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World J Urol
DOI 10.1007/s00345-006-0127-6
123
TOPIC PAPER
Retarded ejaculation
Michael A. Perelman · David L. Rowland
© Springer-Verlag 2006
Abstract Retarded ejaculation (RE) has a relatively
low prevalence (<3%), yet this condition results in con-
siderable distress, anxiety, and lack of sexual conW-
dence for those suVering from it. Furthermore, men
with partners often experience impairment of both the
sexual and nonsexual aspects of their relationships,
with such negative eVects compounded when procre-
ation is a consideration. The deWnition of RE is ambig-
uous, due to the variability and paucity of data
regarding normal coital ejaculatory latency. RE is
inXuenced by both biogenic and psychogenic compo-
nents, which may vary over time both between and
within individuals. While speciWc pathophysiology can
often be identiWed, further elucidation of the biogenic
components of this dysfunction will require greater
understanding of the physiological mechanisms under-
lying ejaculation. Yet, the most useful strategies for
understanding RE will integrate rather than isolate the
various biogenic and psychogenic aspects of this dys-
function. Evidence based evaluation and treatment
protocols for this disorder are lower than for other sex-
ual dysfunctions, but reports suggest better treatment
eYcacy when the etiology is predominantly psycho-
genic. As with erectile dysfunction (ED) and prema-
ture ejaculation (PE), if safe and eYcacious oral
pharmaceuticals are eventually developed for this con-
dition, the treatment algorithm is likely to undergo sig-
niWcant alteration. Even then, however, the most
eVective treatments are likely to result from a combi-
nation treatment that integrates sex coaching with
pharmacotherapy.
Introduction
Retarded ejaculation (RE) is probably the least com-
mon, and least understood of all the male sexual dys-
functions. RE is one of the diminished ejaculatory
disorders (DED), which is a subset of male orgasmic
disorders (MOD) [1]. Diminished ejaculatory disorders
is a collective term for an alteration of ejaculation and /
or orgasm that ranges from varying delays in ejacula-
tory latency to a complete inability to ejaculate, aneja-
culation, and retrograde ejaculation, as well as
reductions in volume, force, and the sensation of ejacu-
lation. Similar to the term “premature ejaculation,” the
most commonly used term—“retarded ejaculation”—is
sometimes avoided because of its pejorative associa-
tions. In fact, the abbreviation “EjD” has been sug-
gested as a less stigmatized term, encompassing all
disorders of ejaculation [1].
The American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic
and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edi-
tion, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) deWnes RE as the
persistent or recurrent delay in, or absence of, orgasm
after a normal sexual excitement phase during sexual
activity that the clinician, taking into account the
M. A. Perelman (&)
Department of Psychiatry,
Reproductive Medicine and Urology,
NY Presbyterian Weill Cornell Medical Center,
70E. 77th st., Suite 1C, New York, NY 10021, USA
e-mail: perelman@earthlink.net
D. L. Rowland
Department of Psychology,
Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
e-mail: david.rowland@valpo.edu
World J Urol
123
person’s age, judges to be adequate in focus, intensity,
and duration. The disturbance causes marked distress
or interpersonal diYculty; it should not be better
accounted for by another Axis I disorder or caused
exclusively by the direct physiologic eVects of a sub-
stance or a general medical condition [2]. Similarly, the
World Health Organization 2nd consultation on sexual
dysfunction deWnes RE as the persistent or recurrent
diYculty, delay in, or absence of attaining orgasm after
suYcient sexual stimulation, which causes personal dis-
tress [3].
Failure of ejaculation can be a lifelong (primary) or
an acquired (secondary) problem. It can be global and
happen in every sexual encounter or it may be inter-
mittent or situational. Many men with secondary RE
can masturbate to orgasm, whereas others, for multiple
reasons, will or cannot. Interestingly, correlational evi-
dence suggests that masturbatory frequency and style
may be predisposing factors for RE, since a substantial
portion of men who present with coital RE typically
report high levels of activity using an idiosyncratic mas-
turbatory style [4–8].
