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Potato Glycoalkaloids and Metabolites: Roles in the Plant and in the Diet
Abstract
Potatoes, members of the Solanaceae plant family, serve as major, inexpensive low-fat food sources providing energy (starch), high-quality protein, fiber, and vitamins. Potatoes also produce biologically active secondary metabolites, which may have both adverse and beneficial effects in the diet. These include glycoalkaloids, calystegine alkaloids, protease inhibitors, lectins, phenolic compounds, and chlorophyll. Because glycoalkaloids are reported to be involved in host-plant resistance and to have a variety of adverse as well as beneficial effects in cells, animals, and humans, a need exists to develop a clearer understanding of their roles both in the plant and in the diet. To contribute to this effort, this integrated review presents data on the (a) history of glycoalkaloids; (b) glycoalkaloid content in different parts of the potato plant, in processed potato products, and in wild, transgenic, and organic potatoes; (c) biosynthesis, inheritance, plant molecular biology, and glycoalkaloid-plant phytopathogen relationships; (d) dietary significance with special focus on the chemistry, analysis, and nutritional quality of low-glycoalkaloid potato protein; (e) pharmacology and toxicology of the potato glycoalkaloids comprising alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine and their hydrolysis products (metabolites); (f) anticarcinogenic and other beneficial effects; and (g) possible dietary consequences of concurrent consumption of glycoalkaloids and other biologically active compounds present in fresh and processed potatoes. An enhanced understanding of the multiple and overlapping aspects of glycoalkaloids in the plant and in the diet will benefit producers and consumers of potatoes.
... (Steroidal alkaloids) are produced in potatoes during germination and serve to protect the tuber from pathogens, insects, parasites and predators (Woolfe 1987;Friedman 2006). The primary glycoalkaloids in domestic potatoes are α-chaconine and αsolanine and are found in the highest levels in the outer layers of the potato skins (i.e., the periderm, cortex, and outer phloem) (Friedman, 2006). ...
... (Steroidal alkaloids) are produced in potatoes during germination and serve to protect the tuber from pathogens, insects, parasites and predators (Woolfe 1987;Friedman 2006). The primary glycoalkaloids in domestic potatoes are α-chaconine and αsolanine and are found in the highest levels in the outer layers of the potato skins (i.e., the periderm, cortex, and outer phloem) (Friedman, 2006). Like other plant phytonutrients, glycoalkaloids not only have toxic effects but also beneficial effects including cholesterol lowering, antiallergic and antipyretic effects (Friedman 2006). ...
... The primary glycoalkaloids in domestic potatoes are α-chaconine and αsolanine and are found in the highest levels in the outer layers of the potato skins (i.e., the periderm, cortex, and outer phloem) (Friedman, 2006). Like other plant phytonutrients, glycoalkaloids not only have toxic effects but also beneficial effects including cholesterol lowering, antiallergic and antipyretic effects (Friedman 2006). Additionally, recent studies have demonstrated that these compounds also possess useful properties such as anticancer and antiinflammatory effects depending on dose and conditions of use particularly (Mohammad, 2016). ...
Dietary chemoprevention has emerged as a cost-effective approach to control most prevalent chronic diseases including cancer. Changes in dietary patterns and lifestyle, such as increasing the consumption of fruits and vegetables and more balanced intakes of meat and plant foods, are a practical and effective strategy for reducing the incidence of chronic diseases. Phytonutrients (or phytochemicals) are found in eatable fruits and vegetables that, daily ingested, may exhibit a potential for modulating human metabolism in a manner favourable for the prevention of chronic and degenerative diseases. Carotenoids and flavonoids (anthocyanins, phenolic acids, polyphenols) are examples of phytonutrients. Consumption of total phytochemical intake has been consistently linked to protection from chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. To highlight the beneficial health effects of phytonutrients in plants, we choose two interesting plants, the potato and the citrus fruits. They were chosen owing to their phytonutrient content, and low price, which makes them more easily acquired in low incoming populations, and consequently they are highly consumed not only in developing but also in developed countries. Due to its high nutrient and phytochemical content, the potato can lower oxidative stress, a key mechanism for cancer and cardiovascular disease prevention. Its phenolic compounds act as antioxidants and improve heart health. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the bioactive compounds in citrus which can reduce inflammatory mediators and reactive oxygen species generation, thus attenuating the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer. Besides important applications in the functional food sector, phytochemicals are also employed in the production of cosmetic and/or cosmeceutical products.
... Acetals are stable to bases, reducing agents, and nucleophiles; however, they break down in an acidic environment 26 . SOL and CHA are produced in plants through the cholesterol pathway through the glycosylation of carbohydrates (carbonyl compounds) with solanidine (alcohol) 7,8 . Additionally, GAs are derived from alkaloids. ...
... First, the detachment of particular sugar molecules leads to the formation of β-compounds, followed by the formation of γ-derivatives. The aglycon part, called solanidine, remains when all sugar chains are removed from the SOL or CHA molecule ( Fig. 8) 7,8 . Hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond results in the loss of GA activity 10 ; thus, biotransformation is an ability of many organisms (to avoid toxicity) as well as of different plant species (to eliminate autotoxicity risk), although nitrogen-containing chains often show high resistance to transformation. ...
... Plants and phytopathogenic fungi contain glycosidases that hydrolyse GA molecules. However, it is not known whether mammalian glycosidases also have such properties 7,8 . Glycosidases have been identified in insects of various orders, such as Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera 28 . ...
Solanine (SOL) and chaconine (CHA) are glycoalkaloids (GAs) produced mainly by Solanum plants. These plant secondary metabolites affect insect metabolism; thus, they have the potential to be applied as natural plant protection products. However, it is not known which GA concentration induces physiological changes in animals. Therefore, the aim of this study was to perform a quantitative analysis of SOL and CHA in the larvae of Tenebrio molitor using LC‒MS to assess how quickly they are eliminated or metabolised. In this experiment, the beetles were injected with 2 μL of 10⁻⁵ M SOL or CHA solution, which corresponds to a dosage range of 0.12–0.14 ng/mg body mass. Then, 0.5, 1.5, 8, and 24 h after GA application, the haemolymph (H), gut (G), and the remainder of the larval body (FB) were isolated. GAs were detected in all samples tested for 24 h, with the highest percentage of the amount applied in the FB, while the highest concentration was measured in the H sample. The SOL and CHA concentrations decreased in the haemolymph over time, while they did not change in other tissues. CHA had the highest elimination rate immediately after injection, while SOL slightly later. None of the GA hydrolysis products were detected in the tested samples. One possible mechanism of the detoxification of GAs may be oxidation and/or sequestration. They may be excreted by Malpighian tubules, with faeces or with cuticles during moulting. The results presented are significant because they facilitate the interpretation of studies related to the effects of toxic substances on insect metabolism.
... Potatoes of varieties with colored flesh, like those with traditional flesh color, contain glycoalkaloids produced in tubers as secondary metabolites. These compounds are represented in potatoes mainly by α-solanine and α-chaconine and exhibit toxic effects when their total amount reaches approximately 200 mg·kg −1 fresh weight FW, causing neurological disorders such as apathy, drowsiness, and disorientation, and may even be fatal [10][11][12][13]. However, few studies also indicate the beneficial effects of small amounts of glycoalkaloids, including antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects [2,10,14]. ...
... These compounds are represented in potatoes mainly by α-solanine and α-chaconine and exhibit toxic effects when their total amount reaches approximately 200 mg·kg −1 fresh weight FW, causing neurological disorders such as apathy, drowsiness, and disorientation, and may even be fatal [10][11][12][13]. However, few studies also indicate the beneficial effects of small amounts of glycoalkaloids, including antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects [2,10,14]. Research by these authors also shows that α-chaconine is a more toxic compound. Its content in potato tubers is 2-5 times higher than that of α-solanine. ...
... Its content in potato tubers is 2-5 times higher than that of α-solanine. The total content of glycoalkaloids in potatoes ranges from 85 to 182 mg·kg −1 DM [2,10,11,14], and they are usually located at a distance of 1-1.5 mm from the outer part of the tuber [15]. The literature on the subject indicates that potatoes intended for food should not contain more than 12 mg·100 g −1 FW of total glycoalkaloids (TGA), as they are considered bitter and unacceptable to consumers. ...
Glycoalkaloids (TGAs, total glycoalkaloids), toxic secondary metabolites, are found in potatoes (110–335 mg·kg−1 DW), mainly in the peel. Colorful, unpeeled potatoes are an innovative raw material for the production of snacks which are poorly tested in terms of their glycoalkaloid content. Third-generation snacks and French fries made from red-fleshed Mulberry Beauty (MB) and purple-fleshed Double Fun (DF) potatoes were produced with the use of 1% solutions of ascorbic, citric, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids to stabilize the structure of anthocyanins in the raw material and maintain their color in obtained products. The influence of the type of acid and thermal processes, like frying, microwaving, and baking, on the content of glycoalkaloids in ready-made products was examined. Only 0.45–1.26 mg·100 g−1 of TGA was found in pellet snacks and 1.32–1.71 mg·100 g−1 in French fries. Soaking blanched potatoes in organic acid solution reduced the α-chaconine content by 91–97% in snacks and by 57–93% in French fries in relation to the raw material to the greatest extent after the use of malic acid and the DF variety. The effect of lactic and citric acid was also beneficial, especially in the production of baked French fries from MB potatoes.
... Solanidine is a steroidal alkaloid, slightly toxic metabolite in low quantities derived from potatoes and other plants of the Solanaceae family. 54,55 We identified three novel SNPs associations from three genes strongly associated with solanidine. The rs2413667 SNP in the eQTL region of CYP2D6 was particularly noteworthy. ...
... In line with the protein function, solanidine and solanine toxicity are characterized by the disruption of calcium transport in mitochondria. 55 Therefore, rs2413667 may affect solanidine metabolism through its influence on SMDT1 expression. ...
Metabolomic studies are increasingly used for both etiological and predictive research, but frequently report missing values. We hypothesized that interindividual genetic variation may account for part of this missingness. Therefore, we performed a GWAS of missingness in measured metabolite levels using an untargeted mass spectrometry-based platform in the Netherlands Epidemiology of Obesity Study (N=594) and the Rhineland Study (N=4,165). We considered metabolites missing in 10%-90% of individuals in both cohorts (N=224). GWAS meta-analyses of these metabolites' probability of missingness revealed 55 metabolome-wide significant associations, including 42 novel ones (p<1.58x10-10), involving 28 metabolites and 41 lead SNPs. Despite considerable pleiotropy, the majority of identified SNP-"missing metabolite" associations were biologically plausible, relating to beta-oxidation, bile acids, steroids, and xenobiotics metabolism. These findings suggest that missing values in metabolomics are nonrandom and partly reflect genetic variation, accounting for which is important for both clinical and epidemiological studies, especially nutritional and pharmacogenetics studies.
... Plants produce various specialized metabolites, many of which find applications in diverse fields such as medicine and cosmetics. However, some metabolites, like steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) produced by potatoes (Friedman, 2006) can be detrimental to human health. Potatoes rank as the fourth most widely cultivated crop globally. ...
