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Radiological studies in the hot spring region of Mahallat, Central Iran
Abstract
Five hot springs called ‘Abegarm-e-Mahallat’, located in the central part of Iran, have a mean water temperature of 46 ± 1°C
and are used by visitors as spas. This is an area of high natural radiation background due to the presence of 226Ra and its decay products in the deposited travertine (CaCO3). The mean concentration of 226Ra in these hot springs, measured by the emanation method, ranged from 0.48 ± 0.05 to 1.35 ± 0.13 Bq l−1. 222Rn concentrations measured in the hot springs using a liquid scintillation counter ranged from 145 ± 37 to 2731 ± 98 Bq l−1. Mean radon concentrations in air were 487 ± 160 and 15.4 ± 2.7 Bq m−3 for indoor and outdoor, respectively. Radiation levels above that of normal background (∼100 nGy h−1) were mainly limited to the Quaternary travertine formations in the vicinity of the hot springs. The results of environmental
radiological studies in this region are presented and discussed.
... Recently, spa waters have been frequently used by people for therapeutic and consumption purposes such as drinking since they are believed to contain health benefits. Hence, radioactivity measurements in spas in different parts of the world were conducted by many researchers [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. Such investigations are important in evaluating radiological parameters. ...
... It is well known that the exhalation rate of radon increases near the faults. The levels of radon in the investigated spa water samples are compatible with those reported in the case of other spas in Venezuela [8], Italy [9], China [10], Iran [11], Serbia [16] and Poland [43]. However, the activity concentration of spa waters measured in this study is higher than those reported in Spain [7], India [12], Hungary [14], Romania [15] and Turkey [17,19]. ...
... However, the activity concentration of spa waters measured in this study is higher than those reported in Spain [7], India [12], Hungary [14], Romania [15] and Turkey [17,19]. [7] 0.2-130 Venezuela [8] 1-560 Italy [9] 8-506 China [10] 53-293 Iran [11] 145-2731 India [12] 3-47 Hungary [14] 2-98 Romania [15] 5-111 Serbia [16] 25-648 Turkey [17] 3-83 Turkey [19] 0.3-31 Poland [43] 4-1703 a Present study. Spa resorts are becoming more popular for therapy and relaxation and related activities such as showering and laundry; on the other hand, spa waters are unconsciously consumed by the public whether they are healthy or not. ...
The current study presents the results of the activity of radionuclides in spa waters, and evaluates their radiological influences on the population consuming these waters in the Central and Eastern Black Sea regions of Turkey. Since these waters are used for therapy and consumption purposes unconsciously, their radiological impact on the people was computed by taking into consideration the annual intake through ingestion of (226)Ra, (232)Th, (40)K, (137)Cs and (222)Rn. The mean activities were estimated to be 11.35 for gross alpha, 6.23 for gross beta, 2.96 for (226)Ra, 0.42 for (232)Th, 0.069 for (137)Cs, 0.19 for (40)K, and 267 Bq L(-1) for (222)Rn, respectively. The estimated effective doses from spa water were found to be 49.77 µSv a(-1) ((226)Ra), 5.95 µSv a(-1) ((232)Th), 0.07 µSv a(-1) ((137)Cs), 0.83 µSv a(-1) ((40)K) and 56.03 µSv a(-1) ((222)Rn). These values were evaluated and compared with related verified values from literature. Also, physico-chemical characterizations of spa water samples considered in the current study were investigated. This study would be useful for consumers and official authorities for the assessment of radiation exposure risk due to usage of the considered spa waters.
... However, a very high level of radon in ingested drinking water can also leads to a significant risk of stomach cancer [7]. Because of its potential health hazard, radon level in thermal waters and associated effective doses have been documented in many regions worldwide for decades [5,[8][9][10] and also led to extensive surveys in Turkey [11][12][13][14][15]. In the present study, the radon contents of thermal waters located in Kuzuluk and Taraklı regions of Sakarya were measured and the results were evaluated according to international recommendations. ...
... In Table the 222 Rn contents in five thermal waters monitored in Sakarya and associated annual effective doses have been compared with those reported by other works. As can be seen from Table, radon levels recorded in the present study are relatively low when they are compared to corresponding radon activity measured in Italy [5], in Venezuela [8], in Iran [9], in Serbia [10] and also is lower than those reported from other parts of Turkey namely Dikili [12] and Bursa [14], but comparable to radon levels reported from Yalova [11] and from West Anatolia [13]. It is interesting to note that both of Yalova and Sakarya lie on North Anatolian Faulth Zone. ...
... On the other hand, there are geothermal aquifers where radon activity can reach higher levels than our results [9]. ...
The paper presents the results of radon concentration measurements in thermal waters of Kuzuluk and Tarakli (Sakarya, Turkey) and their contribution to annual effective dose exposure. The radon measurements were performed using RAD 7, a solid state alpha detector, with RAD H2O accessory. The results show that the radon activities are within the range of 0.19-5.89 Bql(-1) with an average value of 0.98 Bql(-1). The associated annual effective doses have been estimated to range from 0.14 to 0.40 mu Svy(-1) for ingestion and from 1.81 to 5.14 mu Svy(-1) for inhalation of radon released from the water. These values are significantly lower than the WHO recommended limit of 100 mu Svy(-1)
... Therefore, monitoring of radon levels in thermal waters is necessary to protect the public from consequences of excessive exposure to radiation. Radon in thermal spring systems and associated health risks have been recognised and documented in many regions worldwide for decades [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] and also led to extensive surveys in various locations of Turkey [20][21][22][23][24]. ...
... As can be seen from Table 2, our results are comparable with those reported for geothermal springs in West Anatolia [24] and in Izmir [20], but higher than the values reported for geothermal springs in Amasya [23]. On the other hand, there are thermal waters where 222 Rn activity can reach higher levels [2,8,12,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. ...
... In the Table 5 the estimated annual effective doses from radon in thermal waters of Yalova basin due to its ingestion and inhalation have been compared with the results of similar studies. As can be seen from table our annual effective doses due to the ingestion of dissolved radon in thermal water are lower than the annual effective doses for Venezuela [16], Iran [18], Serbia [19] and Dikili geothermal area of Turkey [22]. Especially, the doses for Venezuela [16], Iran [18] and Serbia [19] are significantly higher than the other results reported in Table 5. ...
The radon concentration has been measured in
thermal waters used for medical therapy and drinking
purposes in Yalova basin, Turkey. Radon activity measurements
in water samples were performed using RAD 7
radon detector equipped with RAD H2O (radon in water)
accessory and following a protocol proposed by the manufacturer.
The results show that the concentration of 222Rn
in thermal waters ranges from 0.21 to 5.82 Bql-1 with an
average value of 2.4 Bql-1. In addition to radon concentration,
physicochemical parameters of water such as
temperature (T), electrical conductivity, pH and redox
potential (Eh) were also measured. The annual effective
doses from radon in water due to its ingestion and inhalation
were also estimated. The annual effective doses
range from 0.2 to 0.75 lSvy-1 for ingestion of radon in
water and from 2.44 to 9 lSvy-1 for inhalation of radon
released from the water.
... Radioactivity in hot spring systems has been recognised and documented for many decades (Duenas et al., 1998;Horvath et al., 2000;Vogiannis et al., 2004;Bertolo and Bigliotto, 2004;Song et al., 2005;Erees et al., 2006;Bolca et al., 2007;Beitollahi et al., 2007;Baba et al., 2008;Roba et al., 2010;2012;Chaudhuri et al., 2010;Onishchenko et al., 2010;Gurler et al., 2010;Lin et al., 2011;Saç et al., 2011;Eross et al., 2012;Condomines et al., 2012;Tanaskovic et al., 2012). The most observable radionuclides in hot waters are 226 Ra and 222 Rn. 226 Ra is an α emitter with a long half-life of 1622 years and produced by the alpha decay of 230 Th in the uranium ( 238 U) decay series (Roba et al., 2012). ...
... However, the activity concentrations of thermal waters measured in this study are slightly higher than those reported from other part of Western Turkey (Erees et al., 2006). On the other hand, there are geothermal aquifers where radon activity can reach higher levels than our results (Song et al., 2005;Tanaskovic et al., 2012;Horvath et al., 2000;Beitollahi et al., 2007;Chaudhuri et al., 2010;Eross et al., 2012;Duenas et al., 1998;Roba et al., 2012;Bertolo and Bigliotto, 2004). ...
... The radium concentrations observed in the present study are compatible with those reported from Iran (Beitollahi et al., 2007) and from Spain (Duenas et al., 1998). The radium level is higher than the result for Serbia (Tanaskovic et al., 2012), for Hungray (Eross et al., 2012), and for Romania (Roba et al., 2012 ). ...