Similar to men with other types of sexual dysfunc-
tion, men with RE indicate high levels of relationship
distress, sexual dissatisfaction, anxiety about their sex-
ual performance, and general health issues—signiW-
cantly higher than sexually functional men. In addition,
along with other sexually dysfunctional counterparts,
men with RE typically report lower frequencies of coi-
tal activity [9]. A distinguishing characteristic of men
with RE—and one that has implications for treat-
ment—is that they usually have little or no diYculty
attaining or keeping their erections—in fact they are
often able to maintain erections for prolonged periods
of time. Yet, despite their good erections, they report
low levels of subjective sexual arousal, at least com-
pared with sexually functional men [10].
Prevalence of RE
In general, RE is reported at low rates in the litera-
ture, rarely exceeding 3% [1, 11, 12]. Since the begin-
ning of sex therapy, RE was seen as a clinical rarity,
with Masters and Johnson [13] initially reporting only
17 cases. Apfelbaum reported 34 cases [14] and Kap-
lan fewer than 50 cases [15] in their respective prac-
tices. However, based on clinical experiences, some
urologists and sex therapists are reporting an increas-
ing incidence of RE [1, 12, 16]. The prevalence of RE
appears to be moderately and positively related to
age, which is not surprising in view of the fact that
ejaculatory function as a whole tends to diminish as
men age.
Etiology
Just as a pathophysiological etiology should not be
assumed without a thorough medical investigation, a
psychogenic etiology should not be assumed without
an appropriate psychosexual history. Of course, bio-
genic and psychogenic etiologies are neither indepen-
dent nor mutually exclusive classiWcations—not only
do the categories themselves overlap, but also the
causes of sexual dysfunctions often include a mix of
factors involving both domains.
Biogenic
In some instances, a somatic condition may account for
RE, and indeed, any procedure or disease that disrupts
sympathetic or somatic innervation to the genital
region has the potential to aVect ejaculatory function
and orgasm. Thus, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis,
pelvic-region surgery, severe diabetes, and medications
that inhibit -adrenergic innervation of the ejaculatory
system have been associated with RE [17–19]. Never-
theless, sizable portions of men with RE exhibit no
clear somatic factors that account for the disorder.
It is essential to distinguish those factors that are
“physiological” from those that are “pathophysiologi-
cal.” “Physiological” refers to factors that are biologi-
cally inherent to the system, through genetic and normal
maturational processes. “Pathophysiological” refers to
those factors that occur through disruption of the nor-
mal physiological processes, through disease, trauma,
surgery, medication, etc. Pathophysiological causes of
RE are far more readily identiWable; they generally sur-
face during a medical history and examination, and they
typically stem from predictable sources: anomalous ana-
tomic, neuropathic, endocrine, and medication (iatro-
genic). All types of RE show age-related increases in
prevalence, independent of age, increased severity with
lower urinary tract symptoms [20, 21]. Commonly used
medications, particularly antidepressants, may delay
ejaculation as well. A comprehensive list of such phar-
macological agents may be found in Perelman et al. [1].
More diYcult to identify are inherent physiological
factors that account for variation in ejaculatory latency
and thus might play a role in RE. Low penile sensitiv-
ity, most often associated with aging [22, 23], may exac-
erbate diYculty with reaching orgasm, but it is an
unlikely primary cause. Alternatively, variability in the
sensitivity of the ejaculatory reXex may be a factor.
More likely, however, ejaculatory response and latency
are inXuenced by central (cognitive-aVective-arousal)
processes than dominated by the simple hardwiring of
the spinal reXex components [24].
World J Urol
123
Psychogenic
Multiple psychosocial explanations have been oVered
for RE, with unconscious aggression, unexpressed
anger, and malingering recurring as themes. In addi-
tion, pregnancy fears have been emphasized, as profes-
sional referral has often been tied to the female
partner’s wish to conceive. Masters and Johnson [13]
were the Wrst to suggest an association between RE
and religious orthodoxy, positing that certain beliefs
may limit the sexual experience necessary for develop-
ing the knowledge necessary to learn to ejaculate or
may result in an inhibition of normal function.