... Nevertheless, improper cultivation, storage, and transportation can lead to the accumulation of toxic compounds, primarily SGAs, often resulting in foodborne illnesses characterized by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, and diarrhea (Beals, 2019). SGA synthesis is not restricted to the tuber, but occurs in all parts of the plant, including leaves, roots, and shoots (Friedman, 2006). ...
Potatoes produce steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs), toxic secondary metabolites associated with food poisoning. SGAs are synthesized by multiple biosynthetic enzymes. Knockdown of the CYP88B1 gene, also known as PGA3 or GAME4, is predicted to reduce toxic SGAs and accumulate steroidal saponins. These saponins not only serve as a source of steroidal drugs but are also anticipated to confer disease resistance to potatoes. In this study, we employed transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) for genome editing to disrupt CYP88B1. We introduced the TALEN expression vector via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation into seven potato lines. In six of these lines, disruption of the CYP88B1 gene was confirmed. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed that SGAs were reduced to undetectable levels, corroborating the accumulation of steroidal saponins observed in previous knockdown studies. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of generating low-toxicity potato lines through CYP88B1 gene disruption using genome editing techniques.
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... In vitro, the aglycone component (solasodine) in eggplant fruits reduces human lung cancer cells (Shen et al., 2017) [16] . Additionally, they contain anti-inflammatory properties and are advantageous for lowering blood cholesterol (Friedman, 2006) [5] . By eliminating toxins and toxic substances from our stomach, the fibre in eggplant aids in digestion and lowers the risk of stomach and colon cancer (Fraikue, 2016) [4] . ...
... In vitro, the aglycone component (solasodine) in eggplant fruits reduces human lung cancer cells (Shen et al., 2017) [16] . Additionally, they contain anti-inflammatory properties and are advantageous for lowering blood cholesterol (Friedman, 2006) [5] . By eliminating toxins and toxic substances from our stomach, the fibre in eggplant aids in digestion and lowers the risk of stomach and colon cancer (Fraikue, 2016) [4] . ...
... Potato possesses natural toxicants of which the most important are the glycoalkaloids (GA) composed mainly of α-Solanine and α-Chaconine. Together they form 95% of the total glycoalkaloids (TGA) present in potatoes, α -chaconine being present in relatively higher proportions (Friedman, 2006). GA are thought to function in the chemical defense of the plant, as non-specific protectors or repellents against potential pests and predators (Roddick, 1989). ...
... The TGA concentration is high within the peel and just below it and generally decreases with an increase in tuber size. The levels of TGA vary significantly between cultivars (Hellenas, 2001;Friedman, 2006) and are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors as well as various pre-and post-harvest stresses (Dale et al., 1998). TGA in tubers ranging from 20-100 mg/kg or below are of no food safety concerns (FAO/WHO, 1999). ...
Late blight, caused by the pathogen Phytophthora infestans, is a devastating disease affecting potato production globally, with adverse effects in Africa where limited access to fungicides exacerbates its impact. Outbreaks of late blight lead to reduced yields and substantial economic losses to potato farmers and agricultural systems. The development of resistant potato varieties, tailored to African agroecological conditions, offers a viable solution in mitigating the devastating effects of late blight on potato cultivation. Leading to this study, two consumer-preferred varieties, Victoria and Shangi, with high susceptibility to late blight were targeted for conferring late blight resistance through genetic engineering. This was achieved by inserting R genes from wild relatives of potato displaying resistance to the disease. The intended effect of conferring resistance to the late blight disease has been consistently observed over twenty experimental field trials spanning 8 years at three locations in Uganda and Kenya. In this study, we assessed whether the genetic transformation has led to any significant unintended effects on the nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of potato tubers compared to the non-transgenic controls grown under the same agroecological conditions. The compositional assessments were conducted on commercial-size potato tubers harvested from regulatory trials at three locations in Uganda and Kenya. Statistical analysis was conducted using two-way analysis of variance comparing transgenic and non-transgenic samples. Overall, the results showed that the transgenic and non-transgenic samples exhibited similar levels of nutritional and antinutritional components. Variations detected in the levels of the analysed components fell within the expected ranges as documented in existing literature and potato composition databases. Thus, we conclude that there are no biologically significant differences in the nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of transgenic and non-transgenic potato tubers engineered for resistance to late blight.
... SGAs are specialized secondary metabolites produced in Solanaceae crops, such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), and eggplant (Solanum melongena) 1-3 . They are important compounds for plant defense against a variety of pathogens and herbivores but undesirable in food and feed due to their anti-nutritional and toxic activities 3,4 . In tomato and potato, SGAs biosynthesis pathway starts from cholesterol and undergoes a series of hydroxylation, acetylation, and glycosylation steps mediated by a set of GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM (GAME) genes which are physically clustered in the genomes 2,3,5-7 . ...
... Because ws fruits phenocopy the woody aspect with suberized regions around the fruit apex of GAME1-RNAi lines due to tomatidine accumulation 2 , and given that the presence of three GAME genes localizing close to the T-DNA site (Fig. 1d), we investigated the impact of the ws mutation on the expression of these genes by RNA-seq profiling of pericarp tissue in WT and ws fruits at 7 DPA (Supplementary Data 2). KEGG and GO analyses pointed to a dysregulation of SGAs metabolism genes which may had led to abnormal accumulation of specific metabolites resulting in altered development of epidermal cells and wrinkled surface of ws fruits ( Supplementary Fig. 2a, b and Supplementary Data 3,4). Close examination of the transcript levels of SGAs metabolic genes revealed a significant increase in the expression of genes acting upstream of γ-tomatine, whilst those acting downstream of γ-tomatine exhibited reduced expression levels in ws compared to WT fruits ( Supplementary Fig. 2c). ...
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are major plant defense metabolites against pests, while they are considered poisonous in food. The genetic basis that guides negative selection of SGAs production during tomato domestication remains poorly understood. Here, we identify a distal enhancer, GAME Enhancer 1 (GE1), as the key regulator of SGAs metabolism in tomato. GE1 recruits MYC2-GAME9 transcriptional complex to regulate the expression of GAME cluster genes via the formation of chromatin loops located in the neighboring DNA region. A naturally occurring GE1⁷⁶ allelic variant is found to be more active in stimulating GAME expression. We show that the weaker GE1 allele has been the main driver for selecting reduced SGAs levels during tomato domestication. Unravelling the “TFs-Enhancer-Promoter” regulatory mechanism operating in SGAs metabolism opens unprecedented prospects for SGAs manipulation in Solanaceae via precision breeding strategies.
... GA are considered to be thermally very stable [12] and are hardly destroyed during cooking, baking, frying, and microwave cooking [6,13,14]. Solanine breaks down at temperatures between 260 and 270 °C [15]. ...
... When slicing and washing potato slices, GA reductions of 71% have been reported compared to unpeeled potatoes [21]. Although it was reported that GA breaks down at rather high temperature of 260-270 °C, several literature studies report that frying is the most effective method to reduce GA content, and decreases of GA contents between 20 and 90% in the final fried potato product compared to the peeled potato are reported [13,[20][21][22]. It should be noted here, however, that all of these literature references relate GA loss to the respective dry mass of the product. ...
The aim of the industrial trial was to monitor the contents of the glycoalkaloids α-solanine, α-chaconine and their aglycon solanidine along the production process from unpeeled raw tubers to potato crisps. This should identify process factors that reveal possible process-related reduction or enrichment of these substances. The successful validation of an LC–MS/MS method using an external calibration for the determination of the glycoalkaloids α-solanine, α-chaconine and its aglycone solanidine met the requirements of the monitoring recommendation EU 2022/561, both, in terms of sensitivity and in view of the required enzyme inactivation. For the tested potato variety, none of the 15 industrially produced samples exceeded the proposed indicative value of 100 mg total glycoalkaloids/kg product mass (range: 13.2 mg/kg for peeled tuber to 67.6 mg/kg for potato crisps). Finally, solanidine contents were measured for the first time in-line a potato crisps production, ranging from 0.03 to 0.14 mg/kg product mass. The glycoalkaloid contents were additionally calculated as fat-free potato dry mass (ffpdm) to enable a standardized comparison of analytical values. With regard to this newly introduced reference value in this kind of process control, the ffpdm, a significant change of the glycoalkaloid contents during the production process of potato crisps after the peeling process could be excluded. This finding refutes current literature knowledge dealing with non-standardized results based on pure product weight ignoring water loss and/or fat intake along the production process. Starting from the unpeeled tuber to the final potato crisps, a glycoalkaloid reduction of 62% on average related to ffpdm could be achieved during the process, mainly related to the peeling. In contrary, the frying process contributed only insignificantly to the glycoalkaloid reduction.
... Алкалоиди имају улогу у заштити биљке од штеточина и патогена (Sánchez-Maldonado et al., 2016). Алкалоиди плавог патлиџана, смањују број ћелија рака плућа код људи in vitro (Shen et al., 2017), спречавају упалне процесе (Ferreira da Costa et al., 2015) и смањују ниво холестерола у крви (Friedman, 2006). Мада имају благотворно дејство, токсични су за људе и могу изазвати смрт при високим концентрацијама (3 до 5 mg/kg телесне масе) (Bagheri et al., 2017). ...
In this doctoral dissertation, a three-year experiment was conducted to determine the influence of ripening, variety and the production year (2017-2019) on seed and fruit quality of eggplant.
Firstly, different stages of fruit ripeness were defined by the number of days from the beginning of flowering for each variety. Differences in the biochemical composition of seeds and fruits of different stages of ripeness were determined. In doing so, the total content of protein, oil, reducing sugar, phenol, DPPH, alkaloids and pigments (chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids) was determined. Nine parameters of fruit and seed yield were calculated: plant height, fruit length, fruit width, fruit mass, number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, total fruit yield per hectare, total seed yield per hectare and the ratio of fruit to seed mass. All aspects of seed quality in each stage of ripeness were observed, as well as the effect of seed storage in the fruit after harvest (immediately separated seeds, 10th day
after harvest and 20th day after harvest). The absolute seed weight, the seed germination, the percentage of abnormal seedlings and ungerminated - dead and dormant seeds were determined. Also, there was determined the influence of different treatments on the quality of the produced seeds which were separated from the fruit at three different moments. The following were applied: treatment with
previous cooling of the seeds, treatment with potassium nitrate and treatment with gibberellic acid.
As the fruit ripens, its total reducing sugar and protein content decreases, but the opposite is true for the total protein and oil content of the seed. The higher antioxidant activity of the fruit extract is accompanied by a higher phenol content in the fruit. The highest content of chlorophyll and carotenoids was observed with the most intense color of the fruit. The maximum content of alkaloids was found in ripe fruits.
Seed yield per fruit is a varietal characteristic, which is inversely proportional to the length of vegetation. The fruit and seed weight ratio can serve as one of the criteria for forming the price of eggplant seeds.
The best quality seeds are obtained from the ripe fruit. In addition to the fact that the fruit does not ripen after picking, the quality of the seed increases by storing it in the harvested fruit. After twenty days of keeping the seeds in the fruit, its quality increased significantly.
