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Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval (11-14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materia medica found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge
Abstract
The importance of the Genizah for the research of the medieval Mediterranean communities, supplying information on almost every aspect of life, is well known among historian. Less known is that pharmacy was the most popular of all branches of the healing art in the medieval Jewish community of Cairo, according to the Genizah manuscripts. Sources for study of medieval practical drugs are extremely rare since most records naturally vanish over the years, and only some medical books, which contained theoretical pharmacology, have survived to the present day. Drugs lists enable us to understand medieval practical pharmacy and to reconstruct their inventories. This study reports on 71 original drugs lists that were found in the Genizah; they are different from merchants' letters dealing with commerce in drugs and give no instructions for the use or preparation of formulas as usually found in prescriptions. Twenty-six lists are written in Judeo-Arabic and 45 in Arabic, none of the lists is written in Hebrew. The longest list contains 63 identified substances. These lists were apparently used by pharmacists for professional and business purposes as inventories of drugs, records, orders, or even receipts. Two hundred and six different drugs are mentioned in the drugs lists of which 167 are of plant origin, 16 are of animal origin, and the remaining 23 are inorganic. The lists point directly to the place they occupied on the shelves of the pharmacies that could be found in the lanes and alleys of the Jewish quarter of Cairo. The most frequently mentioned substance were myrobalan (27), pepper and saffron (21), lentisk (15), almond, basil, rose, rosemary (14), cattle products, camphor and spikenard (13).
... Several other countries, such as those in the Middle East, Central Europe, and India, have traditionally used opercula fumes for different purposes (22). The therapeutic properties of gastropod operculum, for treating a wide range of illnesses using various methods, have been described in many studies (2,5,8,23,24). Crushed opercula mixed with oil and vinegar is used for the treatment of swollen spleen, depression, hearing loss (25), skin diseases, amputate phlegm (26), and dental problems (23). ...
... The therapeutic properties of gastropod operculum, for treating a wide range of illnesses using various methods, have been described in many studies (2,5,8,23,24). Crushed opercula mixed with oil and vinegar is used for the treatment of swollen spleen, depression, hearing loss (25), skin diseases, amputate phlegm (26), and dental problems (23). Fumigation is performed to treat gynecological problems, including uterine diseases, menstrual cycle abnormalities, and removal of the placenta post-partum (27e29). ...
... The presence of these antioxidant compounds in the smoke is consistent with the reported role of opercula in traditional fumigation practices in Sudan, where the operculum is thought to help stabilize the fragrant ingredients and contribute to the long-lasting smell of the perfume (2). Opercula powder, when mixed with other perfumes used as incense, reacts with them to produce a unique and attractive aroma (23). This might agree with the compounds found in the soaked sample, where various odorous substances such as toluene, 2-bromononane, 3-chloro-4-methylphenol, nonanal, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,3-dihydrobenzofurane, indole and 4,6-dichloro-o-cresol were detected by GCeMS. ...
Strombidae is one of the major molluscan families in Sudan and due to their opercula, has tremendous economic value. In traditional Sudanese homemade perfumes and body care cosmetics, Strombidae family operculum is one of the main ingredients. Their fumigation generates a charming odor preferred by Sudanese people, used for body smoke baths by married women. Moreover, these fumes are believed to treat several gynecological disorders. In this study, we attempted to confirm the presence of volatiles with pleasant odors and compounds with pharmaceutical importance in the Strombidae opercula. Volatiles from the smoke and soak extracts of the burned opercula were analyzed using GC-MS. Furthermore, polar components from the methanol extract of opercula powder were isolated using HPLC and identified by NMR, ESI-mass, and UV spectra. The elemental and metal contents were analyzed using ICP-MS. GC-MS analysis revealed several phenols, aldehydes, ketones, and other functional fragrant and volatile constituents. Further, two compounds were purified from the methanol extract of Strombidae opercula, and named compounds B and D, which were identified as cyclo-(Tyr-Gly) and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, respectively. ICP-MS analysis revealed the presence of various elements and metals at different levels. These findings support the historical and traditional practices and usage of the Strombidae opercula in therapeutic and esthetic products. The opercula contains many biologically active compounds and produces smoke containing volatile scent compounds, which might provide alternative pharmaceuticals and cosmetic ingredients that can cooperate to improve the manufacturing of numerous medical products.
... traditions we introduced data from other 10 sources in terms of presence/absence (coded 1/0) of each one of the species recorded in the analyzed Sephardic documents. These 10 external sources were selected for their geographical or cultural relevance representing four different categories, potentially related with Sephardic medicine and appear numbered below: a. Jewish medical traditions, (1) medicinal ingredients used by members of the Jewish community of medieval el Cairo (Lev, 2007;Amar, 2006, 2008) (acronym Cairo J). b. Ottoman pharmacy, (2) the lists of ingredients of "Al Sham" (The Levant) (Lev, 2002(Lev, , 2003 (acronym Ottoman O) and (3) the herb drugs sold by herbalists in Turkey (Akbulut and Bayramoglu, 2013;Akgül et al., 2016;Baser et al., 1986) (acronym Turk Attar). ...
... The products of animal origin more mentioned in the list of materia medica D. Rivera et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 230 (2019) 20-73 found in Genizah (Lev, 2007) are those coming from Bos taurus (24.5%). In the Sephardic Jews it is also very frequent as it appears in 26 recipes. ...
... On the contrary opercula of Muricidae, like those cited by Benkendorff et al. (2015) (Bolinus brandaris (Linnaeus, 1758), Hexaplex trunculus (Linnaeus, 1758), Stramonita haemastoma (Linnaeus, 1767)) are more suitable for burning in medicinal smokes (Bijayalakshmi et al., 2017;Nongmaithen et al., 2017) than to be dissolved in vinegar. Regarding the use of the operculum, it coincides with the theoretical medical uses found in medical literature of Jewish communities of medieval Cairo (Lev, 2007), which use it for skin diseases, eye and ear diseases, wound in the stomach, arthritis, and others. ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance: The Sephardic or Judeo-Spanish communities kept a cultural heritage extremely relevant which is recognizable through the peculiar form of their language and practices. Medicine was one of the main professional activities among Jews of Spain before their expulsion in 1492. We expected to find ingredients and recipes in the Sephardic traditional medicine related to classical medicine and to modern ethnopharmacology of Spain, but also influenced by the host countries. Recipes for specific diseases could be compared with modern ethnopharmacology. Although the basic language of the recipes is Judeo-Spanish, it presents local variants and names which are not only dialectal Spanish, but also Turkish, Hebrew or Bosnian. Methods: The main source of information for Sephardic folk medicine are the specimens of the “Livro de Milizinas” printed in Thessaloniki and Smyrna (Izmir) during the 19th century. Others are some documents on pharmacy conserved in Bosnia associated to the Papo family of Sephardic Aktars or Attars (Ottoman herbalists) and the oral tradition in the Sephardic communities of Asia, Europe and the Americas. In order to analyze these formularies, we have studied the recipes in eleven different sources systematized in an Excel® 2010 book. We focused on formulas that are not merely rituals instead contain specific ingredients and pathologies. Specific dictionaries were generated in Excel® 2010, to standardize names of ingredients and pathologies. Results: In the 502 complete recipes and variants studied, 107 pathologies and 154 different ingredients appear. Among ingredients, 93 are plants, 38 animals and 23 mineral substances. The most common pathologies in the recipes correspond to infectious diseases, headache, epistaxis, parasites and the “espanto”. These ingredients received 397 different vernacular names, being prevalent those in Spanish (303) followed by those in Turkish. Preparations recorded are simple, easily made at home, not requiring special tools or hardware. In studies dated 1845 in Bulgaria the forms of preparation and administration are similar. Topic preparations externally applied are prevalent in numbers doubling the oral administration on the contrary of modern ethnopharmacology studies in Thessaloniki where dominate internal uses over external ones. The books of medicines of Smyrna and Thessaloniki are very similar, if not almost identical. The “Livro de Milizinas” constitute a peculiar Sephardic text within the Ottoman style of medicine. The proximity in the analyses with Ottoman sources (Ottoman pharmacopoeias, Turkish Aktar shops and Medieval Cairo Jewish pharmacopoeia) is due to the high proportion of ingredients in common. After excluding animal and mineral ingredients of the analyses, modern ethnobotanical records from Greece and Turkey appear closer to the Sephardic main sources. The rest of Sephardic sources with notably smaller lists of ingredients represent fragments of mostly oral transmitted tradition and treat pathologies such as evil eye or “espanto”. The recipes of the Sephardic of Bosnia comprise pathologies such as plague, cholera, typhus or gastroenteritis. Ingredients, largely of plant origin, to 93, are still in use in phytotherapy and/or local medical-pharmaceutical ethnobotany in Turkey or Greece. Conclusions: The Sephardic materia medica presented in the “Livro de Milizinas” is eclectic, adapted to an urban environment and to the prevalent pathologies of the second half of the 19th century, within the main cultural framework of the Ottoman Empire but with peculiarities characteristic of Sephardic Culture. These can be traced back to the period immediately after the expulsion of Sephardic from Spain. Their relationships with other modern sources are scarce, even in terms of pathologies.
... Early accounts and treatises on materia medica by ancient scholars have highlighted the therapeutic properties of Muricidae operculum (Table 1) 8,18,[24][25][26] . The opercula were used to treat a wide range of illnesses, including swollen spleen, depression, rheumatism or arthritis, stomach ulcers, skin diseases, dental problems, eye diseases, hearing loss, tumours, boils or warts, epilepsy and paralysis, and to expel toxins ( Table 1). ...
