher in social anxiety displayed flatter declines in cortisol than those lower in social anxiety; cortisol declines were not significantly related to social anxiety in the low self-disclosure condition. Further, across both conditions, individual’s social anxiety was associated with decreased levels of closeness and desired closeness, particularly when individuals were paired with partners higher in social anxiety. These findings are discussed in relation to previous work on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal function, social anxiety, and interpersonal closeness.
... Research on SAD demonstrated reduction of perceived closeness in socially anxious individuals when confronted with a partner's anticipated negative critique. Contrariwise, the opposite was found for nonsocially anxious individuals [36,37]. It also appears that people with high SAD symptoms use fewer positive interaction skills (e.g., compliments, empathy, nonverbal behavior) and display more negative communication (e.g., blaming) compared to people with low SAD symptoms. ...
... A person who expresses his negative feelings openly in the workplace would not be able to align his true emotions with the expected emotions thus finding it difficult to indulge in deep acting. A teacher who is in a habit of expressing his negative feelings in the class will not be able to produce the required results because displaying adverse feelings may lead to attract negative response from the students and teachers are subject to embarrassment, blunders and rejection (Kashdan, T.B., Volkmann, J.R., Breen, W.E & Han, S., 2006). In this situation the teacher will be emotionally exhausted and his job performance will be declined. ...
The study was intended to find out the impact of expressivity and impulse strength on burnout and turnover intention with a mediating role of deep acting. A total of 161 responses was used for the analysis of the study. Correlation, regression and sobel statistics were used for analysis purposes. Results indicated significant influences of expressivity and impulse strength towards burnout and turnover intentions. Deep acting also found playing mediating role.
... This risk is managed primarily through hypervigilance to signs of negative evaluation and avoidance of distressing emotions and thoughts (Aframn & Kashdan, 2015). According to Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han (2007), people with social anxiety tend to suppress their feelings in order to prevent the possible expression of unfavorable emotions to others which may invite social blunders, shame, and rejection. Social anxious people can be expected to fear the negative outcomes of expression of negative feelings such as anxiety and anger toward others. ...
... The effect of closeness discrepancies on the quality of relationships and individuals' mental health has been the subject of recent research (Frost & Forrester, 2013;Kashdan, Volkmann, Breen, & Han, 2007). A longitudinal study of the general adult population (Frost & Forrester, 2013) highlighted how higher levels of closeness is not always beneficial for relationships. ...
This study examined the impact of sexual closeness on sexual well-being. We developed a nuanced and multifaceted conceptualization of sexual closeness in the form of a constellation of ideal sexual closeness with a partner, actual sexual closeness, and the discrepancy between the two. Data were obtained from a diverse sample of N?=?619 participants who took part in the Lives and Relationships Study: A longitudinal survey of men and women in relationships living in the U.S. and Canada. Increases in sexual closeness discrepancies over a period of 1?year predicted concomitant decreases in two indicators of sexual well-being: sexual satisfaction and orgasm frequency evaluations. Decreases in sexual closeness discrepancies resulted in improvement in sexual well-being. Individuals who reported no sexual closeness discrepancies and experienced no changes in sexual closeness discrepancies tended to have the highest levels of sexual well-being. Importantly, sexual closeness discrepancies were robust predictors of sexual well-being, above and beyond individuals' actual sexual closeness, general relationship closeness, and other demographic and relationship characteristics known to be associated with sexual well-being. The present findings demonstrate that how close people feel sexually to their relationship partners is part of a general constellation of factors related to relationship closeness that, only when considered together, sufficiently explain the ways in which experiences of closeness impact sexual well-being in romantic relationships.
Unlabelled:
The emotional experiences you have with a romantic partner shape how satisfied you are in your relationship. Engaging in attempts to make a romantic partner feel better is linked with better relationship outcomes. However, it is not yet clear which specific processes people use to regulate their partners' emotions, nor which processes are most strongly linked with relationship satisfaction. In the current study of 277 individuals (55% female), we tested the extent to which eight extrinsic emotion regulation processes (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humor, distraction, direct action, reappraisal, receptive listening, and valuing) predict relationship satisfaction. Six of the eight processes showed significant positive correlations with relationship satisfaction, with the strongest associations for valuing (r = .43), humor (r = .33), and receptive listening (r = .27). Relative weights were significant only for valuing, humor, and receptive listening, suggesting that these are the most important predictors of relationship satisfaction. Results are discussed in terms of the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation processes and the potential importance of motives for regulation.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04432-4.