Religious orthodoxy may play a role in RE for some
men, but the majority of men with RE do not fall into
this category. A number of relevant behavioral, psy-
chological, and relationship factors appear to contrib-
ute to diYculty reaching orgasm for these men. For
example, men with RE sometimes indicate greater
arousal and enjoyment from masturbation than from
intercourse. This “autosexual” orientation may involve
an idiosyncratic and vigorous masturbation style—car-
ried out with high frequency. Apfelbaum [14] labels
this as a desire disorder speciWc to partnered sex. Perel-
man [4–8] deWnes “idiosyncratic masturbation as a
technique not easily duplicated by their partner’s hand,
mouth, or vagina”. SpeciWcally, many men with RE
engage in self-stimulation that is striking in the speed,
pressure, duration, location and intensity necessary to
produce an orgasm, and dissimilar to what they experi-
ence with a partner [6, 8, 25]. Almost universally, these
men failed to communicate their preferences for stimu-
lation to either their doctor or their partners, because
of shame, embarrassment, or ignorance. Thus, they
may predispose themselves to diYculty with a partner
and experience secondary RE. Disparity between the
reality of sex with the partner and the sexual fantasy
(whether or not unconventional) used during mastur-
bation is another potential cause of RE [26, 27]. This
disparity takes many forms, such as partner attractive-
ness and body type [5, 10], sexual orientation, and the
speciWc sex activity performed. In summary, high-fre-
quency idiosyncratic masturbation, combined with fan-
tasy/partner disparity, may well predispose men to
experiencing problems with arousal and ejaculation.
The above patterns suggest that RE men may lack
suYcient levels of physical and/or psychosexual arousal
during coitus to achieve orgasm. Apfelbaum [14] has
suggested that the couple interprets the man’s strong
erectile response as erroneous evidence that he suY-
ciently aroused to attain orgasm. Consistent with this
idea, Perelman posits that inadequate arousal may be
responsible for increased anecdotal clinical reports of
RE for men using oral medications for the treatment
for ED [16]. While most men using phosphodiesterase
inhibitors type 5 (PDE-5s) experienced restored erec-
tions and coitus with ejaculation, others experienced
erection without adequate psycho-emotional arousal.
That is, they did not experience suYcient erotic stimu-
lation before and during coitus to reach orgasm, con-
fusing their erect state as an indication of sexual
arousal when it primarily indicated vasocongestive suc-
cess [26].
Finally, the evaluative/performance aspect of sex
with a partner often creates “sexual performance anxi-
ety” for the man, a factor that may contribute to RE.
Such anxiety typically stems from the man’s lack of
conWdence to perform adequately, to appear and feel
attractive (body image), to satisfy his partner sexually,
to experience an overall sense of self-eYcacy, and to
measure up against the competition [28, 29
]. Anxiety
surrounding the inability to ejaculate may draw the
man’s attention away from erotic cues that normally
serve to enhance arousal. This “ejaculatory perfor-
mance” anxiety interferes with the erotic sensations
of genital stimulation, resulting in levels of sexual
excitement and arousal that are insuYcient for cli-
max (although more than adequate to maintain an
erection).
An integrated biopsychosocial approach
Comprehending the factors that account for variation
in latency to ejaculation following vaginal intromission
is key to understanding any MOD. As with many bio-
behavioral responses, variation in ejaculatory latency is
undoubtedly under the control of both biological and
psychological-behavioral factors. One contemporary
way of conceptualizing the interaction of these systems
has been proposed by those who study evolutionary
psychology [30]. The ejaculatory latency range for each
individual may be biologically set or predisposed (e.g.,
via genetics), but the actual timing or moment of ejacu-
lation within that range depends on a variety of contex-
tual, psychological-behavioral, and relationship-
partner variables [25]. Such thinking is clearly sup-
ported by the fact that ejaculatory latency in men with
ejaculatory disorders (either PE or RE) is often quite
diVerent during coitus than during masturbation [31].
The most useful approach to understanding biobe-
havioral responses is that of integrating—rather than
isolating—the biological and psychological-behavioral
components, with the goal of identifying those organis-
mic elements—peripheral and/or central—that con-
tribute to and explain variation in the response.
Genetic predispositions are likely to aVect the typical
World J Urol
123
speed and ease of ejaculation for any particular organ-
ism; however, some components are undoubtedly inXu-
enced by the past experiences and present contexts in
which the response is occurring. Retarded ejaculation,
then, is best understood as an endpoint or response
that represents the interaction of biological, psycholog-
ical, relationship and cultural factors.