... The opercula were used to treat a wide range of illnesses, including swollen spleen, depression, rheumatism or arthritis, stomach ulcers, skin diseases, dental problems, eye diseases, hearing loss, tumours, boils or warts, epilepsy and paralysis, and to expel toxins ( Table 1). The opercula were also reported to be useful as purgatives and laxatives 18,20,25 and were specifically used for the treatment of gynaecological problems, including uterine diseases, menstrual cycle abnormalities and removal of the placenta post-partum (Table 1). Only two previous studies have investigated the bioactivity of muricid opercula and both report mild antimicrobial activity 27 and muscle relaxing properties 28 . ...
... These intermediate precursors will react to form the dye pigment 6,6′dibromoindirubin, a specific GSK-3 inhibitor 59 that has led to the development of the commercially available pharmaceutical agent 6-bromoindirubin-3′-oxime (6BIO), a compound with potential practical applications in regenerative medicine 60 . The presence of these brominated indoles may also therefore provide some rationale for the ancient use of operculum derived medicines for the treatment of tumours, stomach ulcers and a range of other medical conditions (Table 1) 25 . ...
Muricidae molluscs are the source of a valuable purple dye that was traded as a luxury item in the Mediterranean region and by the late Byzantine was reserved for royalty and priests. Less well known is the use of muricid opercula in sacred incense and traditional medicines, although they are still used as rare ingredients today. This study provides the first chemical assessment of opercula from Muricidae, based on several traditional preparation procedures. Chemical analysis of opercula smoke revealed aromatic phenols, which act as fragrance stabilisers and produce a "medicinal" odour. Analysis of lipid extracts revealed pharmaceutically active compounds, including brominated indoles, choline esters and adenosine, consistent with their traditional medical applications. Depending on the preparation procedures, toxic pyridine was also detected. ICP-MS analysis of muricid opercula shows the presence of essential macro and microelements, as well as metals, some of which exceed the recommended safe levels for human use. Nevertheless, these findings support the Muricidae as an historically important marine resource, providing Biblical dyes, medicines and perfume. The opercula contains biologically active compounds and produces smoke containing volatile scent compounds, consistent with their identification as the most likely source of onycha, a controversial ingredient in sacred incense.
... Country/Region Species and family a (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Snail shell Skin diseases, wounds in the stomach, arthritis (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Muricidae such as Chicoreus virgineus Röding, 1798 d Operculum Smell the aromatic substance or smoke produced while placing the operculum on slowly burning charcoal Rheumatism or arthritis; stomach problem (wounds in stomach); skin diseases; eye and ear diseases; tumors; treatment of uterus diseases (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Islamic phagocytosis assays using macrophages or neutrophils, and haemolysis using red blood cells, but papers that just screened for antibacterial activity were not included. ...
... Country/Region Species and family a (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Snail shell Skin diseases, wounds in the stomach, arthritis (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Muricidae such as Chicoreus virgineus Röding, 1798 d Operculum Smell the aromatic substance or smoke produced while placing the operculum on slowly burning charcoal Rheumatism or arthritis; stomach problem (wounds in stomach); skin diseases; eye and ear diseases; tumors; treatment of uterus diseases (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Islamic phagocytosis assays using macrophages or neutrophils, and haemolysis using red blood cells, but papers that just screened for antibacterial activity were not included. ...
... Country/Region Species and family a (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Snail shell Skin diseases, wounds in the stomach, arthritis (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Muricidae such as Chicoreus virgineus Röding, 1798 d Operculum Smell the aromatic substance or smoke produced while placing the operculum on slowly burning charcoal Rheumatism or arthritis; stomach problem (wounds in stomach); skin diseases; eye and ear diseases; tumors; treatment of uterus diseases (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008) Islamic phagocytosis assays using macrophages or neutrophils, and haemolysis using red blood cells, but papers that just screened for antibacterial activity were not included. ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
This review focuses on traditional and contemporary anti-inflammatory uses of mollusc-derived products summarising all the in vitro, in vivo and human clinical trials that have tested the anti-inflammatory activity of molluscan natural products. Inflammatory conditions, burns and wounds have been an ongoing concern for human health since the early era of civilisation. Many texts from ancient medicine have recorded the symptoms, signs and treatments for these conditions. Natural treatments are well-documented in traditional European medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Siddha and ancient Mediterranean and African traditional medicine and include a surprisingly large number of molluscan species.
Materials and methods:
An extensive review of the Materia Medica and scientific literature was undertaken using key word searches for "mollusc" and "anti-inflammatory" or "immunomodulatory" or "wound healing".
Results:
Molluscs have been used in ethnomedicine by many traditional cultures to treat different aspects of inflammatory conditions. We found 104 different anti-inflammatory preparations from a variety of molluscan species, of which 70 were from the well-documented Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). This traditional use of molluscs has driven the testing for inflammatory activity in extracts from some species in the phylum Mollusca, with 20 in vitro studies, 40 in vivo animal studies and 14 human clinical trials performed to substantiate the anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity of molluscs. Some of these studies have led to the approval of mollusc-derived products to be used as over-the-counter (OTC) nutraceuticals, like Lyprinol® and Biolane™ from the New Zealand green lipped mussel Perna canaliculus.
Conclusion:
Natural products provide important leads for the development of pharmaceuticals, including anti-inflammatory agents. Only a small proportion of the molluscan traditional medicines have been tested to confirm their anti-inflammatory activity and most screening studies have tested crude extracts from molluscs without any chemical characterisation. This highlights the need for further research to strategically identify the anti-inflammatory compounds in molluscan medicines to provide leads for novel anti-inflammatory drugs in the future.
... (Anacardiacea) is commonly known as sumac, the name is originated from "sumaga", meaning red in Syriac (Wetherilt and Pala, 1994;Kossah et al., 2009). The plant has both nutritional qualities and medicinal values as it is used as a spice by crushing and mixing the dried fruits with salt, and is commonly used as a medicinal herb in the Persia (Saeed, 1972), Mediterranean and Middle East (Sezik et al., 1991), Turkey (Sezik et al., 2001;Tuzlacı and Aymaz, 2001), Palestinian population, Golan Heights, Israel (Said et al., 2002), Jordan (Lev and Amar, 2002), Medieval and Ottomon al-Sham region (Lev, 2002), Cyprus during island's Ottomon period (Lardos, 2006), and in the Jewish community of Medieval Cairo (Lev, 2007). ...
... Use in traditional medicine: Sumac has been used traditionally in the treatment of diarrhea (Saeed, 1972;Usmanghani et al., 1997;Sezik et al., 2001;Said et al., 2002;Amar, 2002, 2008;Lev, 2007), ulcer (Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001), hemorrhoids (Saeed, 1972;Lev, 2002), liver disease (Said et al., 2002), animal bites, pain (Lev, 2002), dysentery, diuresis, hemorrhage, hematemesis, hemoptysis, ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, leucorrhea, and stomach tonic (Saeed,1972;Usmanghani et al., 1997). Traditional medical practitioners have also used sumac for cholesterol reduction (Lev and Ammar, 2002), in the treatment of sore throat, and as an abortifacient (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008). ...
... Use in traditional medicine: Sumac has been used traditionally in the treatment of diarrhea (Saeed, 1972;Usmanghani et al., 1997;Sezik et al., 2001;Said et al., 2002;Amar, 2002, 2008;Lev, 2007), ulcer (Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001), hemorrhoids (Saeed, 1972;Lev, 2002), liver disease (Said et al., 2002), animal bites, pain (Lev, 2002), dysentery, diuresis, hemorrhage, hematemesis, hemoptysis, ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, leucorrhea, and stomach tonic (Saeed,1972;Usmanghani et al., 1997). Traditional medical practitioners have also used sumac for cholesterol reduction (Lev and Ammar, 2002), in the treatment of sore throat, and as an abortifacient (Lev, 2007;Lev and Amar, 2008). Other reports also indicate its use in wound healing and as an antimicrobial (Rayne and Mazza, 2007). ...
Rhus coriaria Linn. (Anacardiacea), commonly known as sumac, has been used as a spice, condiment, appetizer, and as a souring agent for centuries. A broad range of nutritionally and medicinally significant phytochemical components have been identified from various parts of sumac such as tannins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, organic acids, flavones, proteins, fiber, volatile oils, nitrates, and nitrites. The plant also possesses minerals which are beneficial in the treatment of different disorders and contribute to various biological processes. In traditional system of medicine, this plant has been used in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, ulcer, hemorrhoids, hemorrhage, wound healing, hematemesis, hemoptysis, leucorrhea, sore throat, ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, diuresis, animal bites, poison, pain, and liver disease. Traditional practitioners have also prescribed this plant as antimicrobial, abortifacient, and stomach tonic. Rhus coriaria is known to possess DNA protective, non-mutagenic, chondroprotective, antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti ischemic, vasorelaxant, hypoglycemic, xanthine oxidase inhibition, vascular smooth muscle cell migration inhibition, and hepatoprotective properties, supporting its traditional uses. The role of plant in leather and textile industry as tanning agent and as a coloring agent is significant. It also prevents wood decay and has considerable potential for future research.
... An exception was the following recipe, mentioned in Christian Pedersen's book En nøttelig legebog [110], specifically for wealthy individuals, which included gold as an ingredient. Nevertheless, medicinal preparations that included minerals were used in other areas (e.g., England) as a treatment for leprosy (as well as other diseases) towards the end of the medieval period when the Odense and Naestved leprosy hospitals were still in operation [22,[113][114][115][116]. For instance, mercury and lead were mixed with animal products and plants and administered epidermically [114,117,118]. ...