Purpose: The purpose of this research is to study of the relationship between the social appearance anxiety levels and conscious awareness levels of the students studying at the university in terms of sports and different variables. The study was carried out on a total of 1000 individuals, 503 female and 497 male students studying at Atatürk University in 2018 – 2019 academic year. Method: İn this study , the scale of social appearance anxiety, a self report scale developed Hart and his friend(2008) was used to measure the emotional , cognitive and behavioral anxiety experienced by the individual. Used by Tayfun Doğan (2010).And the conscious awareness scale developed by Brown and Ryan(2003) was used to measure the level of awareness. For data analiysis, the data were transferred to the computer via the SPSS package program. Used by Zümra Özyeşil (2011). Frequency distiribution in the determination of propertion in data analysis, T test to examine the relationship between the two independent variables and the level of awareness of concscious with social appearance, Anova Waryans ana1ysis tests were used to examine the relationship between social appearance anxiety levels and conscious awareness levels with more than two variable. The difference between the variables was interpreted on the basis of P.0.05 significance level. Findings: According to findings, it was found that the students’ social anxiety levels were significantly different depending on the variables such as gender, age, personal monthly income, type of sports activity and the duration of performing weekly sport achvities. The level of conscious awareness was also found to be significantly different depending on variables such as the duration of weekly sporting activity and the aim of making sportive activitiess. A significant relationship was found between students’social appearance anxiety levels and conscious awareness levels. Result : In order to reduce the negative effects of social appearance anxiety in our daily lives, training based on conscious awareness can be extended. Key Words: Social Appearance Anxiety, Conscious Awareness, Sportive Activity, University Students
Background:
Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is associated with pervasive functional impairments and chronicity. Romantic relationship functioning and quality for individuals with SAD has been previously explored but existing studies have not been synthesised.
Aims:
This scoping review charted existing literature regarding the quality and functioning of romantic relationships for people with SAD and high sub-clinical social anxiety (SA).
Methods:
The review used a scoping approach to explore the current evidence base relating to SA, romantic relationship quality and functioning. Articles published in English after 1980 that reported either clinical or high sub-clinical SA were eligible. Double screening, data extraction, quality assessment, and thematic analysis of studies was conducted.
Results:
50 studies from 46 articles were identified, involving a range of community, college, adolescent, and clinical samples. Thematic analysis identified four themes; Relationship Quality, Satisfaction and Commitment; Communication and Self-Disclosure; Conflict, Social Support and Trust; Intimacy, Closeness and Sexual Satisfaction.
Conclusions:
The review highlights that evidence relating to romantic relationship functioning for individuals with SAD and high sub-clinical SA is heterogeneous, with relationship initiation in particular relatively under-explored. Further research is required to elucidate key constructs and interpersonal processes related to relationship functioning, and to inform treatment approaches with this group.
Thesis is a graduation requirement for students, of course it will cause some students to feel anxious at the moment working on. The anxiety could arise because of some things that are considered threatened. Besides anxiety can also arise due to low confidence in the ability of self or self-efficacy. This study was conducted to examine the correlation between self-efficacy with the anxiety of students who are working on the thesis. The scale used in this study is the scale of self-efficacy and anxiety scales. The subjects used in this research were 161 students from the Universitas Ibrahimy who was working on a thesis. The results showed a negative relationship between self-efficacy with anxiety in students who are working on the thesis with the calculated product moment correlation (r = -0.606, p = 0.000, p <0.01).
Objectives: Our main hypothesis in this study was that patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) and comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) had lower empathy levels than those without ADHD. Also, after controlling for the severity of SAD and depression, we hypothesized that ADHD symptoms contributed to lower levels of empathy in SAD patients.
Methods: 72 patients (46 females, 32 males) with SAD between the ages of 18–65 years were divided into two groups as those with (n = 32) and those without ADHD (n = 40). Participants were evaluated using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), Turgay’s Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Empathy Quotient. In this study, Mann Whitney-U test, Spearman correlation test, logistic and multiple regression analysis were used.
Results: Education level (U = 371.5, p = .002) and empathy scores (U = 259.5, p < .0001) of SAD patients with ADHD were significantly lower than those without ADHD. BDI (U = 206.5, p < .0001), LSAS total (U = 454.5, p = .036), fear (U = 457.0, p = .038), and avoidance scores (U = 453.0, p = .034) were higher in SAD patients with ADHD than those without ADHD. Low levels of empathy (B = - 0.119, Exp(B) = 0.895, p = .014) and high severity of current depression (B = 0.119, Exp(B) = 1.127, p = .001) were significantly associated with comorbidity between SAD and ADHD. ADHD-inattention (β = −0.369, Exp(B) = −0.541, p = .004), and depression (β = −0.262, Exp(B) = −0.212, p = .036) negatively predicted empathy levels.