Naturally occurring Radionuclides such as 226Ra and 222Rn as well as the major dissolved ions were investigated in the four thermal springs from Dikili Geothermal Area, Western Turkey. It was observed that 222Rn concentrations vary from 0.3 to 31 Bql−1 with an average value of 8.2 Bql−1, while the 226Ra activities range from 0.10 to 1.2 Bql−1 with a mean value of 0.495 Bql−1. A direct correlation was determined between radon and radium activities which indicates their parent–child relationship. The annual effective doses ranged from 0.58 to 3.06mSvy−1 with an average 1.75 for radon and vary from 4.88
to 8.58mSvy−1 with an average value of 6.53mSvy−1 for radium and all are well below 100mSvy−1 recommended by WHO. The chemical analyses of water samples show that Na+and Cl− ions mainly dominate the chemistry of waters. Due to their chemical characteristics, the springs were placed in the Water Quality Class 1 or 2 according to Turkish Environmental Regulations for Water Pollution Control. On the other hand, no significant correlations was found between the physic–chemical parameters and investigated radionuclides.
... However, the dilution can also solve sampling of waters with both limited availability plus low radon content (for which a small bottle volume as stated before could not yield detectable values) and very rich radon waters that can saturate detectors or at least request a waiting time before the next measurement. We discovered that diluted samples have also been used in Beitollahi et al. (2007), that added nitric acid to the thermal water of hot springs in Iran, to prevent the adsorption of radio-nuclides onto the walls of the sampling PET bottles, with no bias of obtained radon contents. ...
... Campi Flegrei has dissolved 222 Rn levels higher than those from other Italian and worldwide areas ( Fig. 8 and Table 4), except for the Italian thermal waters of Ischia island (Avino et al., 1999) and the Iranian thermal waters (Beitollahi et al., 2007). Cold to thermal Hungarian waters (Erőss et al., 2012) have 222 Rn levels slightly lower than our thermal waters reaching concentrations of~960 Bq/L, although in Hungary the geological setting is completely different, being an area where volcanic terrains are not present. ...
The present investigation provides measurements of radon (²²²Rn) concentration levels in 20 thermal waters at the Campi Flegrei volcanic caldera, an important geothermal system with hydrothermal manifestations in the Neapolitan area (Southern Italy). We used a RAD7® Radon-in-air detector equipped with Big Bottle RAD H2O and DRYSTIK accessories (Durridge Co. Inc.). Water samples with different chemical and/or physical conditions, not used as drink waters, are taken from continental thermal groundwaters, springs, lakes, pools and one submerged thermal spring. The waters are mostly chlorine to bicarbonate, except of a few sulphate types sampled at the hydrothermal discharge areas of Solfatara and Pisciarelli, central in the caldera. Water temperature and pH values range from 18.1 to 91.3 °C and from 2 to 8, respectively.
Sampling and measurement of radon in groundwater are complicated by the high volatility of the gas; a method is here proposed. In some of the 20 sites double or triple samples were collected by using different volume polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, diluting sample with blank water, and modifying flow of pumped wells. We suggest that dilution can be considered when water is i) not enough to fill in the PET, resulting in large head space in the sampler, ii) too hot determining damage of the PET or iii) too saline to clog the Big Bottle System.
Dissolved radon concentrations vary from 0.1 ± 0.1 to 1146 ± 57 Bq/L with an average value of 152 Bq/L, using the CAPTURE program, the default RAD7 data acquisition program. Similar values in radon concentration are obtained using the method proposed in De Simone et al. (2015) ranging between 0.1 ± 5.8 and 1286 ± 98 Bq/L with an average value of 167 Bq/L. The hottest and most acidic sulphate waters refer to a small boiling pool at Pisciarelli hydrothermal discharge area and have nearly zero ²²²Rn content.
²²²Rn concentrations from this study are mostly below the reference level of 1000 Bq/L recommended for human health protection by the European Commission and the most adopted in the scientific community (Catão et al., 2022). No correlation has been observed between temperature, pH, major anions and radon content values, nor between rock composition since it is almost homogeneous trachyte at the study sites. ²²²Rn levels therefore appear to reflect the local sedimentological, structural or hydrogeological conditions.
The levels of ²²²Rn here presented are an important background for the scientific community that will intend to define the natural fluctuations of dissolved ²²²Rn in relation with seasons, environment, hydrogeology or volcanic dynamics at the geohazardous Campi Flegrei area.
... Radon occurs in natural waters in the concentrations varying from 0.01 up to 60000 Bq . l −1 or even more (Duenas et al. 1998;Böhm 2002;Bertolo and Bigliotto 2004;Voronov 2004;Beitollahi et al. 2007;Chaudhuri et al. 2010;Gurler et al. 2010;Abu-Khader et al. 2018). Along with the territories characterized by low background 222 Rn concentration in waters, there are also regions with much higher concentrations, for example in Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Italy, Serbia, Turkey, and Venezuela (Böhm 2002;Gurler et al. 2010 and other). ...
... Along with the territories characterized by low background 222 Rn concentration in waters, there are also regions with much higher concentrations, for example in Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Italy, Serbia, Turkey, and Venezuela (Böhm 2002;Gurler et al. 2010 and other). High-radon spring waters were detected in Iran (Beitollahi et al. 2007). Increased background radon concentrations are observed in Scandinavian countries. ...
The first integrated isotope and chemistry results have been obtained for radon-rich thermal waters from the Belokurikha field which are used at a large spa resort in Altai, Russia. The waters reside in an unconfined aquifer composed of Quaternary soft sediments and in a confined (artesian) aquifer of monolithic to weathered Upper Paleozoic granites. The waters belong to three geochemical groups: low-radon nitrogen-silicic interstitial waters in weathered Paleozoic granites; groundwaters of REE-enriched and background compositions; surface waters of the Belokurikha River. The interstitial waters in granites have HCO3-SO4 Na and SO4-HCO3 Na major-ion chemistry, total salinity from 198 to 257 mg/L, pH = 8.6–9.6, silica contents of 19.8 to 24.6 mg/L, and ²²²Rn activity from 160 to 360 Bq/L (290 Bq/L on average). Judging by their oxygen and hydrogen (deuterium) isotope compositions (−17.5 to −14.2 ‰ and −126.9 to −102.7 ‰, respectively), the Belokurikha aquifers recharge with infiltrating meteoric water, especially the winter precipitation. The carbon isotope composition of dissolved inorganic carbon (−9.7 to −25.6 ‰ δ¹³СDIC) corresponds to biogenic origin. Comparison of radon-rich mineral waters from different areas of southern Siberia shows that the change from oxidized to reduced environments leads to ²³²Th/²³⁸U increase from 4.20∙10⁻⁵–7.39∙10⁻² to 0.0022–26, respectively, with an intermediate range of 2.63∙10⁻⁵–0.20 in transitional conditions.
... In this thermal bath, no storage reservoirs for water are present, unlike in other modern spas. The 222 Rn concentrations are significantly higher when compared with those observed in modern spas elsewhere (see Table 1: Sohrabi, 1997;Radoli c et al., 2005;Song et al., 2005;Beitollahi et al., 2007;R odenas et al., 2008;Bituh et al., 2009;Onishchenko et al., 2010;Nikolov et al., 2012;Pugliese et al., 2013;Kasi c et al., 2015;M} ullerov a et al., 2016;Uzun and Demir€ oz, 2016;Karakaya et al., 2017;Silva and Dinis, 2017;Wang et al., 2017). ...
... Since the water source is the same for the baths and thermal pools, the concentration of 226 Ra fell approximately within the same range. If these values are compared with the results shown in Table 1 in which the reported indoor radon and 226 Ra activity concentrations in water in various spas around the world are presented, it can be seen that the concentration of this radionuclide is elevated compared to typical levels in surface waters (Radoli c et al., 2005;Song et al., 2005;Beitollahi et al., 2007;R odenas et al., 2008;Bituh et al., 2009;Onishchenko et al., 2010;Nikolov et al., 2012;Pugliese et al., 2013;Kasi c et al., 2015;M} ullerov a et al., 2016;Uzun and Demir€ oz, 2016;Karakaya et al., 2017;Silva and Dinis, 2017;Wang et al., 2017) but similar to radium levels in other spas. ...