The positive effect of the treatment (potassium nitrate and gibberellic acid) for breaking dormancy of eggplant seeds in this study indicates the need for its introduction into the regulations governing the quality of agricultural plants in the Republic of Serbia.
... 18 Folate has been reported to both prevent and reduce the severity of neural tube defects due to its protective effects against alpha-chaconine and glycoalkaloid toxicity, which can disrupt cell membranes, causing lethality and malformations of the embryo. 19 Furthermore, maternal weight plays a significant role in the risk of CLP, as it is related to metabolism. 20,21 Obese and diabetic women often have deficiencies in folate and iron. ...
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) are a blueprint for a better and more sustainable future for all. Understanding these initiatives helps everyone develop insights into critical global issues, including health care management, education, gender equality, and other challenges related to the 17 SDGs. Implementing these goals will contribute to sustainable development for cleft care in the least developed countries. The authors critically reviewed relevant articles on cleft lip and palate from 2014 to 2022. The authors' review utilized the online search tools Springer Nature, PubMed, and Google Scholar, using keywords of “cleft lip and palate,” “cleft outreach program,” “sustainable cleft care,” “sustainable development goals for cleft,” and “sustainable outreach program.” In addition, the authors investigated the potentially necessary SDGs for sustainable cleft care management.
... Potatoes contain two main glycoalkaloids: α-solanine and α-chaconine. Peeling will remove about 60% of the glycoalkaloids because the periderm and cortex contain the highest concentrations of these compounds (Friedman, 2006). ...
... That study also showed, the algycone of steroidal glycoalkaloid saponin, did not permeabilise membranes, in fact inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis is capable of inducing programmed cell death in the fungus. Furthermore, a number of studies have proposed that potato steroidal glycoalkaloids (saponins), a-chaconine and a-solanine, have identified a range of toxic effects that are distinct from membrane permeabilising activity [47], e.g. Alkaloids intercalate into cell and/or DNA, Flavonoids binds form complex with cell and inactivate enzymes. ...
... Despite the observed similar dependencies in PBBs after the digestion process, i.e., higher GAs content in PBB1 and PBB3, the simulated digestion process significantly reduced the GA content by an order of magnitude in each of the analyzed samples. GAs accumulate in potato tubers as protective factors due to stress and external conditions [74]. Processing tubers with high GA content results in food products with similarly high GA levels because these compounds are heat-resistant and difficult to remove [75]. ...
The aim of this research was to develop a technology for the production of plant-based burgers (PBBs) based on potato protein, also containing high content of iron and appropriately selected fats. The produced PBBs were characterized in terms of their nutritional and bioactive properties both before and after the in vitro digestion process. It was found that the produced burger was characterized by high protein content, ranging from 20.80 to 22.16 g/100 g. It was also shown to have a high dietary fiber content, ranging from 8.35 to 9.20 g/100 g. The main fraction of dietary fiber in the tested samples was insoluble fiber, which accounted for approximately 89% of the total fiber content. In addition, noteworthy is the high digestibility of the protein, reaching approximately 95% for the potato fiber used in the formulation, and about 85% for the oat fiber. Produced PBBs also provide significant amounts of iron, with the use of an organic iron source greatly increasing its quantity in the final product. The analyzed antioxidant properties before and after the digestion process showed a tenfold increase in biological activity after digestion, indicating that the examined PBBs may counteract oxidative stress. Analyzing the chemical and biological properties, it is impossible not to assess consumer attractiveness. It has been shown that PBB1, which contains potato fiber and powdered sprouts enriched with ferritin, received the highest attractiveness ratings among respondents.
... GAs disrupt cell membranes through binding to cholesterol molecules and inhibit acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzymes. Moreover, these compounds impact the process of cell division, as well as the ion transport (Ca 2+ , Na + ) across cell membranes (Friedman 2006;Milner et al. 2011). GAs may inhibit the growth of cancer cells, for example, by inhibiting angiogenesis, as well as apoptosis induction, because of their antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activity. ...
Solanine (SOL), chaconine (CHA), and tomatine (TOM) are plant secondary metabolites produced mainly by the species of Solanaceae family, such as tomato Solanum lycopersicum L. These glycoalkaloids (GAs) have a wide range of biological activity, also in insects. However, their mechanisms of action are not precisely understood. The purpose of the study was to investigate how pure GAs and tomato leaf extract (EXT) affect glycolysis, Krebs cycle and β-oxidation of fatty acid pathways in Tenebrio molitor L. beetle. For this purpose, the larvae were injected with SOL, CHA, TOM, and EXT at two concentrations (10–8 and 10–5 M). For experiments, fat body, gut, and heamolymph samples were collected 2 and 24 h after injection. Then, the changes in the expression level of phosphofructokinase, citrate synthase, and β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase were measured using the RT-qPCR technique. The catalytic activity of these enzymes and the carbohydrate level in insects after GA treatment were determined by spectrophotometric method. Furthermore, the analysis of the amount of amino acids in tissues was performed with a GC–MS technique. The results obtained show that the GAs changed the activity and expression of the genes encoding key enzymes of crucial metabolic pathways. The effect depends on the type of GA compound, the tissue tested, and the incubation time after treatment. Furthermore, TOM and EXT affected trehalose concentration in the insect hemolymph and led to accumulation of amino acids in the fat body. The observed changes may indicate a protein degradation and/or enhanced catabolism reactions for the production of ATP used in detoxification processes. These results suggest that GAs alter energy metabolism in the mealworm T. molitor. The study contributes to our understanding of the mechanisms of action of secondary metabolites of plants in insects. This knowledge may allow the design of new natural biopesticides against insect pests because proper energy metabolism is necessary for the survival of the organism.
... Additionally, the green color indicates that the potato is in an early sprouting stage, reducing the extracted starch content and quality. Therefore, using green potatoes in starch production can result in a product that is unsafe and of lower quality [19]. Red potatoes contain anthocyanins, a red pigment with antioxidant properties. ...
Potato starch extraction is a critical process with implications across various industries, including food,
pharmaceuticals, and bioplastics. This review explores current techniques, challenges, and future
opportunities in potato starch extraction. Traditional methods such as compression or wet grinding,
enzymatic processes, and microwave-assisted extraction are examined for their efficiency, advantages,
and limitations. The paper emphasizes the importance of quality control measures to ensure the purity
and safety of the extracted starch. Critical quality control aspects include raw material inspection,
monitoring during processing, purity and composition analysis, and adherence to national and
international standards. Innovations in extraction methods, including enzymatic and green solvent
extraction, ultrasonic and microwave-assisted techniques, and advancements in nanotechnology and
biotechnological approaches, are highlighted as trends driving the industry towards greater sustainability
and efficiency. The clean label movement also reflects a consumer-driven shift towards natural,
minimally processed ingredients, influencing industry practices and regulatory compliance. The future of
potato starch extraction holds significant promise, with the integration of sustainable practices and
technological innovations to meet evolving market demands and regulatory standards, underscoring the
need for continuous research and development in the field.
... Plants have evolved defense mechanisms against herbivory, including production of secondary metabolites in foliage (Bennett and Wallsgrove 1994;Erb and Kliebenstein 2020). The potato plant in particular produces the secondary metabolites solanine and chaconine, which are glycoalkaloids toxic to mammals but ineffective in defense against CPB (Wierenga and Hollingworth 1992;Friedman 2006;Tai et al. 2014). CPB are known to readily adapt to control measures (Cingel et al. 2016), and implementing different approaches to manage the pest are vital. ...
Colorado potato beetle (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) is a major insect pest of potato and development of resistant varieties is part of a strategy for management. Wild relatives of potato are resources for genetic improvement through breeding. Interspecies crosses to introgress CPB resistance will be facilitated with rapid and inexpensive selection methods. Solanum okadae is a novel source of feeding deterrence against the beetle and was associated with production of a naturally occurring leaf-specific lactone-containing metabolite in the foliage. The Baljet assay has been used for decades in pharmaceuticals for rapid screening of lactone-containing compounds. A modified Baljet assay was developed for potato foliar tissue to rapidly screen for lactone-containing compounds in plants from the field, greenhouse, and laboratory. Herein we report the screening of potato foliage for CPB resistance with a Baljet assay validated by CPB larval feeding studies. Foliage from wild accessions of S. okadae were tested using the Baljet assay and results showed that production of the leaf-specific lactones has a large range of variation in the species. In addition, tubers tested using the Baljet assay had negligible levels of lactone-containing metabolites, confirming leaf-specific production of lactones. This inexpensive method using leaf disk screening will allow potato breeders to quickly select for potential CPB resistant germplasms and advance the breeding of sustainable crops.
... (Radcliffe et al. 2007;Alyokhin et al. 2013). Previous work has reported on the defensive role against insect herbivores of secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds (Friedman 2006;Kumar et al. 2016), and VOCs acting as induced resistance in neighboring potato plants , 2023Martín-Cacheda et al. 2023). Potato plants are colonized by several species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), including Rhizophagus irregularis, a common AMF in potato plantations in southwestern Europe (Buysens et al. 2017). ...
Main conclusion
Ants, but not mycorrhizae, significantly affected insect leaf-chewing herbivory on potato plants. However, there was no evidence of mutualistic interactive effects on herbivory.
Abstract
Plants associate with both aboveground and belowground mutualists, two prominent examples being ants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), respectively. While both of these mutualisms have been extensively studied, joint manipulations testing their independent and interactive (non-additive) effects on plants are rare. To address this gap, we conducted a joint test of ant and AMF effects on herbivory by leaf-chewing insects attacking potato (Solanum tuberosum) plants, and further measured plant traits likely mediating mutualist effects on herbivory. In a field experiment, we factorially manipulated the presence of AMF (two levels: control and mycorrhization) and ants (two levels: exclusion and presence) and quantified the concentration of leaf phenolic compounds acting as direct defenses, as well as plant volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions potentially mediating direct (e.g., herbivore repellents) or indirect (e.g., ant attractants) defense. Moreover, we measured ant abundance and performed a dual-choice greenhouse experiment testing for effects of VOC blends (mimicking those emitted by control vs. AMF-inoculated plants) on ant attraction as a mechanism for indirect defense. Ant presence significantly reduced herbivory whereas mycorrhization had no detectable influence on herbivory and mutualist effects operated independently. Plant trait measurements indicated that mycorrhization had no effect on leaf phenolics but significantly increased VOC emissions. However, mycorrhization did not affect ant abundance and there was no evidence of AMF effects on herbivory operating via ant-mediated defense. Consistently, the dual-choice assay showed no effect of AMF-induced volatile blends on ant attraction. Together, these results suggest that herbivory on potato plants responds mainly to top-down (ant-mediated) rather than bottom-up (AMF-mediated) control, an asymmetry in effects which could have precluded mutualist non-additive effects on herbivory. Further research on this, as well as other plant systems, is needed to examine the ecological contexts under which mutualist interactive effects are more or less likely to emerge and their impacts on plant fitness and associated communities.