Conclusions: Our findings may provide some evidence for the contribution of ADHD-inattention and depression to poor empathy in SAD patients. Therefore, it is recommended that symptoms of ADHD-inattention and depression should be carefully evaluated in SAD patients with low empathy.
Introduction: Social anxiety contributes to a variety of interpersonal difficulties and dysfunctions. Socially anxious adults are less likely to marry and more likely to divorce than are non-anxious adults. The present pre-registered study investigated incremental variance accounted for by social anxiety in relationship satisfaction, commitment, trust, and social support. Methods: Three independent samples of adults (N = 888; 53.7% female; M age = 35.09 years) involved in a romantic relationship completed online self-report questionnaires. Both social anxiety and depression were significantly correlated with relationship satisfaction, commitment, dyadic trust, and social support. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted with each sample to investigate the incremental variance accounted for by each of social anxiety and depression in relationship satisfaction, commitment, dyadic trust, and social support. Subsequent meta-analyses were run to determine the strength and replicability of the hierarchical models. Results: Results suggest that social anxiety is a robust predictor of unique variance in both perceived social support and commitment. Depression was a robust predictor of unique variance in relationship satisfaction, dyadic trust, social support, and commitment. Discussion: These results help to further understanding of social anxiety in romantic relationships and provide direction for future research and clinical intervention.
Intimate relationships matter to health and happiness. However, the vast scope of relationship research and the abundance of precise micro-theories has presented obstacles to the development of integrative theories with contextual-behavioral foundations that are oriented towards application of findings in domains of public health significance. Derived from the well-validated Interpersonal Process Model, which described intimacy as a dyadic exchange in which Person A engages in a vulnerable self-disclosure, Person B enacts a response, and Person A perceives the response as responsive, we present an integrative, analytic-abstractive, contextual-behavioral model of intimate relations. The model describes the intimacy process as a set of functional relations describing behaviors and responses of Persons A and B in context, languaged as middle-level terms to facilitate cross-disciplinary applications. Three primary relations of the model are non-verbal emotional expression (Person A) and safety (Person B), verbal self-disclosure (Person A) and validation (Person B), and asking (Person A) and giving (Person B). The model also emphasizes the importance of self- and other-awareness, expressions of closeness, and reciprocity as additional terms. Future research directions and potential applications are discussed.
People with social anxiety disorder (SAD) frequently report interpersonal problems across various domains; however, it is unclear whether these problems are observable by others or represent negatively biased self-report. We assessed the interpersonal problems of people with and without SAD using self-report, friend, and romantic partner report. We hypothesized that SAD diagnosis would predict self-reported problems across multiple interpersonal domains, but restricted domains of informant report. Additionally, we hypothesized that diagnosis would predict discrepancy between self and informant report either in the form of a bias toward reporting more problems or in the form of lack of concordance between self and informant reporters. Using structural equation and multilevel models, we found evidence for differences between people with and without SAD in terms of domains of impairment observed by self and informants as well as differences in correspondence across relationship types. Results highlight the utility of multi-informant assessment of SAD.
Social anxiety is correlated with diminished global positive affect (PA). However, it is not clear from the data whether this relationship is due to global PA, or to specific emotions such as joy or pride. We hypothesized that pride will account for most of the relationship between social anxiety and PA after controlling for depression. Results of Study 1 (N=352) supported the hypothesis that when pride and PA were in the same model, only pride was significantly related to social anxiety. The same pattern was found when pride and joy were in the same model. When multiple facets of positive emotions (pride, love, joy, contentment, amusement, awe and compassion) were in the same model, only pride and love were significantly related to social anxiety. Results of Study 2 (N=288) replicated the findings that only pride was significantly related to social anxiety, but counter to our hypothesis, revealed that pride experience was significantly related to social anxiety more than reported expressions of pride. Study 3 extended these findings to a clinical, treatment seeking sample of 23 patients diagnosed with generalized social anxiety disorder and 35 low-anxious controls. When predicting group (patients vs. non-patient) by pride and PA, only pride was a significant predictor. Pride continued to be a predictor when controlling for either fear of positive or negative evaluation. Thus, all three studies demonstrated the importance of the specific experience of pride in its relationship to social anxiety.