... Lead concentrations, on the other hand, are well detected, with SXRF overview maps showing an accumulation of Pb in the slow-forming secondary dentine and cementum and high-resolution maps (SXRF and LA-ICP-TOFMS) depicting a well-defined pattern of alternating enriched and depleted Pb concentrations ( Figure 5). Exposure to lead (Pb) was common during the medieval period [125][126][127][128], also in relation to medical treatment [115,129,130]. In medieval rural populations from Denmark, Rasmussen et al. [122] measured a Pb background level of 5 and 7 ppm in cortical and trabecular bone, respectively. ...
Simple Summary
Leprosy, a chronic infectious disease, leads to blood mineral imbalances: low levels of zinc, calcium, magnesium, and iron and high levels of copper. Interestingly, in late medieval Europe, minerals were used to treat leprosy. We investigated physiological responses to leprosy and possible evidence of treatment in dental tissues of leprosy sufferers from medieval Denmark and early 20th century Romania when multidrug therapy was not then yet invented. Using Synchrotron Fluorescence (SXRF) and laser ablation (LA-ICP-TOFMS), we show marked covariations in the zinc, calcium, and magnesium distributions, which are compatible with clinical studies but cannot be directly attributed to leprosy. Minerals used historically as a treatment for leprosy show no detectable intake (arsenic, mercury) or a diffuse distribution (lead) related to the daily consumption of contaminated water and food. Intense lead enrichments indicate acute incorporations, potentially through the administration of lead-enriched medication or the mobilization of lead from bone stores to the bloodstream during intense physiological stress related to leprosy. However, comparisons with a healthy control group are needed to ascertain these interpretations. The positive correlations and the patterns observed between lead and essential elements may indicate underlying pathophysiological conditions, demonstrating the potential of the two techniques for investigating diseases in past populations.
Abstract
Leprosy can lead to blood depletion in Zn, Ca, Mg, and Fe and blood enrichment in Cu. In late medieval Europe, minerals were used to treat leprosy. Here, physiological responses to leprosy and possible evidence of treatment are investigated in enamel, dentine, and cementum of leprosy sufferers from medieval Denmark (n = 12) and early 20th century Romania (n = 2). Using SXRF and LA-ICP-TOFMS, 12 elements were mapped in 15 tooth thin sections, and the statistical covariation of paired elements was computed to assess their biological relevance. The results show marked covariations in the Zn, Ca, and Mg distributions, which are compatible with clinical studies but cannot be directly attributed to leprosy. Minerals used historically as a treatment for leprosy show no detectable intake (As, Hg) or a diffuse distribution (Pb) related to daily ingestion. Intense Pb enrichments indicate acute incorporations of Pb, potentially through the administration of Pb-enriched medication or the mobilization of Pb from bone stores to the bloodstream during intense physiological stress related to leprosy. However, comparisons with a healthy control group are needed to ascertain these interpretations. The positive correlations and the patterns observed between Pb and essential elements may indicate underlying pathophysiological conditions, demonstrating the potential of SXRF and LA-ICP-TOFMS for paleopathological investigations.
... In the majority of the studies in this group the subject of investigation was a specific historical text or body of literature and the principle aim was documenting the plants or other natural products and their uses mentioned in these resources (Moussaieff et al., 2005;Lardos, 2006;Lev andAmar, 2006, 2008;López-Muñoz et al., 2006;Lev, 2007;Voultsiadou, 2010;Jari´cJari´c et al., 2011;Medeiros and Albuquerque, 2012;Breitbach et al., 2013). In other studies a specific condition was the centre of interest and the aim was to document plants that were used in this context based on information in historical written sources (Campos-Navarra et al., 2013;Tagarelli et al., 2013). ...
... In the majority of the studies in this group the subject of investigation was a specific historical text or body of literature and the principle aim was documenting the plants or other natural products and their uses mentioned in these resources (Moussaieff et al., 2005;Lardos, 2006;Lev andAmar, 2006, 2008;López-Muñoz et al., 2006;Lev, 2007;Voultsiadou, 2010;Jari´cJari´c et al., 2011;Medeiros and Albuquerque, 2012;Breitbach et al., 2013). In other studies a specific condition was the centre of interest and the aim was to document plants that were used in this context based on information in historical written sources (Campos-Navarra et al., 2013;Tagarelli et al., 2013). ...
Ancient writings on materia medica, medieval herbals or ethnomedical literature from recent centuries contain snapshots of medicinal plant knowledge frozen in time. This context is what makes historical texts interesting from an ethnopharmacological perspective. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the core interests in today's ethnopharmacological research involving historical approaches, outline some methodological aspects linked with the analysis of historical texts and highlight potential opportunities and challenges in using these resources. As suggested by a selection of recent publications, modern research in this area is mainly focused on the documentation of medicinal plant knowledge, the evaluation of this knowledge together with the identification of potential plant candidates for further investigation as well as the development of medicinal plant knowledge. Theoretical and practical considerations concerning the analysis of historical texts point to a number of challenges, especially the identification of the plants or the interpretation of symptoms and diseases. An outline of some of the opportunities offered by an ethnopharmacological investigation of historical texts highlights the potential importance of such a work in terms of the protection of the world's biocultural diversity or the safe and efficacious use of herbal medicines. The findings of recent studies underscore the validity of using historical texts as a starting point in the search for new medicines and illustrate the usefulness of integrating these sources in diachronic models for studying the development of medicinal plant knowledge. Much of the potential offered by involving a historical approach in ethnopharmacological research is not yet realized and further scientific insight can be expected from this research.
... It has generated a wealth of publications in various academic platforms. 17 Beyond that, research has shed new light on several important issues such as medical theory vs. practice, 18 medical theory (mainly identifications of early versions of unique medical books), 19 and medical practice (mainly prescriptions), 20 commercial aspects 21 as well as catalogues of medical fragments in other Genizah collections. 22 The Genizah contains thousands of letters on various issues. ...
... Likewise, a cut (15) similar to that of the man to whom you prescribed a remedy, and already it (?) strikes him (16) for the third time. And please inform me soon about something I can trust upon, (17) concerning these three cases, without delay. (18) Please be kind and send me a quarter ounce of black-lead collyrium 55 from your stock (?) (19) for all the collyrium your father keeps sending me is not beneficial. ...
... Since ancient times, various civilizations have 43 utilized animals and their various parts and products for medicinal purposes. Evidence of these 44 practices can be found in historical written sources, papyri, and classical medicinal compendiums 45 such as Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Avicenna, and Ibn Al Baitar [6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. Indeed, of the 252 46 indispensable drugs selected by the World Health Organization, more than 8% are of animal origin 47 [13,14]. ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance: The Moroccan population harbors rich traditional knowledge used to treat various human diseases. This is the first study aimed at exploring the ethnozoological practices in Morocco. Materials and methods: Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires to interview 42 traditional healers and merchants of medicinal animals. Collected ethnozoological data were analyzed using appropriate quantitative indices. Results: 42 animal species belonging to eight taxonomic groups were gathered, with Mammalia being the most mentioned (15 species), followed by Aves (12 species). Camelus sp. (RFC = 0.81), and Sepia officinalis (RFC = 0.71), had the highest RFC. With 8.00 units, Atelerix algirus was the species with the highest level of therapeutic redundancy. The most important diseases cited were circulatory system disorders (ICF = 1.00), oncology (ICF = 1.00), oro-dental problems (ICF = 0.86), and nervous system disorders (ICF = 0.86). The following animal species gained an FL value of 100%: Anas platyrhynchos domesticus (for skin diseases), Coturnix coturnix (for endocrine disorders), Mustela nivalis (for gastrointestinal disorders), Cymothoa exigua (for nervous system disorders), and Upupa epops (for culture-bound diseases). The most versatile species were Apis sp. (RI = 100%) and Aterix algirus (RI = 88.89%). The most culturally important species included Chamaeleo chamaeleon (CII = 57.14) and Atelerix algirus (CII = 40.48). According to the IAR value, Cymothoa exigua (nervous system disorders) and Upupa epops (IAR = 1.00) had the highest scores. The highest CAI value was for Chamaeleo chamaeleon (CAI = 48.98). Conclusion: The local population of the Safi region possesses valuable knowledge about the use of medicinal animals to treat a plethora of health concerns. Atelerix algirus and Chamaeleo chamaeleon were the most versatile species and were indicated as ideals for being cultural keystone species. They must be prioritized in future research and conservation studies.
... The use of theriac has been recorded in China in 667 AD (Louis, 2014). Theriac formulations prepared by Palestinian Jews are mentioned in the Genizah manuscripts of medieval Cairo, dating back to 13th and 14th century AD (Lev, 2007). ...
Background
The theriac, known in Arabic as tiryāq, is a medicinal panacea and an alexipharmic which was conceptualized during the 2nd century BC. During medieval ages, the Unani physicians employed various theriac formulations as an antidote, health-protective, and therapeutic in various disorders. In general, the theriac formulations contained many drugs having heath-protective, preventive, and restorative effects. Since the advent of COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a renewed interest in theriac formulations, and researches are underway to elaborate the scientific basis of their action mechanism. This article is an attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of theriac in Unani literature, as well as to elaborate on the potential mode of actions.
