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Food and Nutrition Bulletin, vol. 27, no. 4 © 2006, The United Nations University. 311
Abstract
Background. Nutritional anemia is one of India’s major
public health problems. The prevalence of anemia ranges
from 33% to 89% among pregnant women and is more
than 60% among adolescent girls. Under the anemia pre-
vention and control program of the Government of India,
iron and folic acid tablets are distributed to pregnant
women, but no such program exists for adolescent girls.
Objective. To assess the status of anemia among preg-
nant women and adolescent girls from 16 districts of 11
states of India.
Methods. A two-stage random sampling method was
used to select 30 clusters on the basis of probability pro-
portional to size. Anemia was diagnosed by estimating
the hemoglobin concentration in the blood with the use
of the indirect cyanmethemoglobin method.
Results. The survey data showed that 84.9% of preg-
nant women (n = 6,923) were anemic (hemoglobin
< 110 g/L); 13.1% had severe anemia (hemoglobin < 70
g/L), and 60.1% had moderate anemia (hemoglobin ≥ 70
to 100 g/L). Among adolescent girls (n = 4,337) from 16
districts, the overall prevalence of anemia (defined as
hemoglobin < 120 g/L) was 90.1%, with 7.1% having
severe anemia (hemoglobin < 70 g/L).
Conclusions. Any intervention strategy for this popu-
lation must address not only the problem of iron defi-
ciency, but also deficiencies of other micronutrients, such
as B12 and folic acid and other possible causal factors.
Key words: Adolescent girls, anemia, pregnant
women, prevalence
Introduction
Anemia in pregnant women and adolescent girls has
serious health implications. Severe anemia during
pregnancy significantly contributes to maternal mortal-
ity and morbidity [1, 2]. There is evidence that severe
anemia also increases perinatal morbidity and mortality
by causing intrauterine growth retardation and preterm
delivery [3]. Anemia in adolescent girls affects their
physical work capacity and reproductive physiology
[4]. According to a World Health Organization (WHO)
report [5], the global prevalence of anemia among
pregnant women is 55.9%. In India, the prevalence of
anemia in pregnant women has been reported to be
in the range of 33% to 89% [6–12]. According to the
limited number of studies from India, the prevalence
of anemia in adolescent girls is also fairly high [13,
14]. Anemia results both from nutrition-related causes
and from inflammatory or infectious diseases, as well
as from blood loss. Iron-deficiency anemia resulting
from inadequate intake and low absorption of dietary
iron is the most common form of anemia in India [15,
16]. India launched the National Nutritional Anaemia
Prophylaxis Programme (NNAPP) in 1970. Under the
program, iron and folic acid tablets are distributed to
pregnant women. However, no impact of this program
Prevalence of anemia among pregnant women and
adolescent girls in 16 districts of India
G. S. Toteja, Padam Singh, B. S. Dhillon, and B. N. Saxena
are affiliated with the Indian Council of Medical Research,
New Delhi; F. U. Ahmed is affiliated with Assam Medical
College, Dibrugarh, Assam; Lt. R. P. Singh is affiliated with
A.N. Magadh Medical College, Gaya, Bihar; Balendu Prakash
is affiliated with V.C. P.C. Research Foundation, Dehradun,
Uttranchal; K. Vijayaraghavan is affiliated with the National
Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh; Y. Singh
is affiliated with the Regional Institute of Medical Sciences,
Imphal Manipur; A. Rauf is affiliated with the Government
Medical College, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir; U. C. Sarma
is affiliated with Guwahati Medical College, Guwahati, Assam;
Sanjay Gandhi is affiliated with Grant Medical College, J.J.
Group of Hospitals, Mumbai, Maharashtra; Lalita Behl is affil-
iated with I.G. Medical College, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh;
Krishna Mukherjee is affiliated with M.L.N. Medical College,
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh; S. S. Swami is affiliated with S. P.
Medical College, Bikaner, Rajasthan; Viu Meru is affiliated
with the Directorate of Health Services, Kohima, Nagaland;
Prakash Chandra is affiliated with Nalanda Medical College,
Patna, Bihar; Chandrawati and Uday Mohan are affiliated
with K.G. Medical College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
Please address queries to the corresponding author: G. S.
Toteja, Indian Council of Medical Research, Ansari Nagar,
New Delhi-110029, India; e-mail: gstoteja@yahoo.com.
G. S. Toteja, Padam Singh, B. S. Dhillon, B. N. Saxena, F. U. Ahmed, Lt. R. P. Singh,
Balendu Prakash, K. Vijayaraghavan, Y. Singh, A. Rauf, U. C. Sarma, Sanjay Gandhi,
Lalita Behl, Krishna Mukherjee, S. S. Swami, Viu Meru, Prakash Chandra, Chandrawati,
and Uday Mohan
312
on the prevalence of anemia was observed in an evalu-
ation conducted during 1985–86 [8]. Consequently,
certain modifications were made in the NNAPP to
make it more effective and efficient [14]. The present
paper reports the prevalence of anemia among preg-
nant women and adolescent girls in 16 districts from
11 states of India.