Emotion expression is critical for the communication of important social information, such as emotional states and behavioral intentions. However, people tend to vary in their level of emotional expression. This meta-analysis investigated the relationships between levels of emotion expression and suppression, and social and interpersonal outcomes. PsycINFO databases, as well as reference lists were searched. Forty-three papers from a total of 3,200 papers met inclusion criteria, allowing for 105 effect sizes to be calculated. Meta-analyses revealed that greater suppression of emotion was significantly associated with poorer social wellbeing, including more negative first impressions, lower social support, lower social satisfaction and quality, and poorer romantic relationship quality. Furthermore, the expression of positive and general/nonspecific emotion was related to better social outcomes, while the expression of anger was associated with poorer social wellbeing. Expression of negative emotion generally was also associated with poorer social outcomes, although this effect size was very small and consisted of mixed results. These findings highlight the importance of considering the role that regulation of emotional expression can play in the development of social dysfunction and interpersonal problems. (PsycINFO Database Record
Our model outlines the cognitive operations, response strategies, and dynamics of the attachment system in adulthood. It also describes the goals of each attachment strategy and their psychological manifestations and consequences. Whereas the goals of security-based strategies are to form intimate relationships, to build a person's psychological resources, and to broaden his or her perspectives and capacities, the goal of secondary attachment strategies is to manage attachment-system activation and reduce or eliminate the pain caused by frustrated proximity-seeking attempts. Hyperactivating strategies keep the person focused on the search for love and security, and constantly on the alert for threats, separations, and betrayals. Deactivating strategies keep the attachment system in check, with serious consequences for cognitive and emotional openness. This framework serves as our "working model" for understanding the activation and functioning of the attachment system in adulthood. It also provides a framework for reviewing our research findings, which is the mission of the next section.
The present study was designed to test the assumption that gender differences in emotion expression are based on differences in the motives held by men and women in social interactions. Three hundred and fourteen students participated in this study by completing a questionnaire. Each questionnaire contained two vignettes that varied with respect to type of emotion (anger, disappointment, fear or sadness), sex of target, and object-target relationship. Dependent variables included measures of emotion expression and of motives for regulating one's emotions. The results support the general hypothesis that women are more concerned with relationships and less reluctant to express powerless emotions, whereas men are more motivated to stay in control and tend to express emotions that reflect their power.
We propose that to some extent, people treat the resources, perspectives, and identities of close others as their own. This proposal is supported by allocation, attribution, response time, and memory experiments. Recently, we have applied this idea to deepening understanding of feeling “too close” (including too much of the other in the self leading to feeling controlled or a loss of identity), the effects of relationship loss (it is distressing to the extent that the former partner was included in the self, liberating to the extent that the former partner was preventing self-expansion), ingroup identification (including ingroup in the self), and the effect of outgroup friendships on outgroup attitudes (including outgroup member in the self entails including outgroup member's identity in the self).
We conducted two studies to examine how a potential helper is affected by having a communal orientation toward a relationship with a potential recipient and by the potential recipient's sadness. We hypothesized that (a) having a communal orientation would increase helping and that (b) people high in communal orientation, but not others, would respond to a potential recipient's sadness by increasing helping. These hypotheses were tested in two studies. In Study 1, individual differences in communal orientation toward relationships were measured by using a new communal orientation scale reported for the first time in this article. In Study 2, manipulations were used to lead subjects to desire either a communal or an exchange relationship with another person. In both studies, subjects were exposed to a sad person or to a person in a neutral mood whom they were given a chance to help. As hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects helped the other significantly more than did others. Also as hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects but not others, increased helping in response to the other person's sadness although this effect reached statistical significance only in the second study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Syndromal classification is a well-developed diagnostic system but has failed to deliver on its promise of the identification of functional pathological processes. Functional analysis is tightly connected to treatment but has failed to develop testable, replicable classification systems. Functional diagnostic dimensions are suggested as a way to develop the functional classification approach, and experiential avoidance is described as 1 such dimension. A wide range of research is reviewed showing that many forms of psychopathology can be conceptualized as unhealthy efforts to escape and avoid emotions, thoughts, memories, and other private experiences. It is argued that experiential avoidance, as a functional diagnostic dimension, has the potential to integrate the efforts and findings of researchers from a wide variety of theoretical paradigms, research interests, and clinical domains and to lead to testable new approaches to the analysis and treatment of behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The paradox of distress expression is that expression of negative feelings is both a sign of distress and a possible means of coping with that distress. This article describes research illustrating the paradox of distress expression. It reviews evidence concerning 3 possible mechanisms by which expression might alleviate distress, focusing on the role of expression in (a) reducing distress about distress, (b) facilitating insight, and (c) affecting interpersonal relationships in a desired way. The authors conclude by highlighting the circumstances under which expression is most likely to be adaptive. Overall, the authors argue that expression of negative feelings is adaptive to the extent that it leads to some kind of resolution involving the source or significance of distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The psychometric adequacy of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; R. P. Mattick & J. C. Clark, 1989), a measure of social interaction anxiety, and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS; R. P. Mattick & J. C. Clark, 1989), a measure of anxiety while being observed by others, was evaluated in anxious