Methods
Selected authoritative and comprehensive textbooks of Unani medicine and leading scientific websites (MEDLINE, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Springer, and PubMed Central) were explored for information regarding the theriac in Unani classical literature, and its potential usefulness in the present era. No time duration was specified for the search as certain drugs are now relatively obsolete. The keywords used for the search were ‘theriac’, ‘health’, ‘bioactive constituents’, ‘infection’, and ‘antidote’, etc., accompanied by names of drugs.
Results
Pharmacological researches on theriac ingredients have revealed the presence of several bioactive compounds, having anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antipyretic, antivenin, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, etc. activities. An interesting step in theriac preparation is the process of maturation. It is scientifically proven that during maturation, the drugs undergo biotransformation through fermentation. Besides, certain drugs like Saffron, Celery, and Fennel, etc. increase bioavailability of other drugs. Overall, the Theriac formulations are a complex mixture of health-preservative, protective, therapeutic and restorative drugs.
Conclusions
The theriac formulations contain a thoughtful mixture of ingredients, which have health-protective as well as restorative effects. It is known that most toxins as well as biological disease-causing agents damage the vital organs and processes which lead to complications and death. Hence, the theriac formulations can provide the much-needed protection to these organs, and also maintain the physiological processes, and gives the body the necessary time and strength to recover from these adverse effects.
... Traditionally ,Sumac has been used in the treatment of diarrhea (7) , hemorrhoids (8) , ulcer (9) , liver disease (10) , animal bites, pain (11) , diuresis, dysentery, hemorrhage, hematemesis, hemoptysis, ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, leucorrhea, and stomach tonic. (12) . Medical practitioners have also used sumac for cholesterol reduction (13) , in the treatment of sore throat, and as an abortifacient (7) . ...
Two compounds were isolated from the fruit part of Rhus coriaria that grow wildly or cultivated in the north of Iraq. The compounds were separated by preparative high-Performance Liquid Chromatography and their structures were established based on detailed spectroscopic techniques like FTIR and LC-MS/MS. Keywords: Rhus coriaria, Preparative HPLC, LC-MSMS, FTIR
... BCE; see Keyser and Irby-Massie, 2008 for a detailed list of ancient Greek authors citing mandrake). Thirty-nine written sources were considered for the medieval period, including the 'Cannon of Medicine' by Ibn Sina, the Cairo Geniza (Lev, 2007), Maimonides' 'Poisons and their Antidotes' (Muntner & ben Maimon, 1942), and the Lorsch pharmacopoeia (Stol, 1992). We considered 64 textual sources for the Renaissance period, including wellreputed authors like Fuchs (1542), or Gerard (1597) ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance
Mandrake (Mandragora sp.) is one of the most famous medicinal plants. It has been in continuous medical use throughout written of history and is still in use today in popular medicine.
Aim of the study
Mandrake derived drugs once played an important role in medicine and in magical practices. Today, the role of mandrake in popular medicine is marginal. However, natural products present in mandrake such as atropine and scopolamine, as well as their semi synthetic derivatives continue to hold and important role in medicine. Here we aim to trace the development of historical rationales and scientific events that led to the abandonment of mandrake as a medicine.
Materials and methods
We review the medicinal uses of mandrake drugs since antiquity in an attempt to pinpoint use patterns that were popular in certain periods of time and others that are more general. We compare the uses from the native territories to those from regions where the plant got introduced and use literature reporting mandrake's chemistry and pharmacology in order to explain the diachronic changes of use patterns.
Results and conclusion
s: We found information about 88 different medicinal uses for mandrake, grouped into 39 conditions. According to the number of different medicinal uses, the most versatile period was medieval (37), followed by the Renaissance (31), the classical (27), and the modern period (21). Considering the higher number of textual sources and use-records collected for the Renaissance period, the decrease of versatility in comparison to the medieval period appears robust. This seems to indicate a more consolidated use pattern, that might be conditioned by the reproduction of classic textual sources as well as by a less experimental approach and reduced popularity of mandrake in medicine. The introduction of the volatile anaesthetic with more reliable narcotic effects set the seal on using mandrake in surgery but opened the way for atropine being used as a prophylactic and antidote during surgical interventions.
... About 2,000 years ago, the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 A.D.) wrote in his voluminous "De Materia Medica" ("Of Medical Matters") about the healthful properties of Sumac, principally as a diuretic and anti-flatulent. [22] Sumac has been usedtraditionally in the treatment of diarrhea [23] [27]. Traditional medical practitioners have alsoused sumac for cholesterol reduction [28], in the treatment of sore throat, and as anabortifacient [23]. ...
Background:cell lines derived from cancer cells are frequently used in research, including use as a model to understand cancer and to identify potential new treatments. The aim of this study has been
... Pharmaceutical manuscripts from Persia, dating from the period between the ninth and eighteenth centuries AD, note the use of the aerial part of T. montanum as a decoction to treat headaches (Zarshenas et al. 2013). Moreover, in medieval written documents, i.e. in lists of materia medica used by the Jewish community of Medieval (eleventh to fourteenth centuries) Cairo, found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge, the species Teucrium capitatum L. is mentioned twice, with its leaves and stems used in the treatment of eye diseases, stomach ailments and colic (Lev 2007). Similarly, the botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon -A collection of prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus, which dates back to the Ottoman period (1571-1878), includes Teucrium micropodioides Rouy as an exotic taxon originating from the New World, used to treat catarrh and the common cold (Lardos 2006). ...
Species of the Teucrium genus have been used in ethnopharmacology for centuries, helping to treat many pathophysiological conditions, such as diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatism, inflammations, and tuberculosis. They can also be used as a diuretic, antipyretic, tonic, diaphoretic, analgesic and antihyperlipidemic. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the traditional use of Teucrium species based on research conducted up to now in different parts of the world. With this aim, 72 ethnobotanical studies were analyzed and a total of 20 Teucrium species were identified for this analysis. Nineteen of these species are used in human ethnomedicine, 3 in veterinary ethnomedicine and 4 for other purposes. Teucrium chamaedrys, T. polium and T. montanum are mentioned in the largest number of studies and have the widest range of uses. The aerial parts of the plant are those that are most frequently used, with infusions (77.8%) and decoctions (48.6%) the most common methods of preparation. The use of Teucrium species for treating abdominal problems is mentioned in 56 of the studies and in 21 studies for treating disorders heart and blood vessels. Treating respiratory problems is referenced in 17 studies and problems in the functioning of the endocrine glands in 16 studies. The medicinal properties of Teucrium species can be ascribed to their chemical composition, specifically essential oils, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other secondary metabolites. However, the long-term use of some of the preparations can have negative side effects, such as hepatotoxicity or gradual deterioration in neuromuscular coordination.
... Also used as an anesthetic and to improve eyesight. (Lev 2007) Kartitsch ( Shepherds put it in their shoes to prevent or treat blisters. (Sharnoff 1997) Scandinavia Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies and the feet of adults. ...
Lichens are used in traditional medicine by cultures across the world, particularly in temperate and arctic regions. Knowledge of these medicinal uses is available to us because of the contributions of traditional knowledge holders in these cultures.
... Since antiquity, lapis lazuli stone has been ascribed magical and healing powers by many Old World cultures, who used it primarily as an amulet stone and as a component of eye ointments (3,26). The first-century Greek medical text De Materia Medica by Dioscorides describes the medicinal libation of lapis lazuli to treat scorpion bites, ulcers, eye growths, pustules, and herniated membranes (27), and an inventory of a Jewish apothecary in Cairo dating to the 13th and 14th centuries refers to the use of lapis lazuli as both an antivenom and an eye treatment (28). Medical lapis lazuli was particularly important in the medieval Islamic world, where it is amply attested in numerous medical recipe books (3,29). ...
During the European Middle Ages, the opening of long-distance Asian trade routes introduced exotic goods, including ultramarine, a brilliant blue pigment produced from lapis lazuli stone mined only in Afghanistan. Rare and as expensive as gold, this pigment transformed the European color palette, but little is known about its early trade or use. Here, we report the discovery of lapis lazuli pigment preserved in the dental calculus of a religious woman in Germany radiocarbon-dated to the 11th or early 12th century. The early use of this pigment by a religious woman challenges widespread assumptions about its limited availability in medieval Europe and the gendered production of illuminated texts.
... C. gileadensis has been used historically to treat a wide array of ailments [9][10][11][12][13], and is used today in the traditional medicine practices of some cultures in the Middle East. In Yemen and Oman, the bark exudate is used externally to treat skin disorders such as burns, wounds, and infections [6,14,15]. ...
Background: Commiphora gileadensis (Hebrew: apharsemon) has been used since Biblical times to treat various ailments, and is used today in the traditional medicine of some Middle Eastern cultures. Methods: The essential oils from the stem bark, leaves, and fruits of Commiphora gileadensis—collected at the Ein Gedi Botanical Garden, Israel—were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. In addition, the enantiomeric distributions of the monoterpenoids in the essential oils have been determined by chiral gas chromatography. Results: The essential oils were dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons, followed by oxygenated monoterpenoids. The major components in C. gileadensis oils were the monoterpenes α-pinene (11.1–18.4%), sabinene (15.8–35.9%), β-pinene (5.8–18.0%), p-cymene (4.8–8.4%), limonene (1.3–6.2%), γ-terpinene (0.7–8.1%), and terpinen-4-ol (5.3–18.5%). The (–)-enantiomers predominated for α-pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, limonene, and terpinen-4-ol. Conclusions: The chemical compositions of the C. gileadensis essential oils from Israel are markedly different from previously reported samples, which were rich in sesquiterpenoids. Likewise, the enantiomeric distribution of monoterpenoids is very different from Boswellia spp. essential oils.