... During this experiment, alpha-chaconine was up-accumulated in V/V roots and down-accumulated in V/N roots. Аlpha-chaconine is more toxic than α-solanine given its greater ability to disrupt cholesterol-containing cell membranes (Friedman, 2006). Apart from the above-mentioned role in drought-stressed potatoes, α-solanine and α-chaconine have not been associated with abiotic stress responses. ...
Grafting onto pepper rootstock NIBER® is an effective strategy to mitigate water stress effects on the grafted variety. In this work, we comparatively explored the metabolomic responses to water stress in the pepper variety “Maestral F1” (V) grafted onto NIBER® (V/N) and self-grafted (V/V) by untargeted metabolomics on leaves and roots. Leaf water status was also evaluated by relative water content (RWC) and gas exchange measurements. Under water stress, the V/N water use efficiency (WUE) and leaf RWC were higher than V/V, in agreement with major stomata closure and water retention in leaves. V/N showed a tolerance response, which was manifested in the untargeted metabolomic analysis. NIBER® modulated the grafted variety response to water stress as reflected in the differential metabolomic profiles in leaves and roots. The V/N-enriched metabolic pathways showed that the NIBER® response to water stress involved cutin and suberin biosynthesis, which act as protection layers, and jasmonic acid (JA) and jasmonates biosynthesis to favor signaling pathways. NIBER® did not induce flavonols and chlorophyll b synthesis, but likely promoted anthocyanins biosynthesis and maintained an undisturbed chlorophyll a:chlorophyll b ratio. Moreover, NIBER® increased vitamin B6, anthocyanins and stearic acid concentration in the variety leaves, whereas siroheme content rose in roots to improve nitrogen assimilation. Further studies are required to understand the contribution of secondary metabolites, such as phenylpropanoids, glycoalkaloids, and nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites, to NIBER® water stress tolerance.
... Informally established guidelines limit the total glycoalkaloids concentration in potatoes to 200 mg/kg of fresh weight. The triglycosides Rsolamargine and R-solasonine are the main glycoalkaloids of the common eggplant fruits [15]. They have the same aglycone (solasodine), bound to the trisaccharide chacotriose [R-Lrhamnose 1f4 (R-L-rhamnose 1f2) β-D-glucose] for R-solamargine, and solatriose [β-D-glucose 1f3 (R-L-rhamnose 1f2) β-D-galactose] for Rsolasonine [16]. ...
One of the most popular vegetables consumed worldwide is the eggplant. However, it contains a secondary metabolite, glycoalkaloids (GAs), which can potentially impact human health, especially if their concentrations exceed the standard for food safety. This study determined the production ratio of solasonine (a glycoalkaloids) content and its expression patterns by solasodine galactosyltransferase (SGT1) gene in ten samples of matured eggplant (Solanum melongena and Solanum gilo) in Nigeria by employing Zymo-RNA extraction kit.Generally, analysis revealed a statistically significant differences among different cultivar types of eggplant fruits (p< 0.0001). However, there is a significant decrease of SGT1 transcriptional expression in fruits of different cultivar types with increase in maturity levels. The highest mass percentage of solasonine production (3.87) was detected significantly in sample B having a lower Quantification cycle (Cq) of 36.41, while the lowest was in NC (0.65) with Cq of 38.81.Meanwhile, some samples showed no solasonine production indicating no SGT1 expression. These observations imply that some of the samples used in this study, especially those with high solasonine production, are not suitable for human consumption. .
... Glycoalkaloids are secondary metabolites from plants of the solanaceae family, which include widely consumed staple foods such as eggplant, tomato, and potato. There, they exert a natural protective function against fungi, bacteria, and predators (1). In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the possible antitumor activities of steroidal glycoalkaloids (2). ...
α-solanine is a glycoalkaloid that is commonly found in nightshades (Solanum) and has a toxic effect on the human organism. Among other things, it is already known to inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in tumor cell lines. Due to its potential as a tumor therapeutic, the current study investigated the effect of α-solanine on head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). In addition, genotoxic and antiangiogenic effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were evaluated at subtoxic α-solanine concentrations. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis rates were measured in two human HNSCC cell lines (FaDu pharynx carcinoma cells and CAL-33 tongue carcinoma cells), as well as in HUVECs. MTT and Annexin V analyses were performed 24 h after α-solanine treatment at increasing doses up to 30 µM to determine cytotoxic concentrations. Furthermore, genotoxicity at subtoxic concentrations of 1, 2, 4 and 6 µM in HUVECs was analyzed using single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay). The antiangiogenic effect on HUVECs was evaluated in the capillary tube formation assay. The MTT assay indicated an induction of concentration-dependent viability loss in FaDu and CAL-33 cancer cell lines, whereas the Annexin V test revealed α-solanine-induced cell death predominantly independent from apoptosis. In HUVECs, the cytotoxic effect occurred at lower concentrations. No genotoxicity or inhibition of angiogenesis were detected at subtoxic doses in HUVECs. In summary, α-solanine had a cytotoxic effect on both malignant and non-malignant cells, but this was only observed at higher concentrations in malignant cells. In contrast to existing data in the literature, tumor cell apoptosis was less evident than necrosis. The lack of genotoxicity and antiangiogenic effects in the subtoxic range in benign cells are promising, as this is favorable for potential therapeutic applications. In conclusion, however, the cytotoxicity in non-malignant cells remains a severe hindrance for the application of α-solanine as a therapeutic tumor agent in humans.
... As reported by Kowalczewski, Olejnik, Białas, Kubiak, et al. (2019c), the α-solanine-toα-chaconine ratio reached 1:0.04 in juices made of potato tubers with traditional light flesh. On the other hand, glycoalkaloids found in small contents in potato juices (below 10 mg/100 g f.m.) may confer health benefits to the human body as they exhibit strong antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties (Barceloux, 2008;Friedman, 2006 (Table 5), whereas petunidins, malvidins, peonidins, delfhinidins, and cyanidins (with Petunidin and peonidin found to be the major identified anthocyanin) were identified in those made of the purple-fleshed tubers (Table 4). According to Eichhorn and Winterhalter (2005) the presence of other pigments (e.g., carotenoids) affect their color (Nemś, Miedzianka, et al., 2015a). ...
Juices from potato varieties with colored flesh contain a large amount of biologically active compounds, but they tend to darken enzymatically, which deteriorates the quality. One of the factors that can improve the color of juices is pasteurization. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of pasteurization temperature on the anthocyanin content and color of juices from potatoes with colored flesh. The research material included juices from potato varieties with red and purple flesh. Juices pasteurized at 75 °C were characterized by the lightest color and an increase in the a* (red color) and b* (yellow color) parameters compared to unpasteurized juices. Pasteurization of juices reduced the amount of glycoalkaloids by an average of 54% compared to unpasteurized juices (larger losses in the content of α‐chaconine than α‐solanine). Purple potato juices showed a higher content of total polyphenols by an average of 30% and anthocyanins by 70% than juices from red potatoes. Pelargonidin and its derivatives were identified in red potato juices, while petunidin and peonidin were the most abundant in purple potato juices. Higher losses of total polyphenols were found in juices from red varieties of potatoes, while anthocyanins were less thermostable in juices from varieties with purple flesh.
... Potatoes cooked in a microwave oven show a 15% reduction in solanine content. [18,19] Solanine poisoning primarily manifests itself with gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. Symptoms typically appear within the first 2-24 hours. ...
The plants naturally produce alkaloids as a defense mechanism against certain insects and fungi to protect themselves from external factors. Plants of the Solanum genus, such as potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants, produce the substance solanine through natural processes. The amount of solanine produced by the plant for self-protection can increase due to genetic and environmental factors. This situation is often caused by improper storage conditions after harvest. Consuming potatoes with increased solanine concentration can be highly risky for health and can lead to solanine poisoning. This review discusses solanine poisoning and its mechanism.
... Potato glycoside alkaloids (PGA), also known as solanine, are sugar derivatives of an odor steroidal alkaloid found in potato plants and tubers (Schieber and Saldaña, 2009;Sanchez-Maldonado et al., 2014). More than 95% of PGA is α-solanine and α-chaconine (Friedman, 2006). PGA has strong biological activity, such as antifungal and pest resistance (Dahlin et al., 2017;Pillai and Dandurand, 2021). ...
Fusarium solani is a pathogenic fungus that causes significant harm, leading to crop yield reduction, fruit quality reduction, postharvest decay, and other diseases. This study used potato glycoside alkaloids (PGA) as inhibitors to investigate their effects on the mitochondrial structure and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle pathway of F. solani. The results showed that PGA could inhibit the colony growth of F. solani (54.49%), resulting in the disappearance of the mitochondrial membrane and the loss of contents. PGA significantly decreased the activities of aconitase (ACO), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), fumarase (FH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), succinyl-CoA synthetase (SCS), and increased the activity of citrate synthase (CS) in F. solani. After PGA treatment, the contents of acetyl coenzyme A (CoA), citric acid (CA), malic acid (L-MA), and α-ketoglutaric acid (α-KG) in F. solani were significantly decreased. The contents of isocitric acid (ICA), succinyl coenzyme A (S-CoA), succinic acid (SA), fumaric acid (FA), and oxaloacetic acid (OA) were significantly increased. Transcriptomic analysis showed that PGA could significantly affect the expression levels of 19 genes related to TCA cycle in F. solani. RT-qPCR results showed that the expression levels of ACO, IDH, α-KGDH, and MDH-related genes were significantly down-regulated, and the expression levels of SDH and FH-related genes were significantly up-regulated, which was consistent with the results of transcriptomics. In summary, PGA can achieve antifungal effects by reducing the tricarboxylic acid cycle’s flow and regulating key genes’ expression levels. This study reveals the antifungal mechanism of PGA from the perspective of TCA cycle, and provides a theoretical basis for the development and application of PGA as a biopesticide.
... Some in vitro studies indicate certain beneficial effects for instance anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, antibiotic properties and anti-inflammatory (Friedman, 2006;Kenny et al., 2013). ...
... Alkaloids with quercetin nuclei and potential inhibitory activity can be considered an effective medicine against SARS-CoV-2 [28][29][30]. Additionally, these compounds have important biological properties, including antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammation, and analgesic activities [31][32][33][34][35]. Many derivatives of alkaloids have different effects on enzymes based on their substitutions. ...