patients and normal controls. Social phobia patients scored higher on both scales and were more likely to be identified as having social phobia than other anxious patients (except for agoraphobic patients on the SPS) or controls. Clinician-rated severity of social phobia was moderately related to SIAS and SPS scores. Additional diagnoses of mood or panic disorder did not affect SIAS or SPS scores among social phobia patients, but an additional diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder was associated with SIAS scores. Number of reported feared social interaction situations was more highly correlated with scores on the SIAS, whereas number of reported feared performance situations was more highly correlated with scores on the SPS. These scales appear to be useful in screening, designing individualized treatments, and evaluating the outcomes of treatments for social phobia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The studies of emotion function and emotional disorders complement one another. In this article, the authors outline relations between the social functions of emotion and four psychological disorders. The authors first present a social-functional account of emotion and argue that emotions help coordinate social interactions through their informative, evocative, and incentive functions. They then review evidence concerning the emotional and social problems related to depression, schizophrenia, social anxiety, and borderline personality disorder and consider how the emotional disturbances related to these disorders disrupt interactions and relationships, thus contributing further to the maintenance of the disorder. They conclude by discussing research strategies relevant to the study of emotion, social interaction, and psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies evaluated the reliability and validity of the Investment Model Scale, an instrument designed to measure four constructs, including commitment level and three bases of dependence–satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. In all three studies, reliability analyses revealed good internal consistency among items designed to measure each construct. Also, principal components analyses performed on scale items revealed evidence of four factors, with items designed to measure each construct loading on independent factors. Studies 2 and 3 examined associations of model variables with instruments measuring diverse qualities of relationships and assorted personal dispositions. As anticipated, Investment Model variables were moderately associated with other measures reflecting superior couple functioning (e.g., dyadic adjustment, trust level, inclusion of other in the self), and were essentially unrelated to measures assessing personal dispositions (e.g., need for cognition, self-esteem). In addition, Study 3 demonstrated that earlier measures of Investment Model variables predicted later levels of dyadic adjustment and later relationship status (persisted vs. ended). It is hoped that the existence of a reliable and valid Investment Model Scale will promote further research regarding commitment and interdependence in ongoing close relationships.
Using a randomized wait-list controlled design, this study evaluated the effects of a novel intervention, mindfulness-based relationship enhancement, designed to enrich the relationships of relatively happy, nondistressed couples. Results suggested the intervention was efficacious in (a) favorably impacting couples' levels of relationship satisfaction, autonomy, relatedness, closeness, acceptance of one another, and relationship distress; (b) beneficially affecting individuals' optimism, spirituality, relaxation, and psychological distress; and (c) maintaining benefits at 3-month follow-up. Those who practiced mindfulness more had better outcomes, and within-person analyses of diary measures showed greater mindfulness practice on a given day was associated on several consecutive days with improved levels of relationship happiness, relationship stress, stress coping efficacy, and overall stress.
Using an explicit model of emotion, we developed the Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire. This measure of emotional expressivity has three facets: impulse strength, negative expressivity, and positive expressivity. After evaluating its factor structure and psychometric properties, we tested propositions derived from an analysis of display rules. As predicted, women were more expressive than men; Asian-Americans less expressive than other ethnic groups; and Democrats more expressive than Republicans. Expressivity also was related to two mood dimensions and to four of the Big Five personality dimensions. The pattern of findings for the subscales showed convergent and discriminant validity. Positive mood, Extraversion, and Agreeableness were most strongly related to the Positive Expressivity subscale. Negative mood, Neuroticism, and somatic complaints were most strongly related to the Impulse Strength and Negative Expressivity subscales.
On the basis of an interdependence analysis, it is proposed that commitment to a close relationship is associated with cognitive interdependence—a mental state characterized by a pluralistic, collective representation of the self-in-relationship. A cross-sectional survey study and a 2-wave longitudinal study revealed that strong commitment to a romantic relationship is associated with greater spontaneous plural pronoun usage, greater perceived unity of self and partner, and greater reported relationship centrality. Commitment and cognitive interdependence operate in a cycle of mutual influence, such that earlier commitment predicts change over time in cognitive interdependence, and earlier cognitive interdependence predicts change over time in commitment. Links between commitment and cognitive interdependence were weak or nonsignificant for relationships among best friends, suggesting that this phenomenon may be unique to romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved). (from the journal abstract)
Cross-sectional analyses of data collected from a large sample of incoming college freshmen were used to determine whether the perceived availability of social support protects persons from stress-induced depressive affect; whether social competence, social anxiety, and self-disclosure are responsible for the stress-protective effect of perceived social support; and whether these social skill measures discriminate among persons for whom support will help, hinder, or be ineffective in the face of stress. Prospective analyses based on the original testing (beginning of school year) and 11- and 22-week follow-ups of a randomly selected subsample were used to determine how the same social skill factors influence the development and maintenance of support perceptions and of friendships. Evidence is provided for a stress-buffering role of the perceived availability of social support. The stress-buffering effect is unaffected by controls for the possible stress-protective influences of social anxiety, social competence, and self-disclosure. Although these social skill factors do not discriminate among persons for whom support will help, hinder, or be ineffective, they are prospectively predictive of the development of both social support and friendship formation. These prospective relations between social skills and the development of perceived availability of social support are only partly mediated by number of friends.