... Researches that focus on the use of medicinal substances used by populations in the past have been conducted in several countries. We can quote many studies grounded on old literature from Greece (Merlino, 1989;Heinrich, & Teoh, 2004;Tsoulogiannis & Spandidos, 2007), India (Narayana & Kumaraswamy, 1996;Narayana, 1996), China (Peigen et al., 1984), Poland (Trojanowska, 2005), Constantinople, currently Istanbul (Tricot, 2004), Mediterranean communities (Lev, 2002;Lev, 2006;Lev, 2007), Peru (Bussmann & Sharon, 2006) and Mexico (Heinrich et al., 2006). Among research grounded on old literature on Brazil, we may quoteCamargo (1994;2000),Brandão et al. (2006) andBotsaris (2007); among others. ...
Ethnopharmacological research when grounded on historic literature has for its objective retrieving traditional knowledge compiled throughout history by early cultures. The current study has used literature from the 16th to the 19th centuries to assess reports that include accounts of Brazil's native plants, with possible reports of disorders of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Visits were paid to 27 institutions located in four Brazilian states. This resulted in raising 529 publications, out of which 65 were read, revealing that 33 of them contained reports of plants exerting effects on CNS ailments. These plants' scientific names underwent an updating process. The updating process resulted in 788 species names (129 correct scientific names and their 659 synonyms) out of which 66 hold current ethnopharmacology, pharmacology studies and/or patent application. Coincidences among past and present data have been observed in 46 cases. Only three of them carried applications for patents all of which coincided with past uses. There have hardly been any studies whatsoever throughout the centuries for many of the species currently being studied. Although of very seldom use, research in ethnopharmacology and historic literature can be promising tools for the selecting of new pharmaco products, further to contributing with retrieving traditional knowledge.
... Also germane to materia medica are materials from the 11-14th centuries, and now at Cambridge (UK). Originating from the Ben Erza synagogue in Old Cairo and mostly in Arabic, these documents indicate that garlic was specified for "cleanses the throat" and efficacy against intestinal worms, coughs, toothache, diseases of the eye, skin diseases, and utility as an emmenagogue (Lev 2007). ...
A synopsis is provided for the roles of garlic in European and Mediterranean folklore, including folktales and medicine. Lore from southern Europe and the Mediterranean is contrasted with lore from northern Europe, including Anglo-Saxon traditions.
... Scientific names provided in publications were updated according to the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) (http://www.marinespecies.org/index.php). The following sources were consulted: Alino et al. (1990), Almeida (2007), Almeida et al. (2005), Almeida and Albuquerque (2002), Alves (2009), Alves et al. (2007, 2008a, 2009a, , Alves and Dias (2010), Rosa (2006, 2007b, c), Barajas (1961), Begossi (1992), Bensky et al. (2004), Chen (2005), Choo (2004Choo ( , 2008, Chopra et al. (2006), CITES (2001); Conand (1990), Costa-Neto (1999a, b, c, 2000a, b, 2001, Costa-Neto and Marques (2000), Cunningham and Zondi (1991), Ferreira et al. (2009), Figueiredo (1994, Fredalina et al. (1999), Gopal et al. (2008), Hamidah et al. (2009), Herbert et al. (2003, Lev (2003Lev ( , 2007, Lev and Amar (2002), Liu et al. (2005), Lovatelli et al. (2004, Mallmann (1996), Marshall et al. (2001), Moura and Marques (2008), Nadkarni (1994), Niir Board of Consultants and Engineers (2003), Padmanabhan and Sujana (2008), Pereira (1842), Perezrul (2006), Read et al. (1937), Salamanca and Pajaro (1996), Seraj et al. (2011), Silva et al. (2004, Sousa (2010), Tang (1987), Titcomb et al. (1978), Traffic Europe-Russia (2006), Van and Tap (2008), Vohora and Khan (1978), Voultsiadou (2010), Whiting et al. (2011), Xiyin et al. (2004, Yinfeng et al. (1997) and Zaidnuddin and Ibrahim (2006). ...
This chapter reviews the uses of marine invertebrates for medicinal
purposes, based on an extensive literature survey. We identified at least 266
species which are prescribed to treat a number of diseases and conditions categories, especially those of the digestive and genitourinary systems. Among the
medicinal species, 19 species feature on the IUCN (International Union for
Conservation of Nature) Red List and/or are CITES-listed (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). This highlights
the need to assess the impacts of zootherapy in the context of marine biodiversity
conservation. Conservation efforts should also be directed to unprotected species,
whose medicinal use is widespread. In addition to biological aspects, economical
and sociocultural factors influence the relationship between people and zootherapeutical resources. Therefore, studies bridging ecological, anthropological, and
pharmacological aspects of the medicinal use of animals should be fostered.
... Also used as an anesthetic and to improve eyesight. (Lev 2007) Kartitsch ( Shepherds put it in their shoes to prevent or treat blisters. (Sharnoff 1997) Scandinavia Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies and the feet of adults. ...
Lichens are used in traditional medicines by cultures across the world, particularly in temperate and arctic regions. Knowledge of these medicinal uses is available to us because of the contributions of traditional knowledge holders in these cultures.
The traditional medicinal uses of 52 lichen genera are summarized in this paper. Cultures in different regions of the world tend to emphasize different lichen genera in their traditional medicines, with Usnea being the most widely used genus. The folk taxonomy of lichens within a given culture is not synonymous with the scientific taxonomy and reflects the cultural value of those lichens and the traditional method of their identification. Even within western science the identity and taxonomy of lichens have not remained constant throughout history.
Lichens in traditional medicine are most commonly used for treating wounds, skin disorders, respiratory and digestive issues, and obstetric and gynecological concerns. They have been used for both their secondary metabolites and their storage carbohydrates. The European uses of lichens have been exported worldwide and sometimes influence the use of lichens by other cultures. These European uses started in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and arose from interpretations of Ancient Greek uses, as well as the application of the doctrine of signatures.
... The operculum from Muricidae were used for curing a range of illnesses, such as swollen spleen, depression, rheumatism or arthritis, stomach ulcers, skin diseases including boils, warts and tumors, teeth problems, eye disease, hearing loss, epilepsy and paralysis (Table 6). These opercula are also reported to be useful as purgatives and laxatives [13][14][15]155]. The opercula were also specifically used for the treatment of female reproductive disorders including menstrual cycle abnormalities, atresia of the uterine cervix and other diseases of the uterus, as well as for removal of the placenta after labour ( Table 6). ...
Marine molluscs from the family Muricidae hold great potential for development as a source of therapeutically useful compounds. Traditionally known for the production of the ancient dye Tyrian purple, these molluscs also form the basis of some rare traditional medicines that have been used for thousands of years. Whilst these traditional and alternative medicines have not been chemically analysed or tested for efficacy in controlled clinical trials, a significant amount of independent research has documented the biological activity of extracts and compounds from these snails. In particular, Muricidae produce a suite of brominated indoles with anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and steroidogenic activity, as well as choline esters with muscle-relaxing and pain relieving properties. These compounds could explain some of the traditional uses in wound healing, stomach pain and menstrual problems. However, the principle source of bioactive compounds is from the hypobranchial gland, whilst the shell and operculum are the main source used in most traditional remedies. Thus further research is required to understand this discrepancy and to optimise a quality controlled natural medicine from Muricidae.
... Scientific names provided in publications were updated according to the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) (http://www.marinespecies.org/index.php). The following sources were consulted: Alino et al. (1990), Almeida (2007), Almeida et al. (2005), Almeida and Albuquerque (2002), Alves (2009), Alves et al. (2007Alves et al. ( , 2008aAlves et al. ( , 2009a, Alves and Alves (2011), Alves and Dias (2010), Rosa (2006, 2007b, c), Barajas (1961), Begossi (1992), Bensky et al. (2004), Chen (2005), Choo (2004Choo ( , 2008, Chopra et al. (2006), CITES (2001); Conand (1990), Costa-Neto (1999a, b, c, 2000a, b, 2001), Costa-Neto and Marques (2000), Cunningham and Zondi (1991), Ferreira et al. (2009), Figueiredo (1994), Fredalina et al. (1999), Gopal et al. (2008), Hamidah et al. (2009), Herbert et al. (2003), Lev (2003Lev ( , 2007, Lev and Amar (2002), Liu et al. (2005), , Mallmann (1996), Marshall et al. (2001), Moura and Marques (2008), Nadkarni (1994), Niir Board of Consultants and Engineers (2003), Padmanabhan and Sujana (2008), Pereira (1842), Perezrul (2006), Read et al. (1937), Salamanca and Pajaro (1996), Seraj et al. (2011), Silva et al. (2004), Sousa (2010), Tang (1987), Titcomb et al. (1978), Traffic Europe-Russia (2006), Van and Tap (2008), Vohora and Khan (1978), Voultsiadou (2010), Whiting et al. (2011), Xiyin et al. (2004), Yinfeng et al. (1997) and Zaidnuddin and Ibrahim (2006). ...
This chapter reviews the uses of marine invertebrates for medicinal purposes, based on an extensive literature survey. We identified at least 266 species which are prescribed to treat a number of diseases and conditions categories, especially those of the digestive and genitourinary systems. Among the medicinal species, 19 species feature on the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List and/or are CITES-listed (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). This highlights the need to assess the impacts of zootherapy in the context of marine biodiversity conservation. Conservation efforts should also be directed to unprotected species, whose medicinal use is widespread. In addition to biological aspects, economical and sociocultural factors influence the relationship between people and zootherapeutical resources. Therefore, studies bridging ecological, anthropological, and pharmacological aspects of the medicinal use of animals should be fostered.