Methods
Sixteen districts were selected for the study: eight from
the northern, six from the eastern and northeastern,
and one each from the southern and western regions of
India. The survey was conducted by two-stage random
sampling, and 30 clusters were selected on the basis
of probability proportional to size, with operational
feasibility kept in view and on the assumptions of an
expected prevalence of 70% among pregnant women,
a confidence level of 95%, a relative margin of error
of 10%, and a design effect of 3 [17]. A total of 495
pregnant women per district (17 per cluster) were
selected at random. Assessment of anemia in unmar-
ried adolescent girls (11 to 18 years old) was carried
out with a sample size of 10 girls per cluster. Informed
consent was obtained in writing from the subjects prior
to the collection of blood samples after explaining the
purpose of the study.* The hemoglobin concentration
in the blood of the pregnant women and adolescent
girls was estimated by the indirect cyanmethemoglobin
method [18, 19]. Hemoglobin concentrations were not
adjusted for altitude, since only two high-altitude loca-
tions were sampled in the study.
Blood (in 20-µl samples) was transferred to What-
man filter paper no. 1 and dried at room temperature.
After the blood had dried, the filter paper was placed
in an envelope and transported to the laboratory. The
portion of the filter paper with blood was placed in 5
ml of Drabkin’s solution and vortexed for 5 minutes.
The solution was allowed to stand for 2 hours, and
the hemoglobin concentration was measured at a
wavelength of 540 nm by a spectrophotometer. The
estimates were performed within 6 days of sample
collection. Blood samples collected on Whatman
filter paper by this method have been reported to be
completely eluted, and the hemoglobin concentration
values simultaneously estimated by the direct and
indirect cyanmethemoglobin methods were in close
agreement [19].
Anemia was assessed according to WHO criteria
[20]. A hemoglobin concentration of less than 110 g/L
in a pregnant woman or less than 120 g/L in an adoles-
cent girl was considered an indication of anemia. In the
case of pregnant women, hemoglobin concentrations
of less than 70, 70 to 100, and 100 to 109 g/L were con-
sidered to indicate severe, moderate, and mild anemia,
respectively. In the case of adolescent girls, hemoglobin
concentrations of less than 70, 70 to 100, and 100 to 119
g/L were considered to indicate severe, moderate, and
mild anemia, respectively.
Results
Prevalence of anemia in pregnant women
The measurements of hemoglobin concentration indi-
cated that the prevalence of anemia among the 6,923
pregnant women from the 16 districts was 84.9%.
The prevalence within districts ranged from 61.0% in
Mandi District to 96.8% in Srinagar District (table 1).
The average prevalence of anemia was 83.0% in the
eight districts from northern India and 86.8% in the
six districts from eastern India. The prevalence rates
in the single districts from southern India (Mehboob
Nagar) and western India (Raigarh) were 92.1% and
87.2%, respectively.
The average prevalence of severe anemia was 13.1%;
the highest prevalence (38.2%) was in Bikaner District
and the lowest (zero) was in Kohima District. The
prevalence of severe anemia was 13.5% in the eight
districts from northern India, 12.1% in the six districts
from eastern India, 12.7% in the single district from
southern India, and 14.8% in the single district from
western India.
The overall prevalence of moderate and mild anemia
in pregnant women was 60.1% and 11.8%, respectively.
The highest prevalence of moderate anemia was found
in Nagaon District (82.7%) and the highest prevalence
of mild anemia (31.0%) in Mandi District (table 1).
The lowest prevalence rates of moderate (28.0%) and
mild (4.7%) anemia were recorded in pregnant women
of Mandi and Gaya Districts, respectively.
Prevalence of anemia in adolescent girls
Table 2 presents the hemoglobin concentrations of
the 4,337 unmarried adolescent girls from the 16 dis-
tricts. The results indicate that 90.1% of the girls were
anemic. The prevalence of anemia ranged from 58.2%
in Dehradun District to 100% in Badaun District. The
average prevalence of anemia was 89.4% in the eight
districts from northern India, 91.4% in the six districts
from eastern India, and 91.8% and 87.0% in the single
districts from southern India (Mehboob Nagar) and
western India (Raigarh), respectively.
The overall prevalence of severe anemia was 7.1%,
with the highest prevalence (24.3%) in Bikaner District.
No severely anemic girls were found in Bishnupur and
Kohima Districts. The average prevalence of severe
*This multicenter study was approved by the Project
Review Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR).
G. S. Toteja et al.
313
anemia was 7.4% in the eight northern districts, 5.7%
in the six eastern districts, 9.2% in the single southern
district, and 11.1% in the single western district.