This article presents a theory of how different types of discrepancies between self-state representa- tions are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. One domain of the self (actual; ideal; ought) and one standpoint on the self (own; significant other) constitute each type of self-state representation. It is proposed that different types of self-discrepancies represent different types of negative psychological situations that are associated with different kinds of discomfort. Discrepan- cies between the actual/own self-state (i.e., the self-concept) and ideal self-stales (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's hopes, wishes, or aspirations for the individual) signify the absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions (e.g., disappointment, dissatisfaction, sadness). In contrast, discrepancies between the ac- tual/own self-state and ought self-states (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's beliefs about the individual's duties, responsibilities, or obligations) signify the presence of negative outcomes, which is associated with agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Differences in both the relative magnitude and the accessibility of individu- als' available types of self-discrepancies are predicted to be related to differences in the kinds of discomfort people are likely to experience. Correlational and experimental evidence supports the predictions of the model. Differences between serf-discrepancy theory and (a) other theories of in- compatible self-beliefs and (b) actual self negativity (e.g., low self-esteem) are discussed.
People high in rejection sensitivity (RS) anxiously expect rejection and are at risk for interpersonal and personal distress. Two studies examined the role of self-regulation through strategic attention deployment in moderating the link between RS and maladaptive outcomes. Self-regulation was assessed by the delay of gratification (DG) paradigm in childhood. In Study 1, preschoolers from the Stanford University community who participated in the DG paradigm were assessed 20 years later. Study 2 assessed low-income, minority middle school children on comparable measures. DG ability buffered high-RS people from interpersonal difficulties (aggression, peer rejection) and diminished well-being (e.g., low self-worth, higher drug use). The protective effect of DG ability on high-RS children's self-worth is explained by reduced interpersonal problems. Attentional mechanisms underlying the interaction between RS and strategic self-regulation are discussed.
Social exclusion was manipulated by telling people that they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them. These manipulations caused participants to behave more aggressively. Excluded people issued a more negative job evaluation against someone who insulted them (Experiments 1 and 2). Excluded people also blasted a target with higher levels of aversive noise both when the target had insulted them (Experiment 4) and when the target was a neutral person and no interaction had occurred (Experiment 5). However, excluded people were not more aggressive toward someone who issued praise (Experiment 3). These responseswere specific to social exclusion (as opposed to other misfortunes) and were not mediated by emotion
Social exclusion was manipulated by telling people that they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them. These manipulations caused participants to behave more aggressively. Excluded people issued a more negative job evaluation against someone who insulted them (Experiments 1 and 2). Excluded people also blasted a target with higher levels of aversive noise both when the target had insulted them (Experiment 4) and when the target was a neutral person and no interaction had occurred (Experiment 5). However, excluded people were not more aggressive toward someone who issued praise (Experiment 3). These responses were specific to social exclusion (as opposed to other misfortunes) and were not mediated by emotion.