... 148a), it is a frequently mentioned medicine, which was used (either on its own or in combination with other medicinal substances) as an antidiarrheic and an antiemetic, to ease tooth extraction (an anaesthetic for the gums-mastic and wild ginger mixed together), to clean 'stained teeth' (a powder from mastic resin was rubbed onto the teeth), to treat watering eyes, enteritis, conditions of the stomach and liver, breathing difficulties, tonsillitis, headaches caused by a cold (the resin was chewed), itchiness, lichens, and freckles. According to the Cairo Genizah, in medieval materia medica, lentisk was mainly used for treating eye diseases, umbilical hernias and incessant crying, diarrhoea, fevers, the burning of black bile and phlegm, obstructions, wind, diarrhoea, pleurisy and trembling (Lev 2006(Lev , 2007Lev and Amar 2007). According to data from the Ottoman period (1571-1878), on the island of Cyprus lentisk was used for a wide spectrum of ailments: dysenteric/ unspecific diarrhoea, catarrh and common colds, tremors, internal ailments (not specified), belly-ache (not specified), bad breath, cuts, tinnitus, impaired vision, watering eyes, constipation, dyspepsia, gastric tonic, intestinal bleeding, bloody stools, headaches, migraines, heart pains, haemorrhoids, kidney or spleen pains, plague, rheumatic conditions, coughs, tonsillitis, scrofula (lymph node disease), eczema, skin tumours, skin ulcers, loose teeth, toothache and wounds. ...
This ethnobotanical and pharmacological study presents the results of an analysis of manuscripts from the Chilandar Medical Codex (CMC) on the usage and origin of medical substances in Serbian medieval medicine compared to contemporary studies on medical ethnobotany conducted in the Western Balkans. Based on CMC pharmacological manuscripts, with chapters on simple and compound medicines (oils, ointments, pills, poultices, syrups, and electuaries), analysis focused on the types of drugs, the substances used most frequently in their preparation, their origin, and medical use. The results obtained show that most ingredients used were of plant origin, while the contribution of minerals and substances of animal origin was considerably smaller. Most medicines were named according to the main ingredient's botanical name; thus, the chapter on simple medicine contains 119 medicines whereas the chapter on compound medicines has 15 medicines named after a certain plant species, pointing to a high level of knowledge of their botanical and pharmacological properties. Out of 125 plant resources, 90 are native species and 52 (60.5 %) are still used today in traditional medicine in the Western Balkans, including Serbia. Therefore, the ethnobotanical data recorded provides an interesting basis for further phytotherapeutical research, for fostering sustainable uses of plant resources and also for promoting local biocultural diversity. It is also important for studies on plant genetic resources since most of the medicinal plants available on the European and world markets today come from south-eastern Europe, meaning conservation of this genetic heritage is crucial for the future of the herbal market.
... Also, in the middle ages (11 th -14 th centuries), pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval Cairo (according to the lists of materia medica found in Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge) used drugs of the plant origin. Among twenty-eight plants, mulberry was also mentioned [48]. ...
... There are several excellent studies that describe the state of medical pharmacopeias in different eras ranging from the tenth to nineteenth centuries in the Mediterranean basin. This includes studies on Medieval zootherapy in the Levant (Lev 2003), Egypt (Lev 2007;Lev and Amar 2006), and Serbia (Jarić et al. 2011), among others. We are interested in gaining a better understanding of how these zootherapeutic practices have evolved over a longer temporal period. ...
Animals have been used as a source of human medicine for millennia. In the Mediterranean, these ancient practices were documented in historic texts such as Dioscoride’s De Materia Medica (40–90 A.D.) and continue to be documented even in current day ethnobiological surveys. Here, we summarize a few recent ethnobiological literature on Southern European zootherapy and compare these “modern” traditional medical applications of animals and their byproducts with those ancient practices documented >2,000 years ago. In doing so, we reflect on the continuity between ancient and modern medicine and examine the implications that such practices hold for both animal conservation and drug discovery.
... There are several excellent studies that describe the state of medical pharmacopeias in different eras ranging from the tenth to nineteenth centuries in the Mediterranean basin. This includes studies on Medieval zootherapy in the Levant (Lev 2003), Egypt (Lev 2007; Lev and Amar 2006), and Serbia (JaricétJaricét al. 2011), among others. We are interested in gaining a better understanding of how these zootherapeutic practices have evolved over a longer temporal period. ...
... There are several excellent studies that describe the state of medical pharmacopeias in different eras ranging from the tenth to nineteenth centuries in the Mediterranean basin. This includes studies on Medieval zootherapy in the Levant (Lev 2003), Egypt (Lev 2007; Lev and Amar 2006), and Serbia (JaricétJaricét al. 2011), among others. We are interested in gaining a better understanding of how these zootherapeutic practices have evolved over a longer temporal period. ...
... Buenz et al. (2004) provide some practical and theoretical considerations for approaching historic texts on materia medica as a source for drug discovery. Plant and drug identification in ancient texts can be challenging especially when a wide range of names is used for the same product and when no images are available (Lev, 2007). Another crucial point relates to the correct interpretation of the description of diseases, ailments, and the respective etiologies. ...
The ethnopharmacological approach toward the understanding and appraisal of traditional and herbal medicines is characterized by the inclusions of the social as well as the natural sciences. Anthropological field-observations describing the local use of nature-derived medicines are the basis for ethnopharmacological enquiries. The multidisciplinary scientific validation of indigenous drugs is of relevance to modern societies at large and helps to sustain local health care practices. Especially with respect to therapies related to aging related, chronic and infectious diseases traditional medicines offer promising alternatives to biomedicine. Bioassays applied in ethnopharmacology represent the molecular characteristics and complexities of the disease or symptoms for which an indigenous drug is used in “traditional” medicine to variable depth and extent. One-dimensional in vitro approaches rarely cope with the complexity of human diseases and ignore the concept of polypharmacological synergies. The recent focus on holistic approaches and systems biology in medicinal plant research represents the trend toward the description and the understanding of complex multi-parameter systems. Ethnopharmacopoeias are non-static cultural constructs shaped by belief and knowledge systems. Intensified globalization and economic liberalism currently accelerates the interchange between local and global pharmacopoeias via international trade, television, the World Wide Web and print media. The increased infiltration of newly generated biomedical knowledge and introduction of “foreign” medicines into local pharmacopoeias leads to syncretic developments and generates a feedback loop. While modern and post-modern cultures and knowledge systems adapt and transform the global impact, they become more relevant for ethnopharmacology. Moreover, what is traditional, alternative or complementary medicine depends on the adopted historic-cultural perspective.
... There are several excellent studies that describe the state of medical pharmacopeias in different eras ranging from the tenth to nineteenth centuries in the Mediterranean basin. This includes studies on Medieval zootherapy in the Levant (Lev 2003), Egypt (Lev 2007;Lev and Amar 2006), and Serbia (Jarić et al. 2011), among others. We are interested in gaining a better understanding of how these zootherapeutic practices have evolved over a longer temporal period. ...
Este artículo investiga la historia de algunos de los mitos y supersticiones sobre la mandrágora (Mandragora spp.) que estaban en circulación en el mundo árabo-islámico entre los siglos X al XVII y analiza los usos mágicos de la planta en ese contexto. Más concretamente, se analiza cómo y para qué era utilizada la mandrágora en el marco de las operaciones de magia blanca o natural (al-sīmiyāʾ), relacionando sus usos con las diferentes ciencias o artes (ʿulūm) que intervienen en la definición y práctica de esta forma de magia. Los resultados de la investigación indican que la mandrágora ocupó un lugar muy destacado en la farmacopea vegetal utilizada en las prácticas de magia blanca, tal y como muestran los ungüentos, amuletos, talismanes, sahumerios, fumigaciones, inhalaciones y filtros de mandrágora documentados en las fuentes árabes y que estaban destinados a muy diferentes fines. Los resultados también indican que las creencias mágicas sobre la planta presentes en la tradición árabo-islámica tienen su origen en los mitos y supersticiones de la Antigüedad grecolatina y oriental; al mismo tiempo, muestran un estrecho paralelismo con el complejo de creencias y prácticas vigentes en la Europa cristiana del período objeto de este estudio.
In this volume a distinguished international team of scholars examines the history of drugs within all the major medical traditions of the medieval Mediterranean, namely Byzantine, Islamicate, Jewish, and Latin, and in so doing analyses a considerable number of previously unedited or barely explored texts. A Mediterranean-wide perspective permits a deeper understanding of broader phenomena such as the transfer of scientific knowledge and cultural exchange, by looking beyond single linguistic traditions or political boundaries. It also highlights the diversity and vitality of the medieval Mediterranean pharmacological tradition, which, through its close links with cookery, alchemy, magic, religion and philosophy, had to be able to adapt to multiple contexts, not least to changing social and political realities, as in the case of drugs as diplomatic gifts.
Significance
As a high-value luxury commodity, wine has been transported across the Mediterranean since the Bronze Age. The wine trade was potentially disrupted during political and religious change brought about by Islamization in the Early Medieval period; wine consumption is prohibited in Islamic scripture. Utilizing a quantitative criterion based on the relative amounts of two fruit acids in transport amphorae, we show that wine was exported from Sicily beyond the arrival of Islam in the ninth century, including to Christian regions of the central Mediterranean. This finding is significant for understanding how regime change affected trade in the Middle Ages. We also outline a robust analytical approach for detecting wine in archaeological ceramics that will be useful elucidating viniculture more broadly.