Evaluation
The diagnostic evaluation of ejaculatory dysfunction
should focus on uncovering potential physical and spe-
ciWc psychological/learned causes of the disorder.
The sexual tipping point™ model
Perelman’s [32] sexual tipping point™ (STP) model
oVers a clinically useful heuristic for evaluating the role
both biogenic and psychosocial factors play in deter-
mining the etiology of sexual dysfunction (SD) gener-
ally, and RE in particular [8]. The STP is the
characteristic threshold for an expression of a sexual
response for any individual, which may vary dynami-
cally within and between sexual experiences. There is
variable expression of this response, which may be
inhibited or facilitated due to a mixture of both psycho-
genic and biogenic factors, as the mind and body can
both inhibit and excite sexual response (Fig. 1). The
speciWc threshold for the sexual response is determined
by these multiple factors for any given moment or cir-
cumstance, with one factor or another dominating as
others recede in importance. For instance, every man,
whether he experiences a “normal” ejaculatory
latency, or premature or retarded ejaculation, has a
multidimensional predetermined “ejaculatory tipping
point” (EjTP) [25]. Appropriate assessment requires
an appreciation of the interdependent inXuence of all
these factors on the endpoint dysfunction for a particu-
lar individual, at a particular moment in time.
Medical history
A genitourinary examination and medical history may
identify physical anomalies associated with ejaculatory
dysfunction as well as contributory neurologic, endo-
crinologic, or erectile factors. Attention should be
given to identifying reversible urethral, prostatic, epi-
didymal, and testicular infections. Particularly with sec-
ondary RE, adverse pharmaceutical side eVects—most
commonly from serotonin-based prescriptions—should
be ruled out.
Fig. 1 The multifactorial etiology of RE. The sexual tipping point™: the characteristic threshold sexual response for any individual that
may vary within and between any given sexual experience
World J Urol
123
While recognizing the likelihood of ejaculatory vari-
ability and appreciating other potential organic compo-
nents, clinicians should also note relevant psychosocial
determinants. To this end, a focused psychosexual
evaluation is critical and typically begins by diVerenti-
ating this sexual dysfunction from other sexual prob-
lems and reviewing the conditions under which the
man is able to ejaculate. The developmental course of
the problem—including predisposing issues of religios-
ity—and variables that improve or worsen perfor-
mance, particularly those related to psychosexual
arousal, should be noted. Perceived partner attractive-
ness, the use of fantasy during sex, anxiety-surrounding
performance, and coital and masturbatory patterns all
require exploration. Consistent with this last inquiry,
the patient should be asked: (1) “What is the frequency
of your masturbation?” (2) “How do you masturbate?”
Additional questions may be used to give greater spec-
iWcity to the potential role of masturbation in the disor-
der and to clarify these and other relevant etiological
factors.
If orgasmic attainment had been possible previously,
the clinician should review life events/circumstances
temporally related to orgasmic cessation—events in
question might include pharmaceuticals, illness, or a
variety of life stressors and other psychological factors
previously highlighted.
Since many men attempt their own remedies, the
patient’s previous approaches to improving ejaculatory
response should be investigated, including the use of
herbal or folk therapies, prior treatments, and home
remedies (e.g., using particular cognitive or behavioral
strategies). Information regarding the partners’ per-
ception of the problem and their satisfaction with the
overall relationship is often helpful. Once this body of
knowledge is complete, an appropriate treatment plan,
developed in conjunction with the couple, can be
implemented.
Treatment
Treatment strategies for sexual dysfunction (SD) in
general and RE speciWcally may be conceptualized as
balancing the STP; this process most often beneWts
from cooperation of the sexual partner. Discussion of a
potential biologic predisposition is often helpful in
reducing patient and partner anxiety and mutual
recriminations, while simultaneously assisting the for-
mation of a therapeutic alliance with the urologist [6].