We conducted two studies to examine how a potential helper is affected by having a communal orientation toward a relationship with a potential recipient and by the potential recipient's sadness. We hypothesized that (a) having a communal orientation would increase helping and that (b) people high in communal orientation, but not others, would respond to a potential recipient's sadness by increasing helping. These hypotheses were tested in two studies. In Study 1, individual differences in communal orientation toward relationships were measured by using a new communal orientation scale reported for the first time in this article. In Study 2, manipulations were used to lead subjects to desire either a communal or an exchange relationship with another person. In both studies, subjects were exposed to a sad person or to a person in a neutral mood whom they were given a chance to help. As hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects helped the other significantly more than did others. Also as hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects but not others, increased helping in response to the other person's sadness although this effect reached statistical significance only in the second study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Social phobia is increasingly recognized as a prevalent and socially impairing mental disorder. However, little data is available regarding the general and disease-specific impairments and disabilities associated with social phobia. Furthermore, most studies have not controlled for the confounding effects of comorbid conditions. This study investigates: (a) the generic quality of life; (b) work productivity; and, (c) various other disorder-specific social impairments in current cases with pure (n = 65), comorbid (n = 51) and subthreshold (n = 34) DSM-IV social phobia as compared to controls with no social phobia (subjects with a history of herpes infections). Social phobia cases reported a mean illness duration of 22.9 years with onset in childhood or adolescence. Current quality of life, as assessed by the SF-36, was significantly reduced in all social phobia groups, particularly in the scales measuring vitality, general health, mental health, role limitations due to emotional health, and social functioning. Comorbid cases revealed more severe reductions than pure and subthreshold social phobics. Findings from the Liebowitz self-rated disability scale indicated that: (a) social phobia affects most areas of life, but in particular education, career, and romantic relationship; (b) the presence of past and current comorbid conditions increases the frequency of disease-specific impairments; and, (c) subthreshold social phobia revealed slightly lower overall impairments than comorbid social phobics. Past week work productivity of social phobics was significantly diminished as indicated by: (a) a three-fold higher rate of unemployed cases; (b) elevated rates of work hours missed due to social phobia problems; and, (c) a reduced work performance. Overall, these findings underline that social phobia in our sample of adults, whether comorbid, subthreshold, or pure was a persisting and impairing condition, resulting in considerable subjective suffering and negative impact on work performance and social relationships. The current disabilities and impairments were usually less pronounced than in the past, presumably due to adaptive behaviors in life style of the respondents. Data also confirmed that social phobia is poorly recognized and rarely treated by the mental health system.
When women express hostility, the target is typically a significant other. Our efforts to account for this observation center on the role of rejection sensitivity - the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection - in women's hostility. We have previously shown that dispositional anxious expectations about rejection by a significant other prompt women to readily perceive rejection and to react with hostility in situations that activate rejection expectations. These findings led us to propose that the hostility of women in such situations is a specific reaction to perceived rejection. Results from three studies support this proposition. Using a priming-pronunciation task paradigm, Study 1 revealed that rejection thoughts facilitated hostile thoughts to a greater extent in women high in rejection expectations (HRS) than in those low in rejection expectations (LRS). Chronic accessibility of hostile thoughts was unrelated to rejection expectations. Study 2 found that, following rejection by a potential dating partner, HRS women evaluated their prospective partners less positively than LRS women. Partner evaluations were unrelated to rejection expectations in a nonrejection control condition. Using a daily diary methodology, Study 3 showed that HRS women were more likely than LRS women to report a conflict with their romantic partners only when they had felt rejected on the previous day.
Taking a “Gestalt” perspective, we propose that a particular pattern of self-beliefs, as a whole, has a distinct psychological significance that depends on the interrelations among the self-beliefs and not just the self-beliefs as independent elements. Patterns of self-beliefs were identified that contained a particular type of self-discrepancy in common but differed in how a third self-belief related to that self-discrepancy. First, four patterns were compared that each involved an actual:ideal discrepancy: A F], A F] pattern as a whole signifies “doing less well than wished for but not less than expected” whereas the A < I[= F] pattern as a whole signifies “chronically unfulfilled hopes.” The A = C [< I] pattern as a whole signifies “fulfillment of one's limited potential” whereas the A < C[= I] pattern as a whole signifies “chronic failure to me...
This article outlines some basic ideas of an evolutionary approach to psychopathology. It focuses on human competition to be seen as attractive in order to elicit the investment of resources from others (e.g., approval, support, and care). It is argued that social anxiety may be a form of competitive anxiety, triggered in contexts where individuals see themselves as relatively low in the status hierarchy of desirable attributes and/or at risk of losing status (and control over social resources such as approval, help, and support) by being seen as having undesirable attributes. To improve (or defend) their position and garner the investments of others (e.g., win approval, support, friendships or status, or defend their status) requires a competitive venture; however, in attempting to compete, social phobics automatically recruit various evolved modules and mentalities for behaving in competitive arenas when one is low in the hierarchy (e.g., social comparison, placating dominant others and various submissive defenses such as concealment, high self-monitoring, and eye-gaze avoidance). These previously adaptive subordinate defenses interfere with status acquisition based on demonstrating attractive attributes to others.
This article presents a construct validation of a love scale based upon a triangular theory of love. The article opens with a review of some of the major theories of love, and with a discussion of some of the major issues in love research. Next it briefly reviews selected elements of the triangular theory of love, according to which love can be understood as comprising three components—intimacy, passion, and decision/ commitment. Then the article presents two studies constituting the construct validation of the love scale. The construct validation comprises aspects of internal validation—determination of whether the internal structure of the data is consistent with the theory—and external validation—determination of whether the scale based on the theory shows sensible patterns of correlations with external measures. The data are generally, but not completely supportive of the utility of the triangular love scale.