It has been proven that more than half of the exposure to natural background radiation originates from radon isotopes and their decay products. The inhalation of radon and its decay products causes the irradiation of respiratory tracts, thus increasing the risk of lung cancer. In this study, the concentrations of radon and thoron in thermal baths at a spa in Dehloran (Iran) were investigated. The concentrations of dissolved ²²⁶Ra in samples of water from thermal baths were also measured. Additionally, the activity concentrations of abundant naturally occurring radionuclides in farmland soils irrigated with water from hot springs was measured and compared with other soil samples irrigated with water from other sources to estimate possible radioecological effects of natural radiation staff, patients and tourists at the spa are exposed to. In addition, the search for a link between the concentration of naturally occurring radionuclides in soil and the use of water from hot springs for irrigation was one of the main goals of the study. The activity concentrations of three major naturally occurring radionuclides in soil samples were measured; the ranges for ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra were 101 ± 8 to 240 ± 12, 276 ± 7 to 322 ± 12 and 20 ± 7 to 80 ± 10 Bq.kg⁻¹, respectively. Higher activity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra were recorded in soil samples irrigated with hot spring water. The water from the same spring was used in all thermal baths so concentrations of dissolved ²²⁶Ra in water samples from different thermal baths were approximated to also be 0.42 ± 0.20 Bq.l⁻¹. The indoor radon concentrations in the private thermal baths over a period of 45 days (including both occupied and vacant time) were measured to be between 1880 ± 410 and 2450 ± 530 Bq.m⁻³ and the radon concentrations in the spa galleries were measured to be between 790 ± 135 and 1050 ± 120 Bq.m⁻³, however, thoron concentrations were below the detection limit. The ventilation and centralized heating systems at the spa under investigation are inefficient so the radon concentrations in the therapy rooms and baths are high.
The maximum radiation doses originating from the inhalation of radon for tourists and the staff were estimated to be 0.13 and 5.5 mSv.yr⁻¹, respectively, which is slightly over the national limit in Iran (5 mSv.yr⁻¹). The exposure duration was estimated 15 and 1468 h per year for visitors and workers, respectively.
... Исследования по изучению содержания радона в природных водах ведутся достаточно широко многими научными коллективами в США, России, Болгарии, Германии, Испании, Италии, Вен-грии, Китае, Турции, Иране и т.д. Концентрации радона в природных водах колеблются от 1 до 100000 Бк/дм 3 и более [Posokhov, Tolstikhin, 1977;Hoehn, von Gunten, 1989;Matveev et al., 1996;Duenas et al., 1998;Böhm, 2002;Yafasov A.Ya., Yafasov A.A., 2003;Bertolo, Bigliotto, 2004;Voronov, 2004;Beitollahi et al., 2007;Eliseev, 2010;Chaudhuri et al., 2010;Gurler et al., 2010;Didenko, 2011;Erőss et al., 2012;Santos, Bonotto, 2014;Alonso et al., 2015;Kamenova-Totzeva et al., 2015;Kies et al., 2015;Gavrilkina, 2016]. Наряду с районами с пониженными фоновыми концентрациями 222 Rn в водах имеются территории с весьма высокими, ураганными, содержаниями. ...
... [Böhm, 2002;Gurler et al., 2010]. В Иране известны родники с высокими концентрациями радона [Beitollahi et al., 2007]. Повышенными фоновыми концентрациями радона характеризуются скандинавские страны. ...
The study aims at solving the fundamental and applied problems of hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of the Zaeltsovsko-Mochishchensky zone of radon waters in the northwestern district of the city of Novosibirsk. Novosibirsk is one of the few Russian cities built on granites that emit radon ( ²²² Rn). In geological terms, the study area is confined to the NW near-contact zone of the large Novosibirsk granitoid massif. The available data on radon in this area has not been scientifically consolidated yet. We used the methods of S.L. Shvartsev, N.M. Kruglikov, V.V. Nelyubin, O.N. Yakovlev, and V.M. Matusevich and software packages Visual Minteq, PhreeqC, WATEQ4f and HG-32 and obtained physical and chemical calculations for the forms of migration of trace elements in radon waters and estimated the degrees of radon water saturation with rock-forming minerals. The data from hydrogeological profiles and hydrogeochemical sampling (118 samples from 57 water wells and sources) were analyzed. Radon waters are fissure-type, cold (6–10 °С) and occur at a depth of 50–200 m. By their chemical composition (according to the classification proposed by S.А. Shchukarev), the waters are mainly hydro-carbonate calcium and hydro-carbonate calcium-sodium; the total mineralization amounts to 322–895 mg/dm ³ . All the water wells drilled in granites and near-contact hornfels were tested for radon. It is revealed that the ²²² Rn concentration in water varies widely, from 11 to 801 Bq/dm ³ . Therefore, such waters are classified as low-radon and moderate-radon mineral waters (according to the classification proposed by N.I. Tolstikhin). In the wells drilled in hornfels, the ²²² Rn concentration in water is 37–241 Bq/dm ³ . The concentrations of ²³⁸ U and ²²⁶ Ra do not exceed 0.098 and 1.9∙10 –9 mg/dm ³ , respectively. Physicochemical simulation shows that Ag ⁺ , Ba ²⁺ , Zn ²⁺ , Ni ²⁺ , Mn ²⁺ , Sr ²⁺ , Fe ²⁺ migrate mainly as free ions, while Be ²⁺ , Fe ³⁺ , Zr ⁴⁺ , Ti ⁴⁺ migrate as hydroxide complexes. Uranium is mainly present in uranyl-carbonate complexes of calcium: Ca 2 UO 2 (CO 3 ) 3 (aq) (61–75 %) and CaUO 2 (CO 3 ) 32– (25–36 %). Calculations show abundant saturation of the waters with calcite, dolomite, ferrihydrite, greenalite, hausmannite, manganite, quartz, rutile, siderite, lepidocrocite, goethite, and pyrolusite. The mineral phases, such as aragonite, barite, chalcedony, cristobalite, vaterite, and amorphous silicon dioxide are in equilibrium. Several samples show saturation of the waters with relatively rare phosphorus-containing minerals: hydroxyapatite, manganese hydrogen phosphate, cerargyrite, and lead molybdate. The radon waters are not saturated with monohydrocalcite, calcium molybdate, celestite, chrysotile, copper hydroxide, copper molybdate, epsomite, huntite, amorphous and crystalline iron hydroxide (II), gypsum, iron molybdate (II), magnesite, lansfordite, Na-jarosite, nesquehonite, powellite, strontianite, tenorite, witherite, and zirconium dioxide.
... Several studies report an increase in soil radioactivity near hot springs, in particular of Radium-226 (2)(3)(4). Radium-226 activity concentration has been found to be higher also in hot springs sediments (5). Another study reports increased radioactivity levels of Uranium-238 and Radium-226 near hot springs, related to the presence of volcanic rocks in the surrounding area (6). ...
... For low energy photons, such as those emitted by Lead-210 (46.52 keV) and Thorium-234 (63.29 keV), self-absorption inside the sample plays an important role. Since self-absorption for a specific sample material strongly depends on sample geometry and material density (11), a self-absorption correction factor had to be introduced to account for the deviation of sample density from ρ = 1 g/cm 3 . The correction factor is calculated with the following prescription ...
Lead-210 is a naturally occurring radionuclide of great importance for environmental studies. Its vertical distribution in soil combined with that of Radium–226 may provide useful information on radon exhalation from the ground, or radon carried by ground water. Previous research has shown that natural radioactivity levels–in particular Lead–210 and Radium–226 activity in the ground–may be higher near hot springs. In this work two different locations near hot springs were selected for soil sampling: Kamena Vourla and Thermopylae, both in Greece. Depending on the special soil characteristics of each sampling location, it was decided to collect soil cores up to a depth of 20 cm from Kamena Vourla, and surface soil from Thermopylae. The soil cores were then sectioned into 1 cm slices, while the surface soil samples were separated into seven particle size fractions by dry sieving. All samples were analysed by high resolution gamma-ray spectrometry at the Nuclear Engineering Department of the National Technical University of Athens, using an XtRa germanium detector and a Low Energy germanium detector, to determine: (a) the terrestrial natural radionuclides Thorium–234, Radium–226, Lead–210, Radium–228, Thorium–228 and Potassium–40, (b) the cosmogenic radionuclide Beryllium–7, and (c) the artificial radionuclides Cesium–137 and Ruthenium–106. It is worth mentioning that, the Ruthenium–106 that was detected in samples collected from both sampling locations is the result of an accidental release over Europe, apparently originated in Russia, a few days before the sampling took place. The vertical profile of the radionuclides obtained from the core sample analysis indicated a disturbance in the first 7 cm of soil, while at greater depth the concentrations for all radionuclides were as expected. Lead-210 activity was higher than that of Radium–226, showing a disruption in the radioactive equilibrium, as expected. The analysis of the size-fractionated samples showed a higher activity concentration of Lead–210 and Cesium–137 in the finer fractions. The radioactive equilibrium between Thorium–234, Radium–226, and Lead–210 was found to be significantly disturbed in all size fractions.