The overall prevalence rates of moderate and mild
anemia were 50.9% and 32.1%, respectively. Patna
District had the highest prevalence of moderate anemia
(72.2%), and Mandi District had the highest prevalence
of mild anemia (57.9%) (table 2). Dehdradun District
had the lowest prevalence of moderate anemia (27.7%),
and Gaya District had the lowest prevalence of mild
anemia (14.4%).
Discussion
The average prevalence of anemia among pregnant
women from 16 districts of 11 states of India during
the present survey was 84.9%. A previous multicenter
study carried out during 1985–86 in 11 states found an
overall prevalence of anemia of 87.5% among pregnant
women [8]. These prevalence values are essentially
the same as those reported in earlier studies carried
out in India during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s [21,
22]. However, the National Family Health Survey 2
(NFHS-2) conducted during 1998–99 found an overall
prevalence of 49.7% among 5,654 pregnant women
from 25 states [23]. The lower prevalence observed
during the NFHS-2 survey could be due to the use of
the HemoCue method, which gives higher estimates of
hemoglobin concentration than the standard method
[24, 25].
Sari et al. [26], however, reported that the preva-
lence of anemia was significantly higher when hemo-
globin concentrations were estimated by the indirect
cyanmethemoglobin method than when they were
estimated by the direct cyanmethemoglobin and
HemoCue methods. Sari and coworkers suggested that
the higher estimates obtained by the indirect method
may have been due to incomplete dissolution of blood
from the filter paper into Drabkin’s solution. Compari-
son of findings of the prevalence of anemia obtained by
different methods of hemoglobin estimation, therefore,
may not be strictly valid without critical evaluation
of methodologic differences. Although the complete
dissolution of blood from filter paper into Drabkin’s
solution was ensured in the present study, the results
obtained through the use of indirect methods may
not be strictly comparable to results reported from
other studies that used the direct cyanmethemoglobin
method.
Thus, anemia remains endemic among pregnant
women in India despite intervention measures such as
the distribution of 100 Folifer tablets (containing 100
mg of elemental iron and 500 µg of folic acid) to each
TABLE 1. Prevalence of anemia among pregnant women
District
No. of
women
No. (%) with anemia
Total
(Hb < 110 g/L)
Mild
(Hb 100–109 g/L)
Moderate
(Hb 70–100 g/L)
Severe
(Hb < 70 g/L)
North
Mandi 507 309 (61.0) 157 (31.0) 142 (28.0) 10 (2.0)
Dehradun 340 220 (64.7) 43 (12.6) 158 (46.5) 19 (5.6)
Lakhimpur Kheri 593 471 (79.4) 88 (14.8) 325 (54.8) 58 (9.8)
Badaun 488 395 (80.9) 96 (19.7) 283 (58.0) 16 (3.3)
Baramullah 504 460 (91.3) 46 (9.1) 342 (67.9) 72 (14.3)
Bikaner 510 484 (94.9) 34 (6.7) 255 (50.0) 195 (38.2)
Mainpuri 253 243 (96.0) 18 (7.1) 182 (71.9) 43 (17.0)
Srinagar 498 482 (96.8) 26 (5.2) 370 (74.3) 86 (17.3)
East
Kohima 69 47 (68.1) 10 (14.5) 37 (53.6) 0
Bishnupur 508 391 (77.0) 76 (15.0) 313 (61.6) 2 (0.4)
Gaya 446 375 (84.1) 21 (4.7) 267 (59.9) 87 (19.5)
Patna 512 462 (90.2) 28 (5.5) 298 (58.2) 136 (26.6)
Dibrugarh 525 480 (91.4) 52 (9.9) 371 (70.7) 57 (10.8)
Nagaon 475 446 (93.9) 29 (6.1) 393 (82.7) 24 (5.1)
South
Mehboob Nagar 189 174 (92.1) 14 (7.4) 136 (72.0) 24 (12.7)
West
Raigarh 506 441 (87.2) 79 (15.6) 287 (56.7) 75 (14.8)
All districts 6,923 5,880 (84.9) 817 (11.8) 4,159 (60.1) 904 (13.1)
Hb, hemoglobin
Anemia among pregnant women and adolescent girls
314
woman to be taken during pregnancy.
Some of the reasons that iron supplementation
programs are ineffective may be that the programs
do not always reach the target people, health staff
are inadequately trained and mobilized to ensure the
effective distribution of supplements, and compliance
is low, due, in particular, to the side effects associated
with iron supplements [8, 27]. Stoltzfus [27] considered
that a more fundamental reason why strategies to tackle
anemia have difficulty in succeeding is that they too
often confine themselves solely to the correction of iron
deficiency. It is unlikely that all anemia results from
iron deficiency, because other nutritional deficiencies,
as well as malaria, heavy loads of some helminths,
and other inflammatory or infectious diseases, also
cause anemia. A successful strategy to combat anemia,
therefore, should address all of the causal factors after
their elucidation.