Masters and Johnson [13] were among the Wrst to
advocate speciWc exercises as part of the treatment for
RE. Current sex therapy approaches to RE continue to
emphasize the importance of masturbation in the treat-
ment of RE; however, much of the focus now is on
masturbatory retraining, integrated into sex therapy [1,
14, 27, 33–35]. As characterized by Perelman, mastur-
bation serves as a type of “dress rehearsal” for sex with
a partner. By informing the patient that his diYculty is
merely a reXection of “not rehearsing the part he
intended to play,” the stigma associated with this prob-
lem can be minimized and cooperation of both the
patient and partner can be evoked.
Of course, masturbation retraining is only a means
to an end, and the goal of most current therapeutic
techniques for RE (either primary or secondary) is not
merely to provide more intense stimulation, but rather
to stimulate higher levels of psychosexual arousal and,
eventually, orgasm within the framework of a satisfy-
ing experience.
Primary RE
Men with primary anorgasmia, like their female counter-
parts, typically need help in determining their sexual
arousal preferences through self-exploration and stimu-
lation. Masturbation training may use a modiWcation of
the model described by Barbach [36] for women,
although for men the use of vibrators, recommended by
some urologists, is rarely necessary [37]. Progressing
from neutral sensations to the ability to identify and
experience pleasurable sensations is encouraged, but this
need not be aimed at achieving orgasm, at least initially.
Typically, self-stimulation techniques incorporating
fantasy can be used to achieve incremental increases in
arousal. Fantasy can help block-inhibiting (often criti-
cal) thoughts—often a signiWcant step that might other-
wise result in interference with the progression of
sexual arousal. An important component in the treat-
ment of any type of RE is the removal of “demand” or
“performance” anxiety [14]. To reduce anxiety, treat-
ment may include recognition of RE men’s over eager-
ness to please their partners, validation of (though not
necessarily encouragement of) the man’s autosexual
orientation, removal of stigmas suggesting hostility or
withholding toward their partner, and general anxiety
reduction techniques such as relaxation and desensiti-
zation. Finally, like a previously anorgasmic woman,
the man is taught to eVectively communicate his pref-
erences to his partner so that both their needs are
incorporated into the sexual experience.
Secondary RE and the management of resistance
Therapy for secondary RE follows a strategy similar to
that of primary anorgasmia. However, the clinician or
World J Urol
123
urologist should counsel these patients to suspend mas-
turbatory activity and limit orgasmic release to only the
desired activity, which is typically coitus. Advice to
temporarily reduce and/or discontinue masturbation
for any length of time (e.g., 14–60 days) is usually met
with signiWcant resistance by the patient. As a result,
the clinician will need to provide strong support and
encouragement to the patient to ensure that he adheres
to this suspension. In addition to suspending masturba-
tion, the patient should be encouraged to use fantasy
and bodily movements during coitus, which help
approximate the thoughts and sensations previously
experienced in masturbation. Resistance is minimized
and the success of the process enhanced when the part-
ner is supported by the urologist and understands that
the alteration in coital style represents temporary suc-
cessive steps to reaching a long-term goal of mutual
coital harmony and satisfaction.
Sometimes the issue of masturbation interruption
must be compromised and negotiated with the patient.
A man who continues to masturbate, for example, may
be encouraged to alter the style of masturbation
(“switch hands”) and to approximate (in terms of
speed, pressure, and technique) the stimulation likely
to be experienced through manual, oral, or vaginal
stimulation by his partner [8].
Partner issues
To increase satisfactory outcomes from treatment, the
partner needs to cooperate with the therapeutic pro-
cess, Wnding ways to pleasure the man that enhance
arousal and that can be incorporated into the couple’s
lovemaking. Sexual fantasies may have to be realigned
so that thoughts experienced during masturbation bet-
ter match those occurring during coitus. EVorts to
increase the attractiveness and seductive/arousing
capacity of the partner and to reduce the disparity
between the man’s fantasy and the actuality of sex with
his partner may be useful, as signiWcant disparity tends
to characterize more severe and recalcitrant RE and
relationship problems, with a consequent poorer treat-
ment prognosis [4, 5].