A practical methodology is presented for creating closeness in an experimental context. Whether or not an individual is in a relationship, particular pairings of individuals in the relationship, and circumstances of relationship development become manipulated variables. Over a 45-min period subject pairs carry out self-disclosure and relationship-building tasks that gradually escalate in intensity. Study 1 found greater postinteraction closeness with these tasks versus comparable small-talk tasks. Studies 2 and 3 found no significant closeness effects, inspite of adequate power, for (a) whether pairs were matched for nondisagreement on important attitudes, (b) whether pairs were led to expect mutual liking, or (c) whether getting close was made an explicit goal. These studies also illustrated applications for addressing theoretical issues, yielding provocative tentative findings relating to attachment style and introversion/extraversion.
Social phobia has become a focus of increased research since its inclusion in DSM-III. However, assessment of social phobia has remained an underdeveloped area, especially self-report assessment. Clinical researchers have relied on measures that were developed on college populations, and these measures may not provide sufficient coverage of the range of situations feared by social phobic individuals. There is a need for additional instruments that consider differences in the types of situations (social interaction vs. situations involving observation by others) that may be feared by social phobics and between subgroups of social phobic patients. This study provides validational data on two instruments developed by Mattick and Clarke (1989): the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS), a measure of anxiety in social interactional situations, and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS), a measure of anxiety in situations involving observation by others. These data support the use of the SIAS and SPS in the assessment of individuals with social phobia.
The development and validation of the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) two companion measures for assessing social phobia fears is described. The SPS assesses fears of being scrutinised during routine activities (eating, drinking, writing, etc.), while the SIAS assesses fears of more general social interaction, the scales corresponding to the DSM-III-R descriptions of Social Phobia—Circumscribed and Generalised types, respectively. Both scales were shown to possess high levels of internal consistency and test–retest reliability. They discriminated between social phobia, agoraphobia and simple phobia samples, and between social phobia and normal samples. The scales correlated well with established measures of social anxiety, but were found to have low or non-significant (partial) correlations with established measures of depression, state and trait anxiety, locus of control, and social desirability. The scales were found to change with treatment and to remain stable in the face of no-treatment. It appears that these scales are valid, useful, and easily scored measures for clinical and research applications, and that they represent an improvement over existing measures of social phobia.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Anyone who has ever entrusted a troubling secret to a journal, or mourned a broken heart with a friend, knows the feeling of relief that expressing painful emotions can bring. This book presents evidence that personal self-disclosure is not only good for our emotional health, but boosts our
physical health as well.
The author has conducted controlled clinical research that sheds light on the mind–body connection. This book interweaves his findings with case studies on secret-keeping, confession, and the hidden price of silence. "Opening Up" explains: How writing about your problems can improve your health; How long-buried trauma affects the immune system; Why it's never too late to heal old emotional wounds; and When self-disclosure may be risky—and how to know whom to trust. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 studies, the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale, a single-item, pictorial measure of closeness, demonstrated alternate-form and test–retest reliability; convergent validity with the Relationship Closeness Inventory (E. Berscheid et al, 1989), the R. J. Sternberg (1988) Intimacy Scale, and other measures; discriminant validity; minimal social desirability correlations; and predictive validity for whether romantic relationships were intact 3 mo later. Also identified and cross-validated were (1) a 2-factor closeness model (Feeling Close and Behaving Close) and (2) longevity–closeness correlations that were small for women vs moderately positive for men. Five supplementary studies showed convergent and construct validity with marital satisfaction and commitment and with a reaction-time (RT)-based cognitive measure of closeness in married couples; and with intimacy and attraction measures in stranger dyads following laboratory closeness-generating tasks. In 3 final studies most Ss interpreted IOS Scale diagrams as depicting interconnectedness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this chapter, the authors present a social functional account of emotions that attempts to integrate the relevant insights of evolutionary and social constructivist theorists. The authors' account is summarized in 3 statements: (1) social living presents social animals with problems whose solutions are critical for individual survival; (2) emotions have been designed in the course of evolution to solve these problems; and (3) in humans, culture loosens the linkages between emotions and problems so that cultures find new ways of using emotions. In the first half of the chapter the authors synthesize the positions of diverse theorists in a taxonomy of problems of social living and then consider how evolution-based primordial emotions solve those problems by coordinating social interactions. In the second half of the chapter the authors discuss the specific processes according to which culture transforms primordial emotions and how culturally shaped elaborated emotions help solve the problems of social living. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)