Covid-19 disease caused by the deadly SARS-CoV-2 virus is a serious and threatening global health issue declared by the WHO as an epidemic. Researchers are studying the design and discovery of drugs to inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 virus due to its high mortality rate. The main Covid-19 virus protease (Mpro) and human transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) are attractive targets for the study of antiviral drugs against SARS-2 coronavirus. Increasing consumption of herbal medicines in the community and a serious approach to these drugs have increased the demand for effective herbal substances. Alkaloids are one of the most important active ingredients in medicinal plants that have wide applications in the pharmaceutical industry. In this study, seven alkaloid ligands with Quercetin nucleus for the inhibition of Mpro and TMPRSS2 were studied using computational drug design including molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation (MD). Auto Dock software was used to evaluate molecular binding energy. Three ligands with the most negative docking score were selected to be entered into the MD simulation procedure. To evaluate the protein conformational changes induced by tested ligands and calculate the binding energy between the ligands and target proteins, GROMACS software based on AMBER03 force field was used. The MD results showed that Phyllospadine and Dracocephin-A form stable complexes with Mpro and TMPRSS2. Prolinalin-A indicated an acceptable inhibitory effect on Mpro, whereas it resulted in some structural instability of TMPRSS2. The total binding energies between three ligands, Prolinalin-A, Phyllospadine and Dracocephin-A and two proteins MPro and TMRPSS2 are (-111.235 ± 15.877, - 75.422 ± 11.140), (-107.033 ± 9.072, -84.939 ± 10.155) and (-102.941 ± 9.477, - 92.451 ± 10.539), respectively. Since the binding energies are at a minimum, this indicates confirmation of the proper binding of the ligands to the proteins. Regardless of some Prolinalin-A-induced TMPRSS2 conformational changes, it may properly bind to TMPRSS2 binding site due to its acceptable binding energy. Therefore, these three ligands can be promising candidates for the development of drugs to treat infections caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
... In eggplant leaves, 95% of the glycoalkaloids consist of α-solanine [57]. The α-solanine content in eggplant leaves (600 µg/g) exceeds that in potato leaves (83.5 µg/g) [58,59]. Various research studies have demonstrated that α-solanine significantly decreases the survival rates of larvae and pupae, as well as adult fecundity [60,61]. ...
Both larvae and adults of the Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata feed on leaves of potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants. Given the variation in planting times of host plants in the Jianghan Plain, host switching between larvae and adults of H. vigintioctopunctata is inevitable to ensure continuous food availability. We evaluated the effect of consistent versus diverse larval and adult host plant feeding experience on growth performance, fecundity, longevity, and feeding preferences of H. vigintioctopunctata through match-mismatch experiments. Host plant quality significantly influences larval development and adult reproduction. Potatoes are identified as the optimal host plant for H. vigintioctopunctata, whereas eggplants significantly negatively affect the adult fecundity. Adult stage host feeding experience determines the fecundity of H. vigintioctopunctata, irrespective of the larval feeding experience. The fecundity of H. vigintioctopunctata adults on eggplant leaves remains significantly lower than that observed on potato leaves. Similarly, adult H. vigintioctopunctata demonstrate a preference for consuming potato leaves, irrespective of the larval feeding experience. Although host switching between larval and adult stages offers lesser benefits for the performance of herbivorous insects compared to a consistent diet with potato leaves, it maintains H. vigintioctopunctata population continuity amidst shortages of high-quality potato hosts.
... The most common GA found in food plants are α-solanine and α-chaconine in potato, α-tomatine in tomato, and solamargine and α-solanine in eggplants [13,16]. Glycoalkaloids have two main structural moieties: an aglycone moiety based on a 27 carbon atoms cholestane skeleton in addition to a ring containing nitrogen atom, thus shares both the steroidal and alkaloid chemical properties and pharmacological activities, and an oligosaccharide moiety [17]. The aglycone is derived from cholesterol and can be solasodine, solanidine, or tomatidine depending on the plant source. ...
This research investigates repurposing potato glycoalkaloids as lifesaving anticancer drugs. There is integration of network pharmacology with multiomics. Solanine, chaconine, and their hydrolysis products’ pharmacokinetics were tested using SwissADME. Solanine and chaconine targets were identified via reverse pharmacophore mapping. Through database mining, 26 solanine and chaconine targets were found in cancer genes. To understand gene function, KEGG and GO analyses were done. STRING was used to create a protein-protein interaction network to find similarities between chemicals and cancer. To find prognostic genes in various cancers, CytoHubba in Cytoscape identified hub genes and GEPIA2 did survival analysis. ADME testing for solanine and chaconine medication candidates failed. Their glycosylation boosted solubility and P-glycoprotein inhibition. Cancer targets shared by both drugs were elevated in cancer-related pathways such as Pi3k-Akt1 and HIF-1. Cell death control and programmed cell death genes were enriched in gene ontology study. We built a protein-protein interaction network with 26 nodes and 38 edges. The hub genes were STAT3, TLR4, FGF2, IL2, NFKB1, AR, CHUK, TRIM24, NOS3, and KDM1A. Survival research showed that these genes predict cancer prognosis. We found that solanine and chaconine may interact with cancer-related genes to fight cancer. Discovery of hub genes with prognostic significance sheds light on glycoalkaloids’ anticancer processes.
... It acts as a natural defense mechanism for plants against herbivores and pests. While solanine is generally present in low concentrations in these plants, its level can increase under certain conditions, such as exposure to light and storage [111]. It has been observed to initiate the liberation of Ca 2+ from the mitochondria, which consequently raises the cytoplasmic levels of Ca 2+ within HepG2 cells. ...
... Glycoalkaloids (GAs) are secondary metabolites found in plants, mainly of the Solanaceae family. They are nitrogen-containing glycosides that have a trisaccharide moiety attached, via the 3-OH group, to a lipophilic six-ring steroid aglycone skeleton (called solanidine) [1]. In the common cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), α-chaconine and α-solanine are the main GAs ( Figure 1); together, they account for approximately 95% of the GAs found in potato; so, their total amount is generally referred to as total GAs (TGAs) [2]. ...
α-Solanine and α-chaconine are the two most predominant glycoalkaloids (GAs) present in potato. Potato peel contains a high concentration of GAs, which are especially interesting for application in the pharmaceutical industry due to their different beneficial properties (such as anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antipyretic, antiviral, fungicide, and antibiotic activities, among others); so, potato peel waste can be valorized by extracting these biologically active compounds. For this, a green, quick, and efficient miniaturized analytical approach based on ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) combined with HPLC-DAD was developed to quantify α-solanine and α-chaconine in potato peel. Some parameters of the extraction were optimized, including the extraction method, the type of solvent, and the sample/solvent ratio, by a three-factor, three-level (33) full factorial experimental design. The optimal extraction conditions were obtained with UAE using methanol as a solvent and a sample/solvent ratio of 1:10 (w/v, g/mL). The analytical greenness metric for sample preparation (AGREEprep) tool was used to assess the greenness of the methods used. The tool revealed an acceptable green analysis, with 0.61 points. The method was validated and applied to the evaluation of GAs in the peel of 15 commercial varieties of potato. The amount of glycoalkaloids found in the samples evaluated ranged from 143 to 1273 mg/kg and from 117 to 1742 mg/kg dry weight for α-solanine and α-chaconine, respectively. These results reveal the important variability that exists between potato varieties; so, their analysis is of great importance to select the most suitable ones for biovalorization (e.g., the Amandine and Rudolph varieties, with around 3000 mg/kg, in total, of both GAs). To provide higher stability to the peel during storage, freeze-drying or a medium-temperature drying process resulted preferable to avoid GA degradation. Overall, this study will contribute to the expansion of the future biovalorization of potato peel waste as well as provide a powerful analytical tool for GA analysis.
... Additionally, yams have shown potential in bone marrow cell regeneration and splenocyte proliferation [147]. Dioscorin, a component of fresh yam (Dioscorea batatas), has exhibited DPPH radical scavenging activity and has been found to have beneficial effects in lowering blood pressure [148][149][150]. ...
There has been a growing interest in research focused on enhancing immune function, given its crucial role in maintaining human health and preventing illnesses. While antibiotics are commonly employed in clinical settings to treat and prevent various diseases, their synthetic nature often leads to undesirable side effects. Since the beginning of time, medicinal plants have been employed in healthcare. Global research has been done to confirm their efficacy, and some of the results have sparked the development of plant-based medications; also, plant-based diets have emerged as leading contenders in the field of chronic disease prevention. They offer affordability, natural origins, and easy accessibility. One key reason for their effectiveness is their Immunomodulatory effect, whereby they stimulate immune cells and influence the development of immune molecules. This comprehensive review aims to explore the potential of medicinal plant as well as plant-based foods while examining their medicinal properties and their utilization in preventing and managing disease through their chemicals, biochemical components, and pharmacological approaches.
Glycoalkaloids are the alkaloid derived chemical constituents naturally produced in various plants species especially Solanaceae family. These chemical constituents protect the plant against predators as well as pathogens. The consumption of high dose of glycoalkaloids was toxic to humans. This study was purposeful to evaluate steroidal glycoalkaloids viz., α-chaconine and α-solanine quantity in different Solanaceae family vegetable varieties. The QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, Safe) extraction using acetonitrile as extracting solvent was used for extracting steroidal glycoalkaloids in vegetable samples. In the optimized conditions, the standard chromatogram shows clear resolution of α-chaconine and α-solanine. The analytes were identified at 3.15 min for α-chaconine and 4.88 min for α-solanine. The optimized HPLC (High pressure liquid chromatography) method was validated. The method optimized using acetonitrile and 1.0 mM ammonium acetate buffer at pH 4.2 in 65:45 (v/v) as mobile phase at 0.6 mL/min, μBondapak C18 (10 μm, 4.6x250 mm) column as stationary phase and UV detection is selected at 218 nm. Findings suggest that this method was simple and convenient for the estimation of glycoalkaloids in vegetables. The glycoalkaloids was achieved under the acceptable levels of less than 200 mg/kg as prescribed by USFDA and German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment.
Applications of Modern Mass Spectrometry, Volume 2, covers the latest advances in mass spectrometry in scientific research. The series presents readers with information on the broad range of mass spectrometry techniques and configurations, data analysis, and practical applications. Each volume contains contributions from eminent researchers who present their findings in an easy-to-read format. The multidisciplinary nature of the works presented in each volume of this book series makes it a valuable reference on mass spectrometry to academic researchers and industrial R&D specialists in applied sciences, biochemistry, life sciences, and allied fields. The second volume of the series presents 6 reviews: Ion Mobility-Mass Spectrometry for Macromolecule Analysis - Recent Advancements in Detection of Organic Contaminants in Wastewater Using Advanced Mass Spectrometry - Poisonous Substances in Tropical Medicinal and Edible Plants: Traditional Uses, Toxicology, and Characterization by Hyphenated Mass Spectrometry Techniques - LC-MS Analysis of Endogenous Neuropeptides from Tissues of Central Nervous System: An Overview - Advances in Structural Proteomics Using Mass Spectrometry and Recent Trends of Modern Mass Spectrometry: Application towards Drug Discovery and Development Process.
Rising human populations and declining wild catch rates have led to a 10–11% annual increase in global aquaculture production over the past three decades, and this trend is likely to continue. We expect the demand for aquafeed, which currently accounts for more than 70% of the operational cost, to soar as this growth continues. The primary and most expensive element in aquafeeds is fish meal (FM), which is a major source of animal protein. Aquafeeds contain protein, energy, vitamins, minerals, and vital amino acids. The aquaculture industry’s current rapid development and competition for FM’s limited global supply may have a negative impact on its availability and price. For the aquaculture business to remain viable, it is essential to identify alternative plant protein sources that are of high quality, affordable, and ecologically benign. Root and tuber plant parts contain a moderate amount of protein with an adequate amino acid profile and excellent biological values, coupled with the right minerals and vitamins for most domesticated aquatic species; hence, they have emerged not just as an essential livestock feed ingredient but also as an important alternative plant protein source. Additionally, they are affordable and widely available. However, roots and tubers contain a variety of anti-nutritional elements that can make feed less appetising and thus have an adverse effect on the development and well-being of aquacultured animal species. This chapter provides details on the nutritional value of root and tuber plants and their derivatives as alternative plant protein sources, as well as highlighting the drawbacks of their use in aquaculture feeds. Also examined and discussed are methods for improving the effectiveness of roots and tuber crops in aquafeeds.