The overall prevalence of severe anemia (hemoglobin
< 70 g/L) among pregnant women was 13.1%, ranging
up to 38.2% in Bikaner District. A prevalence of 8.3%
for severe anemia has been reported among lactating
and pregnant women in the slums of Hyderabad [28].
However, the prevalence of severe anemia among
pregnant women was as high as 56% in a population-
based survey (1990–94) of rural and urban areas in
Punjab. In the NFHS-2 study, the overall prevalence
of severe anemia was only 2.5%. As stated above,
such a low prevalence could be due to the use of the
HemoCue method, which overestimates the level of
hemoglobin.
The overall prevalence of anemia among adolescent
girls was 90.1%; the prevalence rates of mild, moder-
ate, and severe anemia were 32.1%, 50.9%, and 7.1%
respectively. In a study of 1,500 rural girls 10 to 19
years of age from 10 villages in Gujarat, the prevalence
of anemia (hemoglobin < 120 g/L) was reported to be
60% [4]. A recent study conducted in rural, tribal, and
urban areas in Vadodara District of Gujarat found a
74.7% prevalence of anemia. After weekly supplemen-
tation with iron–folic acid tablets, the prevalence was
reduced by 20.5%, with a mean rise in hemoglobin
level of 6.9 g/L, a result suggesting that iron deficiency
was the predominant causal factor of anemia [29]. The
anemia prevalence among adolescent girls in Delhi
was 46.6% for those in the high socioeconomic group
and 56% for those in the lower-middle socioeconomic
group [30]. An 11-country study found that more than
40% of adolescents in Asian countries, including India,
were anemic (hemoglobin < 115 g/L) [31]. A review of
Indian studies by Kanani and Ghanekar [13] found that
more than 70% of adolescent girls from low-income
families had hemoglobin levels of less than 110 g/L.
When the WHO cutoff value of 120 g/L was applied,
TABLE 2. Prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls
District
No. of
girls
No. (%) with anemia
Total
(Hb < 120 g/L)
Mild
(Hb 100–119 g/L)
Moderate
(Hb 70–100 g/L)
Severe
(Hb < 70 g/L)
North
Dehradun 213 124 (58.2) 62 (29.1) 59 (27.7) 3 (1.4)
Baramullah 300 259 (86.3) 101 (33.7) 153 (51.0) 5 (1.7)
Mandi 285 250 (87.7) 165 (57.9) 83 (29.1) 2 (0.7)
Bikaner 300 271 (90.3) 56 (18.7) 142 (47.3) 73 (24.3)
Lakhimpur Kheri 294 271 (92.2) 97 (33.0) 148 (50.3) 26 (8.8)
Mainpuri 147 140 (95.2) 43 (29.3) 92 (62.6) 5 (3.4)
Srinagar 296 294 (99.3) 80 (27.0) 199 (67.2) 15 (5.1)
Badaun 299 299 (100.0) 121 (40.5) 150 (50.2) 28 (9.4)
East
Bishnupur 300 238 (79.3) 123 (41.0) 115 (38.3) 0
Kohima 99 88 (88.9) 39 (39.4) 49 (49.5) 0
Gaya 285 262 (91.9) 41 (14.4) 178 (62.4) 43 (15.1)
Dibrugarh 296 278 (93.9) 105 (35.5) 147 (49.7) 26 (8.8)
Nagaon 297 281 (94.6) 97 (32.7) 178 (59.9) 6 (2.0)
Patna 317 310 (97.8) 65 (20.5) 229 (72.2) 16 (5.1)
South
Mehboob Nagar 294 270 (91.8) 105 (35.7) 138 (46.9) 27 (9.2)
West
Raigarh 315 274 (87.0) 92 (29.2) 147 (46.7) 35 (11.1)
All districts 4,337 3,909 (90.1) 1,392 (32.1) 2,207 (50.9) 310 (7.1)
Hb, hemoglobin
G. S. Toteja et al.
315
the prevalence was even higher (80% to 90%). The poor
nutritional status of adolescent girls has important
implications for physical work capacity and adverse
reproductive outcome. The median age of marriage in
India is around 18 years. When a woman enters preg-
nancy with a large iron deficit and is subjected to the
added demands for iron during pregnancy, it may be
too late to address the problem of anemia during preg-
nancy. We therefore suggest that the health-care system
should not miss the opportunities afforded during the
precious years of adolescence before marriage and
childbearing. Adolescent girls should be supplied with
iron–folic acid supplements so that they enter preg-
nancy with no serious iron-deficiency handicaps.
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Anemia among pregnant women and adolescent girls