Tamarindus indica antibacterial property. However scientific evidence that deals with preformulation and development into a suitable pharmaceutical dosage form is lacking. Therefore in or develop an antibacterial cream from the matured bark extract of Tamarind as an alternative medication to current synthetic brands. An experimental research design was used. Powdered bark was extracted usin method wherein 70% acetone was used as solvent. Physicochemical properties of extract were determined using the methodologies of USP and microbial assay were conducted using the paper disc diffusion method. Results revealed that plant extract had brown crystalline powder with tamarind odor; bitter in taste; pH 8.38; density 0.09 g/mL; freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in (80 %v/v) ethanol, sparingly soluble in ether and very slightly soluble in chlorofo compatible with excipients such as methyl paraben (preservative), propyl paraben (preservative), sodium lauryl sulfate (emulsifying agent), stearyl alcohol (stiffening agent), white petrolatum (oleaginous base) and water (dissolving agent) ; not irrita Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium minutissimum spp. incorporation and fusion method and passed the microbial, sensitivity and antibacterial tests. Based on the results presented, Tamarind bark can be developed into an antibacterial cream but a further study like long term stability testing is needed in order to determine its stability and shelf life.
The most widely accepted theories as to how primates select medicinal organisms are based on smelling and tasting bitter—and most of the times toxic—plants (Etkin and Ross 1982; Johns 1990). In primates, however, the senses of smell and taste are not as dominant as is vision. I present a perspective claiming that aposematism, the conspicuous coloration displayed by toxic organisms, may play an important role in human recognition of medicinal organisms. This paper represents an open invitation for ecological anthropologists and ethnobiologists to generate empirical data that can support the aposematic hypothesis of medicine selection.
This is an open access publication. Please follow existing DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/2162-4593.19.1.1208
The medicinal use of narcotics has a long history, extending back thousands of years, but installations for the ingestion of such substances are rarely preserved. One such installation was found in the Ottoman (fifteenth seventeenth centuries) levels at Kaman-Kalehbyuk, a multi-period settlement mound in central Turkey. Excavations of an Ottoman tandir or ventilated earth-oven have revealed a concentration of charred henbane seeds that suggest the hearth had been used for medicinal fumigation. Henbane smoke was a traditional treatment for relieving toothache and other maladies, but this is the first archaeological evidence for the practice in Asia.
The Mosseri collection was assembled by Jacques Mosseri (1884-1934), a leading member of the Jewish community of Cairo, between 1909 and 1911. Its more than 7000 fragments include materials from both the classical Genizah period and the modern period of Egyptian Jewry. Recently, the Mosseri collection was loaned by the Mosseri family to Cambridge University Library for conservation, digitising, cataloguing and study. This article is part of that effort. Here, new information about medical documents from the Cairo Genizah is made available to scholars especially interested in research on the history of medieval Arab society in general and Jewish medicine and pharmacology in particular. The sixty-nine items from the Mosseri collection here described will be useful for those already working in the field. Descriptions, without any analyses, of these fragments will later be included in a forthcoming catalogue of all medical and para-medical fragments in the Cambridge Genizah collections.
Este artigo descreve os principais fatos relacionados ao uso de espécies vegetais bioativas ao longo da história humana. São apresentados fatos e eventos que abrangem desde as comunidades pré-históricas, antiguidade (Índia, China, Grécia, Egito), idade Média e período das Grandes navegações. Em relação ao Brasil, são relatados os fatos mais marcantes na história pertinente ao uso da flora para finalidades terapêuticas, descrevendo-se os fatos mais marcantes, ocorridos desde o período Colonial até o início do Século XXI.
Herbal compounds, so-called phytoconstituents, illustrate poor absorption by living cells. Phytosomes are advanced form of herbal compounds that show higher absorption rate and bioavailability, which results better than conventional plant extracts. Niosomes, which are made of nonionic surfactants, create better chemical and stability conditions besides lipid vesicles. This study covers the preparation, characterization and cell culture applications of phyto-niosomes of Marigold extract. Before the encapsulation process, extracts of selected plants were prepared and the extract that presents best bioactivity was chosen. The resulting phyto-niosomes were characterized and their biological activities including cytotoxicity, wound healing and antioxidant activity were investigated.
Ibn Jazlah was born and raised as a Christian in Karkh (Baghdad) and died in the year 1100. He acquired his medical education in Baghdad, worked at the ʿAḍuḍi hospital, and was appointed as a registrar and physician for the court at the ʿAbbāsid capital and later became a court physician of Caliph al-Muqtadī. Ibn Jazlah wrote several books on various subjects, mainly on medicine. During the process of reconstructing the medical library of the medieval Jewish practitioners in Cairo, a Genizah fragment of a unique tabular medical book in Arabic was identified as Ibn Jazlah's tabulated manual “Taqwīm al-abdān”, which is most probably part of the earliest known copy of the text. A study of the T-S Ar.41.137 clearly shows that it was an uncompleted draft, and can therefore teach us how the medieval copier worked. The image of the fragment is presented here, as well as its transliteration, translation and analysis.
This article presents the medicinal plants that were used by the inhabitants of the medieval Eastern Mediterranean (mainly tenth to thirteenth centuries AD) and analyzes their geographical/phyto-botanical origin and their frequency of use at the medieval time. It also discusses various issues such as their historical trade and the continuation of their use in present-day Middle Eastern traditional medicine.
The Cairo Genizah is an historical source containing about 250,000 documents, found in a semi-archeological context (synagogue and graves). Since Cairo became the capital and consequently the economic and administrative center of the Muslim empire, the Jewish community had close connections with the Jewish communities of the Middle East, North Africa, Southern Europe, Sicily and India. Therefore, these highly valued documents record every aspect of life and reflect on the whole Mediterranean region and beyond.
The inventory of the practical materia medica was reconstructed thanks to hundreds of documents such as prescriptions, list of drugs, and medical letters. It consists of 278 drugs, 223 of which are of plant origin. Asian medicinal plants became highly used in medieval Mediterranean medicine; the vast majority of them are still sold in Middle Eastern markets, although not with the same importance. It is important to note that some of them are sold today mainly for their other uses as spices, perfumes, incense, etc.
This article presents a plethora of fragments from the medical notebooks found in the Cairo Genizah that comprise a unique source of historical data for scholarly study and for a better understanding of the ways in which medieval medical knowledge in Egypt was transferred from theory to practice and vice versa. These documents provide the most direct evidence we have for preferred practical medical recipes because they record the choices of medical practitioners in medieval Cairo. Since the language most commonly used in them was Judaeo-Arabic, they were evidently written by Jews. The medical genre in the notebooks was primarily pharmacopoeic, consisting of apparently original recipes for the treatment of various diseases. There are also a few notebooks on materia medica. The subject matter of the Genizah medical notebooks shows that they were mostly of an eclectic nature, i.e. the writers had probably learnt about these treatments and recipes from their teachers, applied them at the hospitals where they worked or copied them from the books they read. Foremost among the subjects dealt with were eye diseases, followed by skin diseases, coughs and colds, dentistry and oral hygiene, and gynaecological conditions. The writers of the Genizah notebooks apparently recorded the practical medical knowledge they wished to preserve for their future use as amateur physicians, students, traditional healers or professional practitioners.
Nigella (Ranunculaceae) is a small genus of annuals mainly of Irano-Turanian distribution, but some species also extending across most of Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. The genus comprises several taxa of ethnopharmacological interest, as their seeds are used in a wide range of medicinal contexts – those of N. sativa have even developed into a plant drug of prime commercial interest. However, the historical dimension (the “traditional uses”) of Nigella species, nowadays used as a marketing tool and often a justification of modern use, has hardly ever been documented basing on the critical use of sources, and employing a multidisciplinary approach. The current paper now attempts to combine a wide range of written sources and the full archaeological record in order to find evidence of this genus’ possible use in history and prehistory, and to serve as an example of the combination and interlinking of research tools from historical botany and archaeobotany.
The medical texts in the Genizah have been analyzed mainly as part of other subjects, like the various professional classes within the Jewish community in Old Cairo. Until now few have studied these documents in their own right, despite the fact that they offer valuable insights into the medieval economy of the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond. Focussing on saffron and myrobalan, this article offers a tentative investigation of the significance of medical drugs for the study of Mediterranean trade in the Middle Ages on the basis of practical medical fragments found mainly at the Taylor-Schechter collection in Cambridge.
Inorganic materials have constituted part of the inventory of medicinal substances used in various cultures since ancient times and continue globally to the present day in many ethnic and folk medicines. The medicinal interaction between humans and inorganic substances has been ongoing in most societies. Minerals, metals, soils, organic minerals (e.g. asphalt, crude oil, glycerine, sulphanilamide, tartaric acid, and vaseline), and other pure inorganic substances or mixtures (e.g. ink) have played an important, though perhaps minor, role in the healing practice of the inhabitants of five continents. This article systematically evaluates many historical records that document the materials and their uses available from the Levantine (mediaeval Bilad al-Sham) societies from the Middle Ages to the present.An overview of the data reveals that 23 inorganic substances were recorded as used in the Levant from the early mediaeval period to the present; among them, alum, arsenic sulphides, asphalt, borax, Jew's stone, soils (including the substance known as Armenian earth), galena, hematite, iron, lead, lead oxide, mercury, mineral mumia, salt (NaCl), sulphur, tartaric acid, vitriol (blue and green), and zinc. Fifty-four additional substances were first recorded by several ethnopharmacological surveys made during the twentieth century; some of these might have been used in the mediaeval Levant, but they were not recorded.