Cancer remains a critical global health challenge, with limited progress in reducing mortality despite advancements in diagnosis and treatment. The growing resistance of tumors to existing chemotherapy exacerbates this burden. In response, the search for new anticancer compounds from plants has intensified, given their historical success in yielding effective treatments. This review focuses on α‐solanine, a glycoalkaloid primarily derived from potato tubers and nightshade family plants, recognized for its diverse biological activities, including anti‐allergic, antipyretic, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐diabetic, and antibiotic properties. Recently, α‐solanine has gained attention as a potential anticancer agent. Utilizing resources like PubMed/MedLine, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Scopus, the American Chemical Society, Google Scholar, Springer Link, Wiley, and various commercial websites, this review consolidates two decades of research on α‐solanine's anticancer effects and mechanisms against nine different cancers, highlighting its role in modulating various signaling pathways. It also discusses α‐solanine's potential as a lead compound in cancer therapy. The abundant availability of potato peel, often discarded as waste or sold cheaply, is suggested as a sustainable source for large‐scale α‐solanine extraction. The study concludes that α‐solanine holds promise as a standalone or adjunctive cancer treatment. However, further research is necessary to optimize this lead compound and mitigate its toxicity through various strategies.
Potato is the most widely grown non-grain crop and ranks as the third most significant global food crop following rice and wheat. Despite its long history of cultivation over vast areas, slow breeding progress and environmental stress have led to a scarcity of high-yielding potato varieties. Enhancing the quality and yield of potato tubers remains the ultimate objective of potato breeding. However, conventional breeding has faced challenges due to tetrasomic inheritance, high genomic heterozygosity, and inbreeding depression. Recent advancements in molecular biology and functional genomic studies of potato have provided valuable insights into the regulatory network of physiological processes and facilitated trait improvement. In this review, we present a summary of identified factors and genes governing potato growth and development, along with progress in potato genomics and the adoption of new breeding technologies for improvement. Additionally, we explore the opportunities and challenges in potato improvement, offering insights into future avenues for potato research.
Polyphenol is a plant compound that can act as an antioxidant and neutralize free radicals that cause damage to body cells and cause cancer and other diseases. Regular consumption of polyphenols is believed to improve digestion and increase brain health, as well as protect the body against various diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart disease. Dark chocolate, tea, and berries are among the most well-known sources of polyphenols. This compound can act as an antioxidant and neutralize free radicals that damage body cells and cause cancer and other diseases. Also, reducing inflammation can prevent the occurrence of many chronic diseases. Flavonoids are a diverse group of plant compounds found in many fruits and vegetables. For example, plant products such as tea and chocolate are good sources of flavonoids. Flavonoids have strong antioxidant properties that play a prominent role in eliminating toxins and fighting oxidative stress. Eating foods rich in flavonoids is an excellent way to improve health and reduce the risk of diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
Food is a source of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals that are necessary for growth and maintaining human health. Food bioactive compounds (FBCs) are present in small quantities in a complex matrix and are difficult to extract, isolate, and identify for their appropriate utilization. For the extraction, advanced green technologies such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE), and enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) are commonly applied, and for the isolation and purification of these FBCs, medium-pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC), counter-current chromatography (CCC), preparative-high performance liquid chromatography (prep-HPLC), column chromatography, and preparative-thin layer chromatography are successfully applied. After isolation, these FBCs are identified by spectroscopic techniques such as UV–visible spectroscopy, FT-IR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy. This chapter comprises basic methods and techniques applied for the extraction, isolation, purification, and identification of FBCs from different food sources.
Potato also known as (Solanum tuberosum L.) is very desirable since it has a high yield potential as well as a high nutritional value. Potato is one of the richest source of micronutrients especially when consumed along with skin. With its enormous industrial demand and status as the most utilized non-grain staple crop globally, it seems to be a prime choice for biofortification. Biofortification can aid people with micronutrient deficiencies. Through biofortification, it was discovered that applying zinc fertilizer significantly improved the micronutrient concentrations.It is an affordable, reliable, and sustainable technique that has the potential to provide long-term micronutrient availability. Recommended daily allowance (RDA) of zinc for men and women over the age group of 19 yrs is 11 mg and 8 mg, respectively while during pregnancy and breastfeeding, the RDA is higher at 11 mg and 12 mg. In contrast to data given by USDA 2019 for non biofortifiedpotato, Biofortification of potato with zinc resulted an increase in moisture, energy, carbohydrate, total fiber, and zinc % overall. The current study suggest that biofortification of potato with different micronutrients can be a sustainable approach to improve its overall nutritional quality as well as it can be a weapon to fight against various micronutrient deficiencies and decrease the ratio of hidden hunger.
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a major agricultural crop cultivated worldwide. To meet market demand, breeding programs focus on enhancing important agricultural traits such as disease resistance and improvement of tuber palatability. However, while potato tubers get a lot of attention from research, potato berries are mostly overlooked due to their level of toxicity and lack of usefulness for the food production sector. Generally, they remain unused in the production fields after harvesting the tuber. These berries are toxic due to high levels of glycoalkaloids, which might confer some interesting bioactivities. Berries of various solanaceous species contain bioactive secondary metabolites, suggesting that potato berries might contain similarly valuable metabolites. Therefore, possible applications of potato berries, e.g., in the protection of plants against pests and pathogens, as well as the medical exploitation of their anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antifungal properties, are plausible. The presence of valuable compounds in potato berries could also contribute to the bioeconomy by providing a novel use for otherwise discarded agricultural side streams. Here we review the potential use of these berries for the extraction of compounds that can be exploited to produce pharmaceuticals and plant protection products.
This study evaluated the effects of high-energy electron beams (e-beams) on sprouting, physical–chemical properties and membrane lipid peroxidation of ‘Zihuabai’ potatoes stored at 8 ± 1 ℃. Sprouting of all irradiated tubers treated at 300, 400, or 500 Gy was entirely inhibited for 200 days. However, tubers treated at 400 and 500 Gy had greater losses in weight and firmness, and showed decay during storage. Thus, the 300 Gy is more suitable for inhibiting sprouting and maintaining storage quality. E-beam irradiation also effectively maintained the nutritional quality of tubers, delaying the loss of vitamin C and starch. The loss of vitamin C and starch was 24.7% and 20.0% lower in irradiated tubers than in non-irradiated tubers (64.5% and 31.7%) after 150 days of storage. E-beam had no effect on the content of soluble protein, about 2.56 g kg−1 in ‘Zihuabai’ potato tubers. E-beam irradiation inhibited the respiration intensity and increased the activities of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and polyphenol oxidase (PPO). Therefore, e-beam irradiation increased the antioxidant capacity of tubers. However, it promoted the decomposition of total phenols. We speculate that the increase of POD activity inhibited the phenolic substances and auxin metabolism, which are the effects of regulation of sprouting by e-beam irradiation. E-beam also increased the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), suggesting that e-beam irradiation increased the membrane lipid peroxidation of tubers.
Plants that possess a diverse range of bioactive compounds are essential for maintaining human health and survival. The diversity of bioactive compounds with distinct therapeutic potential contributes to their role in health systems, in addition to their function as a source of nutrients. Studies on the genetic makeup and composition of bioactive compounds have revealed them to be rich in steroidal alkaloids, saponins, terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolics. The Solanaceae family, having a rich abundance of bioactive compounds with varying degrees of pharmacological activities, holds significant promise in the management of different diseases. Investigation into Solanum species has revealed them to exhibit a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, nephroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-ulcerogenic effects. Phytochemical analysis of isolated compounds such as diosgenin, solamargine, solanine, apigenin, and lupeol has shown them to be cytotoxic in different cancer cell lines, including liver cancer (HepG2, Hep3B, SMMC-772), lung cancer (A549, H441, H520), human breast cancer (HBL-100), and prostate cancer (PC3). Since analysis of their phytochemical constituents has shown them to have a notable effect on several signaling pathways, a great deal of attention has been paid to identifying the biological targets and cellular mechanisms involved therein. Considering the promising aspects of bioactive constituents of different Solanum members, the main emphasis was on finding and reporting notable cultivars, their phytochemical contents, and their pharmacological properties. This review offers mechanistic insights into the bioactive ingredients intended to treat different ailments with the least harmful effects for potential applications in the advancement of medical research.
The concentration of potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) glycoalkaloids (PGA) (i.e., α-chaconine and α-solanine) in six different parts of plants and within slices cut at 1 mm in thickness from the outside to the inside of the tubers of both ‘May Queen’ and ‘Irish Cobbler’ potatoes were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The highest concentrations of PGA in both plants were found in the calyxes and petals. A large quantity of PGA in tubers of both cultivars was located within the first 1 mm from the outside surface, and decreased toward the center of the tuber. Thus, when cooking potato tubers, nearly all the PGA was removed by peeling the tissue 3-4 mm in thickness from the outside, including the periderm region.
Leptine glycoalkaloids in leaves of the weedy diploid potato, Solanum chacoense Bitt., have been shown to reduce feeding by Colorado potato beetle (CPB; Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say). Development of cultivated potatoes with natural resistance to CPB has the potential to reduce costs and environmental impacts of production by reducing pesticide use. Through efforts to move the genes controlling leptine biosynthesis into cultivated potato, a series of hybrids was generated between the high leptine producing S. chacoense and a cultivated type, S. phureja Juz. and Buk. These hybrids were evaluated for solanine (+chaconine), leptinins, leptines, and total steroidal glycoalkaloid content. All hybrids contained leptines, but at different levels (ranging from 117 to 802 mg·g -1 dry weight of leptine aglycon). Some hybrids appeared to convert solanine (+chaconine) to leptinine and leptine efficiently and had no detectable solanine in sampled leaves. To verify the biological significance of these glycoalkaloids, leaf tissue was subjected to feeding assays with second instar CPB. CPB feeding rate ranged from 38 to 87 mm 2·d -1 and was most closely correlated with leptine concentration. A minimum leptine level of 300 mg/100 g fresh leaves suppressed feeding by 50%, and levels below this had no effect on CPB feeding.