... The maximum radiation concentration of 226Ra in the soil is recorded at 13,000 Bq/kg, while for water, it is 130 Bq/L. The temperature measurement of the spring was recorded at 45 • C, which closely aligns with the temperature (46 • C) reported by Beitollahi et al. [34]. Polyphasic taxonomy analyses revealed that three promising isolates were categorized as aerobic, Gram-positive, and spore-forming bacteria. ...
The increasing worldwide demand for antimicrobial agents has significantly contributed to the alarming rise of antimicrobial resistance, posing a grave threat to human life. Consequently, there is a pressing need to explore uncharted environments, seeking out novel antimicrobial compounds that display exceptionally efficient capabilities. Hot springs harbor microorganisms possessing remarkable properties, rendering them an invaluable resource for uncovering groundbreaking antimicrobial compounds. In this study, thermophilic bacteria were isolated from Mahallat Hot Spring, Iran. Out of the 30 isolates examined, 3 strains exhibited the most significant antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, the supernatants of the isolated strains exhibited remarkable antibacterial activity, displaying notable resistance to temperatures as high as 75 °C for 30 min. It was determined that the two strains showed high similarity to the Bacillus genus, while strain Kh3 was classified as Saccharomonospora azurea. All three strains exhibited tolerance to NaCl. Bacillus strains demonstrated optimal growth at pH 5 and 40 °C, whereas S. azurea exhibited optimal growth at pH 9 and 45 °C. Accordingly, hot springs present promising natural reservoirs for the isolation of resilient strains possessing antibacterial properties, which can be utilized in disease treatment or within the food industry.
... Natural spas can also be a source of hazards including bacteria (Ghilamicael et al., 2018;Kirschner et al., 2012), cyanobacteria (Mohamed, 2008), and amoebic parasites like Naegleria fowleri that can cause encephalitis (Camur et al., 2016). Radioactivity in groundwater can be above the acceptable limits for human health (Beitollahi et al., 2007;El-Mageed et al., 2013;Rentería-Villalobos et al., 2017). However, radioactive oases have been used for centuries for health benefits (Akyuz et al., 2010), perhaps through a process known as radiation hormesis, where moderate exposure may activate the repair mechanisms that defend against disease (Ajlouni, 2013). ...
An 'oasis' signifies a refugium of safety, recovery, relaxation, fertility, and productivity in an inhospitable desert, a sweet spot in a barren landscape where life-giving water spills forth from the Earth. Remarkable mythological congruencies exist across dryland cultures worldwide where oases or 'arid-land springs' occur. In many places they also provide specialised habitats for a remarkable array of endemic organisms. To inform their management, and maintain their integrity, it is essential to understand the hydrogeology of aquifers and springs. Gravity-fed vs artesian aquifers; actively recharged vs fossil aquifers, and sources of geothermal activity are important concepts presented here. There are salient examples of the consequences for oases of sustainable and unsustainable groundwater extraction, and other examples of conservation management. Oases are archetypes for human consciousness, habitats that deserve protection and conservation, and a lingua franca for multicultural values and scientific exchange. We represent an international Fellowship of the Springs (FoS) to encompass and facilitate the stewardship of oases and aquifers through improved knowledge, outreach, and governance.
... Also, Beitollahi et al. in their research on measurements in hot spring baths in Iran found out that hot springs in Abegarm-e-Mahallat are responsible for the elevated concentrations of radionuclides (especially 226Ra) in the region (Beitollahi et al., 2007). And, in their research, Shafiepour et al., have been focused to survey the concentration of pollutants in two important museums in Iran and consequently, the data produced by mathematical models were compared with real measured data. ...
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a significant concern that affects comfort and health. It is well understood that hospitals are thermal environments in which comfort must be calibrated. This comparative study examined existing international standards of IAQ in Iranian healthcare facilities. A systematic review of studies on IAQ standards was conducted to test the hypothesis regarding which parameters, and at what level, can have an impact on hospital IAQ: EPA, ASHRAE, LEED, BREEAM, NIOSH, OSHA, WHO, ACGIH, Canadian, and OEL. The inclusion criteria were met by 34 of the 1886 studies that were screened from 2010-2021. The findings of the selected studies were classified into four categories for analysis: monitoring of IAQ according to standards (n=34), IAQ in healthcare facilities (n=1), impact of air pollution on human health (n=9), and interventions to improve IAQ (n=1). Based on these IAQ standards, the acceptable limit for CO2 6300 *10³ μg/m³, for CO 9000 μg/m³, for Formaldehyde 19 μg/m³, for NO2 37 μg/m³, for O3 98 μg/m³, for PM2.5 0.1 μg/m³, for PM10 10 μg/m, and for SO2 31 μg/m³ was suggested. The majority of studies conducted monitoring of pollutants in indoor environments used for homes and schools, with the majority of them relying on WHO IAQ standards. CO, PM, and NO2 concentrations have been the most studied and have the longest track record of research. The acceptable limit for IAQ parameters was proposed.
... Radon-rich waters are under extensive investigation due to their diversity in terms of chemistry, isotope systematics, age, and aquifer settings (Duenas et al., 1998;Horvath et al., 2000;Bohm, 2002;Bertolo and Bigliotto, 2004;Beitollahi et al., 2007;Gurler et al., 2010;Song et al., 2011;Roba et al., 2012;Nikolov et al., 2012;Atkins et al., 2016;Mittal et al., 2016;Seminsky et al., 2017;Abu-Khader et al., 2018;Telahigue et al., 2018;Poojitha et al., 2020 et al.). Radon ( 222 Rn) is a radioactive inert gas, a progeny of 238 U. ...
... Beitollahi, et al., performed dosimeter studies in Mahallat hot springs, in central province, Iran. They reported that average concentration of radon-222 was in the range of 145 -2731 Bql -1 (8) . Hashemi, et al., in a study on Jooshan hot spring obtained an amount of 0.063±0.003 ...
... Mean radon concentrations in air were 487+/−160 and 15.4+/−2.7 Bq m −3 for indoor and outdoor, respectively. Radiation levels above normal (approximately 100 nGy h −1 ) were mainly limited to the Quaternary travertine formations in the vicinity of the hot springs (Beitollahi et al., 2007). ...
... Radon waters have been under investigation for many decades [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. The studies of the mechanisms responsible for the formation of the chemical composition of water are carried out; in particular, attention is paid to the microelemental composition. ...
... The other studied area, Mahallat, is located at 34°00'N 50°33'E, with an average altitude of 1860 m a.s.l. (Beitollahi et al. 2007). Water samples were collected via the method of Dadheech et al. (2013) for culturing cyanobacteria. ...
There are several places in the world where the level of natural radiation is unusually high, such as some regions of Ramsar and Abegarm-e-Mahallat in Iran. Such places are still insufficiently explored in terms of their biodiversity. In this study, strains isolated from six geothermal springs with elevated natural radiation were investigated. The highest concentration of 226 Ra were 13,000 Bq.kg-1 in the soil and 130 Bq.l-1 in water respectively. The morphological and molecular analyses revealed, that the strains are not classifiable to any existing taxon. Therefore, they are described as new taxa for science. Based on results of our study, two earlier described species are transferred into newly established genus.
... The other studied area, Mahallat, is located at 34°00′ N 50°33′ E, with an average altitude of 1860 m a.s.l. (Beitollahi et al. 2007). Water samples were collected using the method of Dadheech et al. (2013) for culturing microalgae. ...
In this study, 26 Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta microalgae were isolated from high-background radiation areas in Iran. Among them, one green alga showed the highest radionuclide sorption capacity. This uranium- and radium-resistant microalga belongs to the genus Graesiella, and based on its morphological and molecular characteristics, it was identified as Graesiella emersonii Shihira and R.W. Krauss. The sample was isolated from the Ab-e-Siah hot spring in Ramsar (a city in northern Iran) with a ²²⁶Ra content of 130 Bq L⁻¹. This strain exhibited maximum sorption capacities of 69 kBq g⁻¹ of ²²⁶Ra and 530 mg g⁻¹ of ²³⁸U. The optimum conditions for removal of the radionuclides were determined, and the results showed that the pH and initial cell concentration significantly affected radionuclide sorption. Furthermore, the experimental data were well-fitted to the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic models. FT-IR spectra and SEM analyses showed the mechanisms of the sorption process. The results of the present study indicated that the green alga G. emersonii, can serve as an appropriate candidate for designing an efficient sorption system for an area contaminated by ²²⁶Ra and ²³⁸U radionuclides.
... The radon-rich or radon-bearing hot springs are characterized by the largest radon concentrations (.80 Bq l 21 ) and a wide range of radium concentrations (3-1500 mBq l 21 ). These spring waters include the particular hot springs of the Misasa, Masutomi and Arima provinces in Japan (Nakai 1940), and some hot springs of Spain (Ródenas et al. 2008), Hungary (Baradács et al. 2001;Eró´ss et al. 2012) and Iran (Beitollahi et al. 2007). The radium-rich hot springs show the largest radium concentrations (.200 mBq l 21 ) for relatively moderate radon concentrations (0.4-100 Bq l 21 ). ...