While a number of other partner related issues may
aVect a males’ ejaculatory interest and capacity, two
require special attention: fertility/conception and
anger/resentment. Under either circumstance, it is
often a signiWcant challenge to any health care provider
(HCP) to identify a process that allows a couple to
experience coital ejaculation while simultaneously
maintaining a therapeutic rapport with both. Regard-
ing conception, the pressure of the woman’s “biologi-
cal clock” is often the initial treatment driver. The
woman—and often the man as well—usually meet any
potential intrusion on their plan to conceive with
strong resistance. If the urologist or other HCP sus-
pects the patient’s RE is related to fear of conception,
he may inquire about the patient’s ability to experience
a coital ejaculation with contraception (including con-
doms) but not during “unprotected” sex. Such a “test”
can serve as a powerful diagnostic indicator: if the RE
occurs with high probability only during unprotected
sex, the HCP can assume that conception is a primary
factor causing/maintaining RE. Under such circum-
stances, the HCP must Wnd an acceptable way to refo-
cus the treatment, at least temporarily, on the
underlying issues responsible for his ambivalence.
Resolving this issue typically requires individual con-
sultations with the man and occasionally with the part-
ner.
Whether related to fertility or not, the man’s anger
(expressed/unexpressed) toward his partner may be an
important intermediate causational factor and must be
ameliorated through individual and/or conjoint consul-
tation. Anger acts as a powerful anti-aphrodisiac, and
while some men avoid sexual contact entirely when
angry at a partner, others attempt to perform, only to
Wnd themselves only modestly aroused and unable to
maintain an erection/and or reach orgasm. While the
man’s assertiveness should be encouraged, the HCP
should also remain sensitive and responsive to the
impact of this change on the partner—the object of the
newly expressed anger—and the resulting alteration in
the couple’s equilibrium.
As treatment progresses, interventions may be expe-
rienced as mechanistic and insensitive to the partner’s
needs and goals. In particular, many women respond
negatively to the impression that the man is essentially
masturbating himself with her various body parts, as
opposed to engaging in the type of connected lovemak-
ing she may prefer. This perception is exacerbated
when men need actual pornography/erotica rather than
mere fantasy to distract themselves from negative
thoughts and emotions in order to function sexually.
Indeed, because these men are often quite disconnected
emotionally from their partners, the HCP must help the
partner become comfortable with the idea of postpon-
ing gratiWcation of her needs. Once the patient has pro-
gressed to a level of functionality, the urologist can then
encourage greater sensitivity on the man’s part.
Treatment eYcacy and conclusion
While anecdotally viewed by urologists as a diYcult-to-
treat sexual dysfunction, some sex therapists have
World J Urol
123
reported good success rates, in the neighborhood of
70–80% [13, 35]. This disparity in success rates may
reXect clinically diVerent treatment populations. Fur-
thermore, although this review has concentrated on the
use of counseling methods, a number of pharmacologi-
cal agents have been used oV-label to facilitate orgasm
in patients taking SSRI antidepressants and other
drugs known to delay or inhibit ejaculatory response.
Although not approved by regulatory agencies for the
treatment of RE, the anti-serotonergic agent cyprohep-
tadine and the dopamine agonist amantadine have
been used with moderate success in this population of
patients [38]. However, the lack of large, controlled
studies with these and other ejaculatory-facilitating
agents suggests a high ratio of adverse eVects to poten-
tial eYcacy. Furthermore, a lack of eYcacy in men with
RE may result, in part, from the potentially strong psy-
chological and relational contributions to this dysfunc-
tion. Nevertheless, as research continues to uncover
greater understanding of the ejaculatory process, the
likelihood of Wnding pro-ejaculatory agents increases.
Finally, the treatment for RE described herein
would typically consume more of the urologist’s time
than treating other SD symptoms such as ED. Depend-
ing on comfort level, preference, resources, and avail-
ability, the urologist may choose to treat the man with
RE or refer him to a sex therapist colleague [34]. As
with PE and ED, should safe and eVective pharmaco-
logical options become available for RE, treatment for
this dysfunction will undergo a major paradigm shift,
with combination drug and sex therapy protocols likely
producing the greatest eYcacy and best outcomes in
terms of patient satisfaction [39]. In the future, urolo-
gists might consider the STP model to conceptualize a
treatment in which sex coaching and sexual pharma-
ceuticals are integrated into diagnosis—addressing
physiological, psychological, and cultural elements all
in one—and thereby achieving a more satisfactory
eYcacious treatment, [6–8, 32, 40].
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