Various minerals, metals, clays, and rocks were among the natural medicinal substances used by physicians and pharmacists in early times in different cultures, for example, the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Classical physicians such as Hippocrates and Dioscorides mention tens of inorganic medicinal substances in their writings. Many references to minerals and chemicals are also found in the Muslim medical literature of the Eastern and Western Caliphates. The historical research presented in this article focuses on the inorganic substances applied as remedies by the medieval and early Ottoman (7th-17th) inhabitants of the Levant. The article is based upon a literature review covering tens of different historical sources, from the medieval and early Ottoman periods. Relevant information was found in the works of physicians such as al-Tamimi, Benevenutus, Ibn al-Baytar, Daud al-Antaki, and Hayyim Vital. The research revealed evidences of the medicinal uses of fifteen inorganic substances: Alum, Arsenic, Sulphide, Asphalt, Jew's stone, Earth sp., Galena, Haematite, iron, Lead, Pyrite, Salt, Sulphur, Thermal water, Green Vitriol, and Zinc. Inorganic materials comprise 5.2% of the list of medicinal substances. The geographic origin of most of these substances is the Levant, in which two geo-historical centers have been recorded: the Rift Valley and the northern region of the Levant, including upper Galilee, Mount Lebanon and Mount Hermon. A notable tendency to use these substances for treating diseases of the skin, the eyes, the sexual organs, and haemorrhoids was detected.
Animals and products derived from different organs of their bodies have constituted part of the inventory of medicinal substances used in various cultures since ancient times. The article reviews the history of healing with animals in the Levant (The Land of Israel and parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, defined by the Muslims in the Middle Ages as Bilad al-Sham) in the medieval and early Ottoman periods.
Intensive research into the phenomenon of zootherapy in the medieval and early Ottoman Levant has yielded forty-eight substances of animal origin that were used medicinally. The vast majority of these substances were local and relatively easy to obtain. Most of the substances were domestic (honey, wax, silkworm, etc.), others were part of the local wildlife (adder, cuttle fish, flycatcher, firefly, frog, triton, scorpion, etc.), part of the usual medieval household (milk, egg, cheese, lamb, etc.), or parasites (louse, mouse, stinkbug, etc.). Fewer substances were not local but exotic, and therefore rare and expensive (beaver testicles, musk oil, coral, ambergris, etc.).
The range of symptoms that the substances of animal origin were used to treat was extensive and included most of the known diseases and maladies of that era: mainly hemorrhoids, burns, impotence, wounds, and skin, eye, and stomach diseases.
Changes in the moral outlook of modern societies caused the use of several substances of animal origin to cease in the course of history. These include mummy, silkworm, stinkbug, scarabees, snail, scorpion, and triton.
The Mosseri collection was assembled by Jacques Mosseri (1884-1934), a leading member of the Jewish community of Cairo, between 1909 and 1911. Its more than 7000 fragments include materials from both the classical Genizah period and the modern period of Egyptian Jewry. Recently, the Mosseri collection was loaned by the Mosseri family to Cambridge University Library for conservation, digitising, cataloguing and study. This article is part of that effort. Here, new information about medical documents from the Cairo Genizah is made available to scholars especially interested in research on the history of medieval Arab society in general and Jewish medicine and pharmacology in particular. The sixty-nine items from the Mosseri collection here described will be useful for those already working in the field. Descriptions, without any analyses, of these fragments will later be included in a forthcoming catalogue of all medical and para-medical fragments in the Cambridge Genizah collections.
Abstract
Animals and products derived from different organs of their bodies have constituted part of the inventory of medicinal substances used in various cultures since ancient times. The article reviews the history of healing with animals in the Levant (The Land of Israel and parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, defined by the Muslims in the Middle Ages as Bilad al-Sham) in the medieval and early Ottoman periods.
Intensive research into the phenomenon of zootherapy in the medieval and early Ottoman Levant has yielded forty-eight substances of animal origin that were used medicinally. The vast majority of these substances were local and relatively easy to obtain. Most of the substances were domestic (honey, wax, silkworm, etc.), others were part of the local wildlife (adder, cuttle fish, flycatcher, firefly, frog, triton, scorpion, etc.), part of the usual medieval household (milk, egg, cheese, lamb, etc.), or parasites (louse, mouse, stinkbug, etc.). Fewer substances were not local but exotic, and therefore rare and expensive (beaver testicles, musk oil, coral, ambergris, etc.).
The range of symptoms that the substances of animal origin were used to treat was extensive and included most of the known diseases and maladies of that era: mainly hemorrhoids, burns, impotence, wounds, and skin, eye, and stomach diseases.
Changes in the moral outlook of modern societies caused the use of several substances of animal origin to cease in the course of history. These include mummy, silkworm, stinkbug, scarabees, snail, scorpion, and triton.
This report deals with the results of a study of present day uses of traditional medicinal materials in Israel. The survey covered selected markets in medicinal materials, belonging to various religious and ethnic communities, and also included questioning of the sellers and buyers about the healing characteristics of the various materials. The survey yielded information on many and varied medicinal materials, of which 310 are identified according to the following classifications, 264 species of plants (85.1%); 20 species of animals (6.5%); 19 kinds of minerals (6.5%); and seven materials of other or mixed origin (2.3%). Analysis of the data showed that a significant proportion of the materials were of local origin (51.5%) and some were imported from other countries. These data demonstrate that there is still a flourishing and well developed trade in these materials - a trade which is the remnant of a rich and ancient medical culture, which is disappearing from the modern world.
This article presents the results of a study of the medicinal uses of natural substances in medieval and Ottoman al-Sham (the Levant). It involved a meticulous survey of a wide range of historical sources spanning approximately 1100 years and including medical and pharmacological literature, travelogues, geographical and agricultural literature, dictionaries, archives, the Genizah and other medieval sources. Our main goal was to arrive at a reconstruction of the unwritten materia medica of the medieval and Ottoman Levant. Of the many and varied medicinal substances on which we were able to extract information, we were able to identify 286. These are presented according to the following classification: 234 species of plants (81.8%); 27 species of animals (9.5%); 15 kinds of minerals (5.2%) and 10 substances of other or mixed origin (3.5%). Analysis of the data showed that the region under study served as the geographic origin of the majority of the substances, only a minority of the materials was imported. The main reason for this is the geographic location of the Levant as a junction between three continents, as a cultural meeting point and as trade center. Finally, our data revealed that the al-Sham region was an independent source of production and marketing of medicinal substances during the medieval and Ottoman periods.
The results of a survey of present-day traditional medicinal materials conducted in 1998-1999 in the Kingdom of Jordan are reported. The study covered selected markets of medicinal substances of ethnic communities throughout the kingdom, and also included questioning of the sellers about the healing characteristics of the various materials. The survey yielded information on many and varied medicinal substances, of which 304 are identified according to the following classifications: 236 species of plants (77.6%); 30 species of animals (9.8%); 29 kinds of inorganic substances (9.6%); and 9 materials of other or mixed origin (3%). Analysis of the data showed that some substances were of local origin (41.8%), but the majority of the substances (45.4%) were imported from other countries. 12.8% of the substances were both local and imported. These data demonstrate that there is still a flourishing and well-developed trade in these materials--a trade that is the remnant of a rich and ancient medical culture, which is disappearing from the modern world.
Animals and products derived from different organs of their bodies have constituted part of the inventory of medicinal substances used in various cultures since ancient times. This article reviews the history of healing with animals in the Levant (the Land of Israel and parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, defined by the Muslims in the Middle Ages as Bilad al-Sham) throughout history. Intensive research into the phenomenon of zootherapy in the Levant from early medieval to present-day traditional medicine yielded 99 substances of animal origin which were used medicinally during that long period. Fifty-two animal extracts and products were documented as being used from the early Muslim period (10th century) to the late Ottoman period (19th century). Seventy-seven were recorded as being used in the 20th century. Seven main animal sources have been exploited for medical uses throughout history: honey, wax, adder, beaver testicles, musk oil, coral, and ambergris. The first three are local and relatively easy to obtain; the last four are exotic, therefore, rare and expensive. The use of other materials of animal origin came to an end in the course of history because of change in the moral outlook of modern societies. Among the latter we note mummy, silkworm, stinkbug, scarabees, snail, scorpion, and triton.
The Taylor-Schechter (T-S) collection at Cambridge University Library is the biggest of all Cairo Genizah collections in the world. The importance and the potential of research into the medical aspects of the Genizah documents were clear to researcher since the early 1960s. A few works have been published since, usually focusing on one subject, or even important single manuscripts. The current research concerned mainly with one aspect of the history of medicine of the Jewish community of Cairo (as a reflection of Eastern medieval societies), namely the practical uses of natural substances for medicine. The most interesting and original information is undoubtedly to be found in the 141 prescriptions, as they reflect the medical reality that actually existed. And indeed, 242 substances were recorded in the prescriptions identified: 195 substances of plants origin (80.6%), 27 inorganic materials (11.2%) and 20 substances of animal origin (8.2%) were recorded as being in practical used for medicinal purposes. The most frequently mentioned substances were the rose, myrobalan, sugar, almonds, and endive. The most prevalent ailments: eye diseases, headache, constipations (purgative), cough, skin diseases, stomach, fever, gynaecological problems, haemorrhoids, liver ailments, lice, swellings, dental trouble, ulcers, and problems of the urinary tract.
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