A total of 2143 dissolved radon-222 and radium-226 activity concentrations measured
together in water samples was compiled from the literature. To date, the use of such a large database
is the first attempt to establish a relationship for the 226Ra–222Rn couple. Over the whole dataset,
radon and radium concentrations range over more than nine and six orders of magnitude,
respectively. Geometric means yield 9.82+0.73 Bq l21 for radon and 54.6+2.7 mBq l21 for
radium. Only a few waters are in 226Ra–222Rn radioactive equilibrium, with most of them being
far from equilibrium; the geometric mean of the radium concentration in water/radon concentration
in water (CRa/CRn) ratio is estimated to be 0.0056+0.0004. Significant differences in radon
and radium concentrations are observed between groundwaters and surface waters, on the one
hand, and between hot springs and cold springs, on the other. Within water types, typical ranges
of radon and radium concentrations can be associated with subgroups of waters. While the radium
concentration characterizes the geochemistry of the groundwater–rock interaction, the radon concentration,
in most cases, is a signal of non-mobile radium embedded in the encasing rocks. Thus,
the 226Ra–222Rn couple can be a useful tool for the characterization of water and for the identification
of water source rocks, shedding light on the various water–rock interaction processes taking
place in the environment.
... In Mahallat region, there are four hot springs, known as Shafa, Soleymani, Donbe, and Souda, visited by people every year, with a total yield of 35.5 l/s and temperature of 18.2-47.3°C [17]. Hot spring regions show high levels of radioactivity, and the hot water is used for hydrotherapy by tourists and for irrigation by farmers; therefore, study of this region in terms of radionuclide distribution is essential. ...
Abstract
Introduction
Natural and artificial radionuclides are the main sources of human radiation exposure. These radionuclides, which are present in the environment, can be dissolved into water. Evidence suggests that radionuclides being entered the human body through drinking or hot spring water can be harmful for human health.
Materials and Methods
In this study, 10 samples were collected from ground water resources of Arak, one sample from the surface water of Kamal-Saleh Dam, and four samples from the hot springs of Mahallat region. The specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs were determined in the samples, using gamma ray spectrometry and a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector.
Results
Specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs were determined in the water samples. The mean 226Ra activity concentrations in drinking water samples from Aman Abad, Mobarak Abad, and Taramazd wells were 7.65±1.64, 1.56±1.04, and 1.45±1.39 Bq/l, while the corresponding values for 232Th were 2.70±0.18, 0.41±0.16, and 1.27±0.44 Bq/l, respectively. The annual effective dose due to drinking water varied from 0.01 to 0.78 mSv/y. Moreover, the specific activity of 226Ra in the water samples from the orifice of Donbe, Shafa, Soleymani, and Souda hot springs varied from 0.47±0.16 to 1.90±0.21.
Conclusion
The calculated annual effective dose due to water consumption by Iranians was within the average annual global range. Therefore, based on the present results, radionuclide intake due to water consumption had no consequences for public health; however, it is recommended that hot spring baths use air conditioning devices.
... Some of the purposes of these studies are tourism and environmental studies, determination of resources, monitoring the sources of water, exploring geothermal resources, tectonic and geostructural analysis, exploration of minerals and volcanic activities, etc. [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Furthermore, studying dissolved gasses and dissolved radioactive ions in groundwater such as Rn, U, and Th has received attention in many hydrochemical studies of thermal springs [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. ...
Gano thermal spring is a karst spring located in the Zagros zone in southern Iran. Samples were collected in different seasons from this spring water. In addition to physicochemical factors, major and minor ions and dissolved radon concentration were measured at the sampling site using a RAD7 detector. The annual average temperature and electrical conductivity (EC) of Gano water spring is 41.2ºC and 17,417.5 μs/cm. The pH is in the neutral range and average TDS is 10,442.5 mg/l. The water type is Na-Cl. High Concentrations of Na, Cl, and SO4 ions probably result from the Hormoz Series salt domes and the dissolution of halite, gypsum, and anhydrite. The Ca/Mg ratio in spring water indicates that the reservoir rocks are dolomitic limestone. Concentrations of elements such as Ag, Hg, Cd, Sn, Pb, Cr, Co, and Bi in Gano water varies from less than 0.5 to 1 μg/l. The mean concentration of ²²²Rn in Gano water is 29.2 kBq/m³, so Gano is not a radon mineral spring. Mean annual effective²²²Rn doses for inhalation from the waters of Gano spring was computed to be 0.002 μSvy⁻¹, which is less than the reference level recommended by WHO.
... The amount of indoor radon depends on its concentration in underground w volume and aeration as well as the eventual wate processing during water circuit and usage points (Ferreira, 2009). Radon generation depends on ge logic features (rocks composition and fractures) which are related with local and regional tectonics structures (fractures systems) (Beitollahi et al., 2007), soil porosity and moisture. These fractures systems allow the vertical migration of radon the increasing of soil permeability. ...
... HCO 3 determination was made by using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators titrated with 0.1 N HCl solutions (Bolca et al. 2007;Tabar et al. 2013 (Planinic et al. 1996), Denizli/Turkey (Erees et al. 2006), Hungary (Nagy et al. 2009), Bursa/ Turkey (Gurler et al. 2010), India (Chaudhuri et al. 2010), Northwestern Romania (Roba et al. 2012), Seferihisar/ Turkey (Tabar et al. 2013). Beitollahi et al. (2007) clarified that the higher radon levels (145-2731 Bq/l) in Iran hot springs are derived from travertine deposits (CaCO 3 ). In another study performed with waters from Etna Montain (Italy), while radon concentration vary from 1.4 to 12.7 Bq/l, radium concentrations found up to 12.0 Bq/l (Kozlowska et al. 2009). ...
The radioactivity levels (222Rn and 226Ra) and physico-chemical properties of geothermal waters from two spas of Bayındır are investigated. Radon and radium measurements were made with collector chamber method. The radon concentrations range from 3.0 to 13.3 Bq/l, whereas the radium varies from 0.35 to 1.71 Bq/l. It has been observed that radon levels increase in winter and decrease in summer. The 222Rn/226Ra ratio was found to range from 4.91 to 30.53. Physico-chemical properties of water samples were also analysed. Water samples have considerably stable total dissolved solids values, slight acidity, low electrical conductivity, and temperature (42–48 °C).
... Lesser priority has been given to this subject in developing countries, although some sporadic work have been reported 6,7,8,9,10,11) , mostly for specific sites with high natural background radiation 12) . ...
Although many researchers have focused their attention to man made sources, but natural sources constitute more than 85% of human exposure to ionizing radiation. Due to the significance of natural sources, comprehensive studies have been carried out in developed countries. In Iran like many other developing countries, this subject has not been considered as a research priority. Until 1990 only Ramsar located in the south coast of Caspian sea had attracted attention of some researchers. In 1996 preparation of out-door natural radiation map of Iran was defined as a long term goal in my center. Since then environmental gamma radiation dose rate of residential area of 10 counties have been estimated. In this article only annual dose rates of Khorasan are reported.
... Studying on dissolved gases and dissolved radioactive ions in groundwater such as Rn, U and Th has received attention in many hydrochemical studies of springs due to many reasons such as the relationship between groundwater resources and thermal springs with faults, volcanic areas, origination of water from great depth and also the environmental effects of such substances [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. ...
Physicochemical factors, major and some minor ions and 222Rn concentration was measured in Todruyeh, Fotuyeh and Sanguyeh thermal balneutherapy springs in Bastak, south of Iran. Water type of these springs is Na–Cl and water-mixing phenomena seem possible in them. The average of U concentration in Fatuyeh’s, Sanguyeh’s and Todruyeh’s water are 2.2, 1.1, 0.306 ppb, respectively, and the concentration of heavy metals such as Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn varies from 1 to 10 ppb. The concentration of 222Rn in the water of Fotuyeh, Sanguyeh and Todruyeh Springs includes 125–253, 53–104, and 7.4–134.7 kBq/m3, respectively. Values of mean annual effective doses for inhalation from these waters are below the reference level recommended by WHO.
... Ramsar ( Figure 1) is reputed to have the highest background radiation level among the residential areas in the world [1,2]. The high background radiation level is caused by radon exhalations from hot springs and travertine deposits including radionuclides from the spring water [3]. The maximum and average annual effective doses of Ramsar inhabitants are 260 and 10.2 mSv, respectively [1], while the average effective doses humans receive elsewhere on the planet from natural background radiation is about 2.4 mSv per year [4]. ...