The effects of low temperature and of combined stresses, cool temperature and waterlogging and also warm temperature and drought, on potato tuber glycoalkaloid levels were investigated, with emphasis on comparison of tubers of similar size. The early maturing cultivars Home Guard, Rocket and British Queen were grown under favourable controlled environment conditions (18/14 °C day/night temperature, 14 h photoperiod) until the imposition of treatments after the start of tuber initiation. Transfer to low temperature (12/9 °C) did not increase total glycoalkaloid concentration in any of the three cultivars. However, waterlogging at 12/9 °C increased total glycoalkaloid concentration during the later stages of development of British Queen. Drought stress at 24/18 °C also increased total glycoalkaloid concentration in British Queen, although the response varied between individual tubers of similar size. Total glycoalkaloid concentrations in tubers of Rocket were not affected by the combined stress treatments, and any effects on Home Guard were very much less than on British Queen.
Differences in the content of steroid glycoalkaloids (SGA) were noted in the peels of potato tubers cultivars Alpha, Cara, Désirée and LT-7. Cultivar LT-7 had always the highest SGA content, Désirée was intermediate and Alpha and Cara had the lowest SGA content, regardless of growing conditions, tuber ageing and tuber treatments. Tubers grown during the summer developed the highest SGA content as compared to those grown in the spring and winter seasons, respectively. Tubers grown during winter showed an increase in SGA toward the end of the storage period. Similar results were obtained with tubers of LT-7 grown in a greenhouse under cool temperatures in combination with short days (which imitate the winter conditions in Israel). A decrease in SGA content was observed in tuber slices treated with a fungal cell-wall preparation fromPhytophthora citrophthora. This decrease was much stronger in the pith than in the peel, indicating a possible role for SGA in the defence mechanism because peels are the first part of the tuber to be invaded by pathogens. The above results were observed in tubers of all cultivars regardless of the growing season or tuber ageing.
Twelve laboratories participated in a collaborative study to evaluate precision parameters of a liquid chromatographic method for analysis of the glycoalkaloids α-solanine and α-chaconine in potato tubers. Samples consisted of frozen potato tuber homogenates distributed as 3 blind duplicates and 3 split-level pairs. The analytical method included aqueous extraction, workup on disposable solidphase extraction cartridges, and reversed-phase chromatography with photometric detection at 202 nm. Results for α-solanine and α-chaconine were received from 10 and 9 laboratories, respectively. Relative standard deviations for reproducibilo ity for α-solanine and α-chaconine were similar, ranging from 8 to 13% in the applied concentration range of 12 to 260 mg/kg fresh weight.
A field experiment was established in 1996 to 1998 with 34 Czech and 48 foreign varieties. The potatoes were divided according to the length of their vegetation period and the differences in the SGAs content between individual groups of the Czech varieties were compared with the foreign ones. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine the level of alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine in tuber samples after physiological maturation. The SGAs content was assessed in raw unpeeled tubers, in tubers where ca 1.5 mm was peeled off and in mechanically damaged unpeeled tubers. Before analysis the tubers were stored in a chamber at 4°C. After mechanical injury the samples were kept for one week at ca 20 °C in darkness before analysis. In raw unpeeled tubers of the Czech varieties the SGAS content was higher than in the foreign varieties; in the very early varieties by 24% and in the medium late to late varieties by 55%. After peeling the SGAs content decreased by 51.5% in the Czech varieties and by 55.1% in the foreign varieties. After mechanical damage the content of alpha-solanine in Czech varieties increased more than alpha-chaconine (in three years on average by 78 to 103,4% and by 48.8 to 70.4%, respectively).
Data on jervane, solanidane and spirosolane alkaloid-induced teratogenicity in hamsters is summarized and reviewed. The embryolethality of these steroidal alkaloids is discussed with respect to pre- and post-implantation death. Craniofacial malformations induced by steroidal alkaloids are tabulated and the relationship of malformation pattern to mechanisms of terata induction is noted. Relative teratogenic potencies (RTP) are assigned to jervanes, solanidanes and spirosolanes by conversion of literature data to equimolar doses compared to the powerful Veratrum teratogen, jervine, and the nonteratogenic spirosolane, tomatidine. RTP values are: jervine (100), 12β,13α-dihydrojervine (65), 22S,25R-solanidanes (50), cyclopamine (47), α-chaconine (43), 5α,6,12β,13α-tetrahydrojervine (40), 22R,25S-solanidine (32), solanidine-N-oxide (32), α-solanine (32), 5α,6-dihydrosolanidine (9), muldamine (9), solasodine (6), 5α,6-dihydrosolasodine (4), tomatine (1), tomatidine (0).
Tubers of all 31 Czech varieties listed in the National Book of Varieties of the Czech Republic in 1996 and three Slovakian varieties after harvest were exposed to the light (one week and 14 days) during the years 1996 and 1998 and the content of the two most important glycoalkaloids (α-chaconine and α-solanine) in them was measured. The reaction to light and to the effect of different duration of continuous lighting (one week and 14 days) differed among the varieties. In this way we simulated the conditions in many stores or supermarkets. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine α-chaconine and α-solanine in samples of tubers harvested after physiological maturation. Comparisons of the reaction of groups of varieties (early, medium early and medium late to late) showed that after exposure to one week of lighting (expressed in per cent), the increment in the content of SGAs decreased from the group of early to the medium late to late varieties. This was obviously associated with the total content of SGAs at the beginning of the experiment (prior to lighting). After leaving the tubers in the light for one week, the average content of α-solanine increased more than the content of α-chaconine in all the groups of varieties. After 14 days in light the average percentual growth of SGAs was the highest in the group of early varieties, then gradually lower from the medium early, and medium late to late varieties, to the lowest in the very early varieties. The different duration of lighting had a highly significant influence on the SGAs content in the respective groups divided according to the duration of the vegetative period. In all the 34 varieties the increase in the SGAs content in tubers after 14 days of lighting was approximately double (68.6 mg.kg-1) the content in tubers kept in light for one week (33.1 mg.kg-1). The effect of the conditions of the year of cultivation was also highly significant. The differences in the response of the varieties to light in terms of the increased SGAs content were significant (> 50 mg.kg-1 fresh matter after one week and > 80 mg.kg-1 after 14 days of light). The α-solamne:α-chaconine ratio in control tubers (kept in darkness) was 1:1.48, after one week in the light this ratio dropped to 1:1.44 and after another week of lighting it increased to 1:1.47.
As part of a program designed to improve food safety by controlling the biosynthesis of glycoalkaloids in potatoes, we define conditions of sampling, handling, storing, shipping, and processing that influence the biosynthesis of potentially toxic glycoalkaloids in potatoes after harvest. This brief overview also suggests research needs to develop a protocol that can be adopted by potato producers and processors to minimize post-harvest synthesis of glycoalkaloids in potatoes. Reducing glycoalkaloid concentration in potatoes will provide a variety of benefits extending from the farm to processing, shipping, marketing, and consumption of potatoes and potato products. Minimizing pre-and postharvest glycoalkaloid production in potatoes, including new cultivars, requires an integrated multi-disciplinary approach.
The antibody populations produced in rabbits from two different solanidine glycoalkaloid conjugates (glycosidic-linked and hemisuccinate ester-linked) were very similar in their properties in a competitive indirect immunoassay. Suitable tomatidine glycoalkaloid conjugates could not be prepared using any of the solanidine conjugation methods. A tomatidine conjugate was prepared using selective succinylation of the glycoalkaloid tomatine, followed by separation on an anion exchange column and active ester conjugation to BSA. A comparison of a flourescence polarization immunoassay (FPI) with a solid phase microtiter immunoassay indicated several advantages for FPI including better quantification, less requirement for standards, and easily-modeled kinetics. However, FPI required the use of considerably more concentrated polyclonal serum.
The total glycoalkaloid concentration of non-sprouted potato tubers, cvs Marfona, Fianna, Maris Piper, Kestrel and Golden Wonder, was measured following 15 days of continuous illumination (250 µmol m−2 s−1 photosynthetically active radiation) using high-performance liquid chromatography. Comparisons were made of the influence of four sources of illumination: fluorescent tube-type warm white, high-pressure sodium, high-pressure mercury types MB/U and MBFR/U. Irrespective of cultivar, glycoalkaloid concentrations of tubers placed in the dark remained relatively constant from day 0 to day 15 and did not exceed food safety values of 200 mg kg−1 FW. A highly significant cultivar, light and cultivar × light (P < 0.01) interaction was recorded. Cultivar Kestrel was shown to be light-sensitive with high rates of glycoalkaloid accumulation irrespective of light source, and cv Maris Piper was demonstrated to be light-insensitive. In the majority of cultivars tested, maximal rates of glycoalkaloid accumulation were recorded following exposure of tubers to sodium or fluorescent light, and minimal rates of accumulation were recorded following exposure of tubers to mercury (MB/U and MBFR/U) illumination. In virtually all cases glycoalkaloid concentrations steadily increased with time during light exposure with no indication of cessation. In some instances the α-chaconine/α-solanine ratio decreased over 15 days of illumination (P < 0.05), indicating enhanced α-solanine synthesis over that of α-chaconine. The implications of these results in terms of consumer safety are discussed.
The effects of the glycoalkaloids α-solanine, α-chaconine and α-tomatine on different cell types were studied in order to investigate the membrane action of these compounds. Hemolysis of erythrocytes was compared to 6-carboxyfluorescein leakage from both ghosts and erythrocyte lipid vesicles, whereas leakage of enzymes from mitochondria and the apical and baso-lateral side of Caco-2 cells was determined. Furthermore, the effects of glycoalkaloids on the gap-junctional communication between Caco-2 cells was studied. From these experiments, it was found that glycoalkaloids specifically induced membrane disruptive effects of cholesterol containing membranes as was previously reported in model membrane studies. In addition, α-chaconine was found to selectively decrease gap-junctional intercellular communication. Furthermore, the glycoalkaloids were more potent in permeabilizing the outer membrane of mitochondria compared to digitonin at the low concentrations used.
The decrease in α-chaconine (CHA) and α-solanine (SOL), toxic glycoalkaloids in potatoes, during cooking by three procedures was investigated.
Raw or cooked potato samples (2g) were extracted twice with 5% acetic acid solution. The extract was purified on Sep-pak C18 and CHA and SQL contents were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Recoveries of CHA and SQL from raw potatoes were 96.5% and 98.2%, respectively and those from cooked potatoes were 96.2% and 96.7%, respectively.
It was found that 93.9% of CHA and 95.9% of SOL remained in potatoes after boiling. These values indicate that boiling is ineffective as a means to decrease the alkaloids. Alkaloid content was reduced by microwaving by 15% in each case. In the case of deep-frying, their contents varied according to the temperature. At 150°, both alkaloids showed no decrease, and at 170°, the potatoes showed a large variation in residual alkaloids. At 210°, however, the alkaloids were partially decomposed; after 10 minutes heating, 64.9% of CHA and 59.7% of SOL remained. It was suggested that the critical temperature for the decomposition of both alkaloids in potatoes may be around 170°C.
In this study, relatively high stability of CHA and SOL in potatoes under normal home cooking conditions was confirmed.