Although the average effective human dose from natural background radiation is about 2.4 mSv per year, the students of the Saeid Nafisi school in Ramsar received effective doses of about 250 mSv while studying there for over 5 years. The goal of this project was a retrospective study of the health status of former students of this school and their offspring. The list of the students of the Saeid Nafisi school (high background radiation) and Taleghani and Kashani schools (ordinary background radiation) was provided by the Department of Education. After matching sex, age and socioeconomic level and obtaining their consent, part 1 of the specifically designed questionnaire was filled out by interview, and clinical examinations were recorded in part 2 of the questionnaire by a physician. The data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 16. Our study shows that 88.1 % of general examinations of high background radiation school students were normal as compared with 85.7 % for control group. There were no significant differences. This study is interesting and unique. It reveals that there is no health emergency related to these high radiation doses. We recommend continuing the health supervision of this population in the future.
... However, as the population living in radon-prone areas are limited to a very low percentage of the total population, these data should be reviewed after conducting long-term studies. On the other hand, the mean indoor concentration of radon in air is about 480 Bq/m 3 in the hot springs of Mahallat in central Iran (Beitollahi et al., 2007). Owing to the relatively high concentrations of indoor radon in these areas, ventilation of spring baths is highly recommended by the experts to reduce risk. ...
Radon is believed to be an important risk factor for lung cancer. Radon levels in some regions of Ramsar, a city in northern Iran, are up to 3700 Bq/m3. On the other hand, in the hot springs of Mahallat, in the central part of Iran, the indoor mean radon concentration in air is as high as 480 Bq/m3. In order to develop an economical radon-resistant construction technique, the radon-reducing properties of zeolite and bentonite minerals have been investigated. It was found that zeolite and bentonite both significantly decrease the indoor radon level. The efficiency of zeolite in radon reduction is significantly greater than that of bentonite. As both zeolite and bentonite can be found in many parts of Iran, these mineral sorbents can be used in national remedial action programmes.
We present the first results of comprehensive isotope-geochemical studies of mineral radon waters of the Tulinskoe field (Novosibirsk), aimed at identifying their stages of interaction with the host rocks. By geochemical coefficients Ca/Na, Ca/Mg, Ca/Si, Mg/Si, Na/Si, Si/Na, rNa/rCl, and SO4/Cl, the studied waters are assigned to fracture–vein waters of granitoids. The indices of carbonate mineral saturation of the radon waters show their oversaturation with aragonite, calcite, and dolomite. The waters are also saturated with diaspore, ferrohydrite, gibbsite, and kaolinite, which leads to the deposition of these minerals as secondary phases. In the thermodynamic diagrams, the points of the activities of the radon water components are localized mainly in the stability fields of clay minerals (kaolinite and Na-, Ca-, and Mg-montmorillonites), layered silicates (talc), and zeolites (laumontite). A few points fall in the stability field of silicates (Mg-chlorite). The studied waters of the Tulinskoe field are neutral fresh, with Si = 6.41–9.02 mg/dm3. According to the results of thermodynamic calculations, the radon waters of the Tulinskoe field are in equilibrium with carbonate minerals and hydromicas. Following the classification by S.L. Shvartsev, they are assigned to the Si-Na geochemical type.
Therapeutic use of spring waters has a recorded history dating back to at least 1550 BC and includes both bathing in and drinking such waters for their healing properties.
When the empty spaces (pore spaces) in shallow subsurface rocks and fractures become saturated with water, aquifers or subsurface water reservoirs are formed underground. These water-saturated subsurface regions can extend very large distances and travel through the rocks using connected pore spaces.
In this research, the Biblical verses dealing with the spring waters are described. Therefore, the research deals with the history, the characteristics of water, the chemical composition, a bacterial, viral, and fungal diversity in various springs worldwide, the various health effects, the adverse reactions related to the spring waters, and the management of adverse effects.
In the recent years, the diagnostic possibilities have been validated through scientific research and have shown medicinal value in the diagnostics and the management of conditions associated with the spring waters.
This research has shown that the awareness of the spring waters has accompanied human during the long years of our existence.
Актуальность исследования заключается в получении актуальных изотопно-геохимических данных о природных водах и вмещающих горных породах проявления радоновых вод Седова Заимка. Цель: изучить особенности химического состава природных вод и водовмещающих пород и получить первые сведения по активности 222Rn и изотопному составу δD, δ18O, δ13С, 234U, 238U, 226Ra и 228Ra. Методы. Лабораторное изучение химического состава методами титриметрии, ионной хроматографии, масс-спектрометрии с индуктивно связанной плазмой проводилось в ПНИЛ гидрогеохимии ИШПР ТПУ. Определение комплекса величин δD, δ18O, δ13СDIC вод и растворенного неорганического углерода (Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC)) проводилось в центре коллективного пользования ИГМ СО РАН с помощью прибора Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer FinniganTM MAT 253, снабженного приставками пробоподготовки H/Device (для определений δD) и GasBench II (для определений δ18O и δ13СDIC). Измерение содержаний 222Rn в водах проводилось на комплексе «Альфарад плюс» в лаборатории гидрогеологии осадочных бассейнов Сибири ИНГГ СО РАН. Данные по общей β-активности вод, а также активностях 234U, 238U, 226Ra и 228Ra получены после предварительной радиохимической пробоподготовки на альфа-спектрометре ALPHA-ENSEMBLE-8 (Ametek, ORTEC, США); гамма-спектрометрической системе, скомпонованной на базе колодезного коаксиального HPGe ППД с низкофоновым криостатом EGPC 192-P21/SHF 00-30A-CLF-FA фирмы EURISYS MEASURES (Франция) и альфа-бета радиометре для измерения малых активностей УМФ-2000 с кремниевым детектором (НПО «Доза», Россия). Разделение данных на однородные геохимические совокупности выполнено с помощью коэффициентов Са/Na, Са/Mg, Ca/Si, Mg/Si, Na/Si. Для выявления степени концентрирования химических элементов в природных водах были рассчитаны коэффициенты концентрации и водной миграции (по А.И. Перельману) . Результаты. Открыто проявление радоновых вод Седова Заимка, и впервые выполнены комплексные изотопно-геохимические исследования. Радоновые воды (активность 222Rn до 428 Бк/дм3) в основном характеризуются HCO3 Mg-Na-Ca составом с величиной общей минерализации от 158 до 581 мг/дм3 и содержанием кремния от 4,34 до 30,84 мг/дм3. Геохимические параметры среды варьируют от восстановительной до окислительной обстановки с величинами Eh от –40,2 до +28,4 мВ; pH от 7,5 до 7,6 и O2раств. от 2,99 до 5,24 мг/дм3. Значения геохимических коэффициентов составляют: Ca/Na 77,17; Ca/Mg 6,63; Ca/Si 11,42; Mg/Si 1,48; Na/Si 0,92; Si/Na 15,34; rNa/rCl 2,12; SO4/Cl 4,02, что закономерно указывает на процессы формирования химического состава радоновых вод во вмещающих породах преимущественно алюмосиликатного состава. Среди микрокомпонентов наиболее высокими средними содержаниями выделяются (мг/дм3): Si=17,77; Fe=1,18; Mn=0,16; Zn=0,020 и W=0,0036. Значимых коэффициентов концентрации микрокомпонентов не выявлено. Сильной миграционной способностью в растворе обладает Sr, средней – Si, Mn, Ba, Cs и U. Суммарная β-активность вод составляет 32 мБк/дм3. Содержания природных радионуклидов варьируют (мг/дм3): 238U от 3,91∙10–4 до 6,39∙10–4; 232Th от 6,02∙10–6 до 2,37∙10–5 и 226Ra от 6,66∙10–11 до 1,09∙10–10. 232Th/238U отношение в водах изменяется от 1,02∙10–2 до 3,71∙10–2, что является следствием окислительной геохимической обстановки, в которой торий не мигрирует. Уранизотопное отношение (γ) 234U/238U составляет 5,75 при активности изотопов урана (мБк/дм3): 234U (115±7), 238U (20±2), что указывает на неглубокую циркуляцию изученных вод. Активность изотопов радия в водах равна у 226Ra 70±7, а у 228Ra 51,8±3,9 мБк/дм3. Отношение 226Ra/228Ra в HCO3 Mg-Na-Ca радоновых водах составляет 1,35. Изотопный состав радоновых вод (от –126,3 до –121,1 ‰ для δD и от –16,8 до –16,3 ‰ для δ18O) указывает на их метеорно-инфильтрационное происхождение. Изотопный состав углерода δ13CDIC указывает на биогенное происхождение углекислоты и ее участие в процессе карбонат-силикатного выветривания пород.
This study investigated the concentration of radon (222Rn) in hot springs water. For this purpose, 222Rn concentration was measured using the RAD7 (Durridge Company, USA) in the water of hot springs located in Tata Pani, Gilgit (n = 4), and Garam Chashma, Chitral (n = 6), northern Pakistan. Water samples from the springs (background, n = 3) were also collected and analyzed for 222Rn concentration 40-50 km away from the hot springs in Gilgit and Chitral, northern Pakistan, to be used as background/reference concentration. The determined 222Rn in hot springs water surpassed the threshold of maximum contamination level (MCL, 11.1 Bq/L) set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) in 100% samples collected from Tata Pani, Gilgit, and Garam Chashma, Chitral sites. Soil 222Rn along with the hot springs exhibited a decreasing trend with increasing distance. 222Rn concentration in hot springs water was used to calculate the exposure doses of human health through ingestion and inhalation pathways. The total effective dose for human (EWT) of 222Rn contaminated water consumption was 626 μSv/a in the Tata Pani, Gilgit and 34.7 μSv/a in the Garam Chashma, Chitral. Results revealed that hot springs water in the Tata Pani, Gilgit had surpassed the threshold limit (100 μSv/a) set by the World Health Organization (WHO). This study concluded that hot springs water should be avoided for drinking and other domestic uses.
Results of the investigation of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ²²²Rn content in the natural waters of Novosibirsk city and adjacent territories are presented for the first time. Hydraulic interrelations between the aquifer systems of Quaternary, Neogene and Paleogene sediments, Upper Devonian – Lower Carboniferous sediments and Upper Paleozoic granites predetermined the features of hydrogeological structure. Twenty-five chemical types of water were established, with the domination of HCO3 Mg–Ca, HCO3 Na–Mg–Ca and SO4–HCO3 Na–Mg–Ca. The amount of total dissolved solids varies from 127 to 1848 mg l⁻¹, pH from neutral to alkaline (6.9–9.5). The values of Eh vary from reductive −157 mV (O2dissolved = 0.3 mg l⁻¹) to oxidative +280 mV (O2dissolved = 19.4 mg l⁻¹). Silicon content varies from 0,14 to 11,77 mg l⁻¹. The ranges within which the concentrations of radioactive elements vary in natural waters are: radon (²²²Rn) 0–1216 Bq.l⁻¹, uranium (²³⁸U) 9.75∙10⁻⁸ – 0.098 mg l⁻¹, thorium (²³²Th) 2.2∙10⁻⁷ – 2.1∙10⁻³ and radium (²²⁶Ra) 1.6∙10⁻¹² – 3,5∙10⁻⁷ mg l⁻¹. The maximal content of these elements in the waters of boundary territories reach ²²²Rn – 43,764 Bq.l⁻¹, ²³⁸U–6.5 mg l⁻¹ and ²²⁶Ra – 3.7∙10⁻⁷ mg l⁻¹. The ²³²Th/²³⁸U ratio is 4.20∙10⁻⁵ – 2.96. The concentrations of uranium and thorium in the geological objects of Novosibirsk vary within the ranges (mg.kg⁻¹): ²³⁸U = 1.6–3.6 and ²³²Th = 5.55–13.6 for sedimentary rocks, and ²³⁸U = 0.2–47.2 and ²³²Th = 0.8–44.1 in intrusive formations. It is established that waters with high radon content relate to the aquiferous zones of Upper Devonian - Lower Carboniferous shale rocks and hornfels, as well as Upper Paleozoic granites. The highest concentrations of radionuclides are characteristic of the aqueous scattering halos of the uranium ore deposit.
Актуальность исследования состоит в получении новых сведений о гидрогеологии и гидрогеохимии слабоизученных месторождений радоновых вод города Новосибирска на юге Западной Сибири. Новосибирск относится к числу тех немногих городов России, которые были заложены на гранитах – источнике эманации радона (222Rn). В геологическом отношении изучаемая территория приурочена к внутренней области крупного Новосибирского гранитоидного массива. Научных обобщений имеющегося фактического материала не проводилось. Цель: выявление особенностей гидрогеологического строения и гидрогеохимии месторождения радоновых вод «Каменское», изучение форм миграции химических элементов в водах и оценка степени их насыщения относительно ряда карбонатных, сульфатных и силикатных минералов. Методы. Отбор проб выполнялся в соответствии с общепринятыми методиками. Обобщение и анализ гидрогеохимических данных проводилось с применением программных средств Microsoft Excel, STATISTICA, SURFER, Grid Master. В среде программных комплексов Visual Minteq и WATEQ4f выполнены физико-химические расчеты форм миграции химических элементов в радоновых водах и степени их насыщения к ряду породообразующих минералов. Результаты: В гидрогеологическом разрезе месторождения радоновых вод «Каменское» геологоразведочными работами установлено два водоносных комплекса (сверху вниз): поровых вод четвертичных отложений и трещинно-жильных вод верхнепалеозойских гранитов. В условиях Центрального района города Новосибирска, где почти вся площадь поверхности покрыта асфальтом и занята под сооружения и инфильтрация атмосферных осадков осложнена, естественный режим питания подземных вод нарушен. Порово-пластовые воды четвертичных отложений, воды зоны региональной трещиноватости и трещинно-жильные воды верхнепалеозойских гранитов находятся в единой области смешения, на которую оказывают влияние процессы подтопления и антропогенного загрязнения. В этой связи в водоносном комплексе верхнепалеозойских гранитов выделяется две гидрогеохимической зоны: верхняя – воды зоны региональной трещиноватости в зоне подтопления в условиях антропогенного воздействия, и нижняя – трещинно-жильные минеральные радоновые воды. Минеральные радоновые трещинно-жильные воды гранитов, не подверженные антропогенному влиянию установлены в скв. 4п (интервал 73–74 м) и в скв. 16 на глубинах от 73 до 128 м. Они холодные собственно пресные HCO3 Na-Ca и HCO3 Na-Mg-Ca состава с величиной общей минерализации от 613,4 до 689,9 мг/дм3 с содержанием кремния 10,3–13,6 мг/дм3. Они характеризуются рН от нейтральных до слабощелочных (6,9–7,8), кислородно-азотным составом водорастворенных газов. Установленная активность 222Rn варьирует в диапазоне 1101–1570 Бк/дм3 (сильно радоновые воды по классификации Н.И. Толстихина); содержания: 238U от 5,6∙10–3 до 6,5∙10–3 мг/дм3 и 226Ra от 2,7∙10–9 до 1,8∙10–8 мг/дм3. С ростом общей минерализации радоновых вод доля простых катионных форм Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, Sr2+, Ba2+ в растворе уменьшается, это связано с образованием труднорастворимых карбонатных и сульфатных соединений. В радоновых водах формы Fe(II) представлены в виде Fe2+, FeHCO3+, FeCO30. Fe(III) мигрирует в форме положительно заряженных гидроксокомплексов Fe(OH)2+ и нейтральных Fe(OH)30. Среди форм миграции марганца доминирует простой катион Mn2+ (43,71–99,99 %), остальные формы представлены MnHCO3+ (9,89–28,27 %), MnCO30 (0,01–37,39), еще в меньшей степени MnSO40 (0,20–2,25 %), MnCl+ (0,04–1,12 %) и MnOH+ (0,01–0,05 %). Химические формы миграции тяжелых металлов (никеля и меди) представлены в виде свободных катионов (Ni2+, Cu2+), гидрокарбонатных (NiHCO3–, CuHCO3–) и карбонатных (NiCO30, CuCO30) комплексов. Медь также мигрирует в нейтральной форме Cu(OH)20. Бериллий (1 класс опасности) мигрирует в форме гидроксокомплекса Be(OH)2. Установленные особенности геохимических типов вод, долевого распределения форм и коэффициентов водной миграции химических элементов выявили усложнение состава равновесных минералов от сидерита, ферригидрита и гриналита в поверхностных водах до их насыщения кальцитом, доломитом, магнезитом, родохрозитом и тальком в трещинно-жильных водах верхнепалеозойских гранитов. Формы миграции химических элементов обуславливают механизмы растворения/осаждения минеральных соединений.
Abstract
Background: Amount of natural background ionizing radiations in environment depends on kind of soil, stones and geographical conditions. Hot springs of Mahallat facilities are annually visited by many tourists. Determination of environmental radioactivity and excess lifetime cancer risk is very important.
Materials and Methods: In this research, twenty four samples of igneous and travertine rocks from a region (300 hectares) and four water samples of Mahallat hot springs were collected. The specific activities of radionuclides were determined for all samples by using gamma ray spectrometry method and employing high purity germanium detector with 30% relative efficiency.
Results: External and internal hazard indices for igneous rocks, water and two travertine samples varied from 0.00 to 0.71 and for two another travertine samples obtained from 8.17 to 22.50. The average of annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) was determined as 0.36 and 0.20 mSv/y and also the average of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was calculated as 0.23 × 10-3 and 0.12×10-3 for igneous and travertine rocks, respectively. Maximum acceptable value and world wide average of ELCR are 10-3 and 0.29×10-3, respectively.