In studies of the lysis of rabbit erythrocytes, red beet cells, andPenicillium notatum protoplasts by the potato glycoalkaloids α-solanine and α-chaconine, the latter was consistently the more membrane-disruptive compound and erythrocytes the more susceptible cell type. A 1∶1 mixture of solanine and chaconine produced pronounced synergistic effects in all three test systems. In beet cells, such effects were apparent from an early stage of treatment and persisted over a period of several hours. With erythrocytes and fungal protoplasts, the synergism was maximal with mixtures containing approximately 70% chaconine, whereas with beet cells it peaked at approximately 40% chaconine. Synergistic interactions between solanine and chaconine also occurred with regard to cholesterol binding in vitro, with a maximum response corresponding to the 50% mixture. The implications of these findings for the nature and efficacy of chemical defense systems in plants are discussed.
Somatic fusions between the cultivated potato Solanum tuberosum and the wild species S. circaeifolium subsp. circaeifolium Bitter were produced in order to incorporate desirable traits into the potato gene pool. Selection of the putative hybrids was based on a difference in callus morphology between the hybrids and their parents, with the hybrids showing typical purple-colored cells in otherwise green calli. In all, 17 individual calli regenerated to plants. Of the nine plants that could be transferred to the greenhouse, eight showed a hybrid and one a parental morphology. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis confirmed the hybrid character in the former group. Chloroplast counts in stomatal guard cells and flow cytometric determination of nuclear DNA content showed that four hybrid plants were tetraploid (4x), one was mixoploid (5x-8x), and the others were polyploid (6x; 8x). Three out of four tetraploid hybrids were found to be fully resistant to Phytophthora infestans, and all four hybrids were resistant to Globodera pallida pathotypes Pa2 and Pa3. It was further observed that the type and amount of steroidal glycoalkaloids varied among the tubers of the parents and the hybrids. Using the hybrids as female parents in crosses with S. tuberosum, viable seeds could be obtained. This demonstrates the potential of these hybrids in practical plant breeding.
Glycoalkaloids (GA's) represent an important group of naturally occurring plant toxins. They are found in a wide variety of plants including potato and tomato. Analysis of GA's is complicated, particularly in tomato because these compounds do not readily absorb in the UV. Thus, extensive sample cleanup is usually required followed by HPLC. In this chapter we summarize our efforts to develop simple, rapid immunoassays for the major GA's found in potato and in tomato. The assay we developed is a monoclonal antibody (Mab) based competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Hapten synthesis and antibody production is discussed. GA levels measured in identical samples using an HPLC method and the cELISA showed a high degree of correlation (correlation coefficient = 0.998). The cELISA clearly has widespread application and is able to rapidly and accurately measure GA levels.
Tuber glycoalkaloid (TGA) content, leaf glycoalkaloid (LGA) content, and the level of multigenic resistance to late blight were determined for 15 potato clones. There was no association between the level of blight resistance and the TGA or LGA contents in these clones. However, TGA and LGA contents were highly correlated. The genotypic correlation coefficient between TGA and LGA contents for the 15 clones was 0.82 (SE = 0.115). TGA contents from blight-infected plants were not significantly higher than TGA contents from healthy (fungicide-protected) plants. The results indicate that breeders should be able to select for multigenic late blight resistance withohut increasing TGA contents of clones in their breeding programs.
Organoleptic in vitro evaluation of three major potato glycoalkaloids disclosed two distinct taste stimuli, a bitter caffeinelike taste and an astringent pain sensation, characterized as burning and peppery. At higher concentrations the two stimuli merged leaving a persistent burning sensation lasting up to two hours. The absolute bitter taste thresholds for α-solanine, α-chaconine and ß2-chaconine respectively were 0.313, 0.078 and 0.078 mg with corresponding values for the pain stimulus at 0.625, 0.323 and 0.156 mg. Bitterness thresholds for caffeine and parent alkaloid solanidine, respectively, were 1.25 and 0.313 mg, without any pain stimulus up to a 1000 ppm. concentration tested.RésuméL’évaluation organoleptique in vitro de trois glycoalcaloïdes importants de pomme de terre a mis en évidence l'existence de deux stimuli distincts pour le goût, un goût amer du type caféine et une sensation douloureuse astringente, caractérisée de brûlure et poivrée. Aux concentrations élevées les deux stimuli se con fondèrent pour produire une sensation de brûlure persistante pouvant durer jusqu’à deux heures. Les seuils du goût amer pur pour x-solanine, x-chaconine et B2-chaconine furent respectivement 0.313, 0.078 et 0.078 mg et les valeurs correspondantes pour le stimulus de la douleur furent 0.625, 0.323 et 0.156 mg. Les seuils d'amertume pour la caféine et de l'alcaloïde apparenté solanidine furent respectivement 1.25 et 0.313 mg, sans aucun stimulus de douleur jusqu’à la concentration testée de 1000 ppm.
Glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll concentrations within tuber tissue of three potato cultivars (Desiree, King Edward and Kerrs Pink) were measured following 15 days continuous illumination (250 μmol m−2 s−1 photosynthetically active radiation). Comparisons were made of the influence of four light sources: fluorescent tube type warm white, high pressure sodium, and high and low pressure mercury light. There were significant differences between cultivars in their rates of glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll accumulation. Glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll accumulation were markedly influenced by light source, with exposure to sodium and fluorescent light promoting higher glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll accumulation compared with exposure to high and low pressure mercury light. In virtually all cases, glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll concentrations within tuber tissue increased steadily over time with no indication of cessation when exposed to light. Exposure to light altered ratios of α-chaconine:α-solanine but did not significantly influence ratios of chlorophyll a:chlorophyll b. Results demonstrated a strong relation between glycoalkaloid and chlorophyll accumulation in response to light.
After administration of cholesterol-4-14C (I) to the leaves and flowers of growing Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium plants, radioactive tomatidine (II) was isolated. The radiochemical purity of tomatidine was established by chromatography, crystallization, and oxidation to tomatidin-3-one.
Solanidine has been isolated and identified from potato tuber tissue disrupted by Erwinia atroseptica, and by Phytophthora infestans, in a compatible interaction. Tuber varieties, resistant to P. infestans in which cellular disintegration was not apparent, did not produce the aglycone. The evidence supports the view that solanidine is formed in disrupted tissue through the activity of hydrolytic potato enzymes on the glycoalkaloids.
Endogenous enzyme activity in a blend of potato berries and blossoms converts the contained glycoalkaloids within 24 hr to a mixture of α-solanine an
Steroidal glycoalkaloids occur in potatoes and are reported to impart resistance to phytopathogens including bacteria, fungi, and insects. Because glycoalkaloids can be passed to progenies during breeding programs designed to develop improved potatoes, it is of importance to determine the quality of desired characteristics and the composition of glycoalkaloids of new somatic hybrids. The objective of this study was to determine the appearance, size, and shape (morphological characters) as well as the glycoalkaloid content of potato tubers of somatic hybrids between tetraploid Solanum tuberosum cv. Dejima (2n = 4x = 48 chromosomes) and the dihaploid clone ATDH-1 (2n = 2x = 24 chromosomes) induced by anther culture from Solanum acuale-T (acl-T, 2n. = 4x = 48 chromosomes). Tuber size and shape in somatic hybrids were in accord with these of cv. Dejima, whereas the tuber skin color resembled that of ATDH-1. Thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry studies showed that the two steroidal glycoalkaloids (alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine) were present in the tubers of S. tuberosum, whereas acl-T and ATDH-1 tubers were found to contain alpha-tomatine and demissine. The concentrations of total glycoalkaloids in both acl-T and ATDH-1 was >100 mg/100 g of fresh weight tuber cortex, much higher than in S. tuberosum. All somatic hybrids, except-one clone, contained four glycoalkaloids (alpha-chaconine, alpha-solanine, alpha-tomatine, and demissine) derived from the fusion parents. The lack of alpha-tomatine in the remaining clone may be due to somaclonal variation. The results show that character expression is influenced by ploidy level and that, total glycoalkaloid levels in most-somatic hybrids were intermediate between those of the fusion parents. The possible significance of these findings for plant-breeding and food safety is discussed.
Tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum) synthesize the glycoalkaloid a-tomatine, possibly as a defense against insects and other pests. As part of an effort to improve the safety of plant foods, the usefulness of a new HPLC pulsed amperometric detection (PAD) method for the direct analysis of cx-tomatine in different parts of the tomato plant; in store-bought and field-grown, including transgenic, tomatoes; in a variety of commercial and home-processed tomato products; and in eggplant and tomatillos was evaluated. The method was found to be useful for analysis of a variety of products including high-tomatine calyxes, flowers, leaves, roots, and stems of the tomato plant (14-130 mg/100 g of fresh weight), low-tomatine red tomatoes (0.03-0.08 mg/100 g), intermediate-tomatine tomatoes (0.1-0.8 mg/100 g), and high-tomatine fresh and processed green, including pickled and fried, tomatoes (0.9-55 mg/100 g). No experimental difficulties were encountered with extraction and analysis of tomatine in complex foods such as tomato juice, ketchup, salsa, sauce, and sun-dried tomatoes. Microwaving and frying did not significantly affect tomatine levels of tomato foods. The tomatine content of fresh market and transgenic delayed-ripening varieties was not different from the range ordinarily seen in tomato. The possible usefulness of the findings to plant science, food safety, and human health is discussed.
As part of an effort to improve the safety of plant-derived foods, the role of the carbohydrate side chain has been explored in biological effects of potato glycoalkaloids such as alpha-chaconine. This steroid glycoalkaloid has a trisaccharide attached to the 3-hydroxy position of the steroidal aglycon solanidine. This study attempts to define the effect of structurally different alcohols on the partial hydrolysis of alpha-chaconine to beta(1)-chaconine, beta(2)-chaconine, gamma-chaconine, and solanidine. Partial hydrolyses were carried out in 97.5% alcohol-0.25 N HCl at 60 degrees C. HPLC was used to measure the distribution of hydrolysis products as a function of time. The rate of hydrolysis of alpha-chaconine in the straight-chain alcohol solutions was as follows: methanol > ethanol = l-butanol > propanol > pentanol much greater than water. The longer the chain, the slower the rate of hydrolysis except for the anomalous result that the extent of hydrolysis in l-butanol was equal to that in ethanol. However hydrolysis in 2-butanol was slower than in l-butanol. Surprisingly, hydrolysis in tert-butyl alcohol was slowest, proceeding more slowly than even in l-pentanol. The formation of gamma-chaconine was also greatly reduced in tert-butyl alcohol. Mechanistic rationalizations are offered to explain the observed trends in terms of the hydrophobic-hydrophilic nature of the glycoalkaloids and the solvation properties of the alcohols. The results should be generally useful for optimizing or minimizing the formation of specific hydrolysis products.
The ascomycete Gibberella pulicaris is able to metabolize the saponin α-tomatine within 2 h by first removing the complete lycotetraose moiety leading to the aglycone tomatidine. This product is further converted into 7α-hydroxy-tomatidine and the corresponding Δ5-dehydro product 7α-hydroxy-tomatidenol. Structural evidence for the hydroxylated main metabolite as well as the unsaturated minor product is based on MS and NMR measurements. The latter include the application of modern soft pulse 1H NMR techniques allowing the definitive localization of the position of hydroxylation even for the few milligram quantities that could be obtained.