Conclusion: The results of this research show that the hazard indices and ELCR for magma region are less than unity and world wide average respectively. Therefore; there is no consequence for people health. So, the radioactivity only around the orifice of hot springs where radium compositions are deposited, is more than maximum acceptable value.
Natural radioactivity in Khao-Than hot spring area, Surat Thani Province, Thailand was investigated. Gamma dose survey indicated a possible high radiation risk for this area. Rock, soil and hot spring mud samples were collected and analysed by a low background gamma spectrometer. The activity concentrations of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K in samples were 151-139 092 (mean = 13 794), 12-596 (127), 24-616 (215) Bq kg(-1), respectively. X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that quartz and calcite (CaCO3) are the main constituents in mud samples with varying contents. In conclusion, this study area was reasonably classified as a high natural background radiation area. The source of radium in this area is supposed to be related to the fault fluids enriched in radium that precipitated with calcium in the carbonate terrain and partly absorbed by high cation exchange capacity clays.
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The main sources of radiation exposure of all living organisms including humans are natural. In fact, radon and its decay products are the cause of 50% of the total dose that is derived from natural sources. Because of the significant health hazards of radon gas, its levels are widely monitored throughout the world. Accordingly, considerable researches have also been carried out in Iran.
The aim of this research is a systematic review of the most recent studies associated with evaluation of radon gas levels in Iran. The main emphasis of this study was on public exposure to radon gas.
The most important route of exposure to such radiation is indoor places. In this investigation measurement of radon in water resources, tap water, indoor places and exhalation of radon from building material, the major sources of indoor radon gas emission, were considered.
Significantly high levels of radon gas were found mostly in water and residenvial buildings.
It conclusion with regard to the study of building materials, granite stone and adobe coverings cannot be recommended for construction purposes.
Geothermal waters contain, among other components, soluble radon gas. Alpha radioactive radon is a health hazard to humans, especially when it gets into the respiratory tract. SPA facilities that use geothermal water can be a source of an increased radiation dose to people who stay there. Based on the available literature concerning radon concentrations, we assessed exposure to radon among people - workers and visitors of Spa centers that use geothermal waters.
Radon concentrations were analyzed in 17 geothermal centers: in Greece (3 centers), Iran (5), China (4) and India (5). Doses recived by people in the SPA were estimated using the formula that 1 hour exposure to 1 Bq/m3 of radon concentration and equilibrium factor F = 0.4 corresponds to an effective dose of 3.2 nSv.
We have found that radon levels in SPAs are from a few to several times higher than those in confined spaces, where geothermal waters are not used (e.g., residential buildings). In 82% of the analyzed SPAs, workers may receive doses above 1 mSv/year. According to the relevant Polish regulations, people receiving doses higher than 1 mSv/year are included in category B of radiation exposure and require regular dosimetric monitoring. Doses received by SPA visitors are much lower because the time of their exposure to radon released from geothermal water is rather short.
The analysis of radon concentration in SPA facilities shows that the radiological protection of people working with geothermal waters plays an important role. It seems reasonable to include SPA workers staying close to geotermal waters into a dosimetric monitoring program.
Measurement of background radiation is very important from different points of view especially to human health. In some cases
exposure rate near hot springs are higher than those of normal areas. The high background radiation of hot springs is primarily
due to the presence of very high amounts of Ra-226 and its decay products. The aim of this paper was to measure environmental
gamma radiation of 19 hot springs in Kerman province with RDS-110 surveymeter and sensitive organs dose rates were calculated.
Measurements were carried out at one meter above water level in the vicinity of hot springs. The results indicate that annual
gamma-ray dose rate in the vicinity of 19 hot springs ranged from 0.53±0.23mSv/y to 1.65±0.54 mSv/y. Also the annual bone
marrow and sexual organs dose rates are in ranged from 0.42±0.18 mSv/y to 1.32±0.43 mSv/y and 0.43±0.19 mSv/y to 1.34±0.44
mSv/y, respectively. This study showed that the The doses obtained by our study are significantly below that recommended dose
for all categories of water.
KeywordsGamma Dose Rate-Hot Spring-Environmental Monitoring-Kerman
The Middle East region has reported some endemic diseases which are more prominent than in other parts of the world and in some cases have been seen only in this region. This chapter provides information and addresses various cases from all over the Middle East.
The Middle East is well known for its arid and semi-arid environment with frequent and severe dust- and sand storms. This has affected human health in the southern provinces of Iran like the southwestern Khuzestan Province and the southeastern Sistan and Baluchistan Provinces. Health effects of dust storms in Khuzestan Province include asthma in some cities, especially for people with chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In spite of the fact that dust and sand storms endanger the lives of over 3 million of Khuzestan Province inhabitants, no detailed studies exist on the nature, type, and health effects of wind-blown dust and sand. Also, two main regions in Iraq including Baghdad and Al-Basra are stricken frequently by dust and sand storms, but little attention has been paid to study the health impact of dust and sand storms in Iraq. This section shows health impacts of dust storms in four case studies.
Numerous examples from all over the Middle East are illustrated on element toxicities such as arsenic and fluorine and deficiencies, especially iodine deficiency. This chapter emphasizes health problems resulting from arsenic toxicities in the region and shows cases of the long-existing iodine deficiency disorders in the Middle East.
Several areas from the Middle East face high natural fluoride levels in drinking water. The levels of natural fluoride in drinking water of up to 3 mg l−1 were found in the Negev Desert region in Israel. In some parts of Saudi Arabia like Hail region a strong association is seen between fluoride levels in well water used for drinking and the severity of dental fluorosis. Mecca was also reported to be an area with endemic fluorosis. There are also some cities in Iran where high levels of fluoride in drinking water account for incidence of fluorosis.
The relationship between radon exposure and health effects in the Middle East is also described. Many epidemiological studies have shown a relationship between radon exposure and lung cancer. Case–control studies have also been carried out in Ramsar in northern Iran indicating inverse relationship between residential radon exposure and lung cancer.
Geophagia associated with iron and zinc deficiency, short stature, delayed sexual maturity, hepatosplenomegaly, and delayed bone age is reported from Middle East countries. This includes Shiraz in Iran, parts of Saudi Arabia, and Arab children from Gaza Strip.
The High Natural Background Radiation Area (HNBRA) of Ramsar has been the subject of concern in the last 40 years for a high level of radiation measured in some spots as high as 260 mSv per year. Studies of health status of Ramsar inhabitants did not show significant increase in the frequency of cancer. In this study, some aspects of the immune surveillance in the HNBRA residents of Ramsar were investigated. Our results showed that the CD4+ and CD8+ percentage in residents of HNBRA was higher compared to the Ordinary Natural Background Radiation Area (ONBRA) inhabitants. However, the difference between CD4+ also CD8+ cells count and CD4/CD8 ratio in two areas was not significant statistically. These findings may indicate that the immune systems of these people are adapted but more studies to compare the function of immune systems between two groups become essential.
As part of a national program to determine public exposure to natural radiation, ²²²Rn concentrations were determined in domestic water supplies, including ground and surface waters, in 23 provincial centers using a liquid scintillation counting technique. The minimum and maximum mean concentrations of ²²²Rn in ground water were, respectively, 7.9 {+-} 4.5 kBq mâ»Â³ in Sanandaj and 46.5 {+-} 11.5 kBq mâ»Â³ in Tehran with an overall national mean value of 21 {+-} 8.3 kBq mâ»Â³. The ²²²Rn concentrations in surface waters ranged from less than 1 to 7 kBq mâ»Â³ with a mean value of 3.9 {+-} 1.9 kBq mâ»Â³. The mean concentration of ²²²Rn in tap water in different parts of Tehran is 3.8 {+-} 1.1 kBq mâ»Â³. The results are presented and discussed in this paper.
As part of a national program to determine public exposure to natural radiation, 222Rn concentrations were determined in domestic water supplies, including ground and surface waters, in 23 provincial centers using a liquid scintillation counting technique. The minimum and maximum mean concentrations of 222Rn in ground water were, respectively, 7.9+/-4.5 kBq m(-3) in Sanandaj and 46.5+/-11.5 kBq m(-3) in Tehran with an overall national mean value of 21+/-8.3 kBq m(-3). The 222Rn concentrations in surface waters ranged from less than 1 to 7 kBq m(-3) with a mean value of 3.9+/-1.9 kBq m(-3). The mean concentration of 222Rn in tap water in different parts of Tehran is 3.8+/-1.1 kBq m(-3). The results are presented and discussed in this paper.
High level natural radiation areas with special regard to Ramsar
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Natural radioactivity of soil samples in some high level natural radiation areas of Iran
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