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Composition variability of spent mushroom compost in Ireland
Abstract
Spent mushroom compost (SMC) has proven to be an attractive material for improving soil structure in tilled soils and increasing dry matter production in grassland soils, owing to its high organic matter content and availability of essential plant nutrients. Because of this, it is important to identify the variability in composition of SMC in order to evaluate its merit as a fertilizer/soil conditioner. For this reason, a study was carried out involving the analysis of SMC samples obtained from five mushroom growers using compost from each of the 13 mushroom composting yards currently operating in both Northern Ireland (5 yd) and the Republic of Ireland (8 yd). The selected parameters measured include dry matter, organic matter, total N, P and K, C/N ratio; plant-available P and K, pH, EC, total Ca, Mg, Na, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb; and cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin constituents. Yield of mushroom data were also collected from the selected growers. There were significant differences (P<0.05) within two compost production yards for some parameters, therefore, for the most part, the uniformity of SMC within each yard is relatively consistent. However, significant differences (P<0.05) were evident when comparing SMC obtained from growers supplied with compost from Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland independently, particularly among total and available phosphorus and potassium values. The results obtained show that, while SMC has fertilizer merit, its variability of composition must be taken into account when assessing this value. The variability of composition is also of particular interest in the context of recent emphasis on plant nutrient management in agriculture.
... The chemical analysis of 100% fresh SMSs (Table 4) revealed that both pH and EC were at levels that restrict their immediate use as growing media. In the present study, the EC values of 100% fresh A-SMS (8.92 mS·cm −1 ), L-SMS (1.46 mS·cm −1 ) and P-SMS (3.39 mS·cm −1 ) were nearly comparable to the values reported for A-SMS (0.58-10.70 mS·cm −1 ) by Maher et al. [73], Jordan et al. [74], and for L-SMS (1.96 mS·cm −1 ) and P-SMS (0.89-4.01 mS·cm −1 ) by Catal and Peksen [75]. Overall, the chemical analysis of SMSs in our study demonstrated that due to high EC and unfavourable pH, immediate use of SMSs in whole (100%) should be limited and/or restricted [44,57,75,76]. ...
... The high level of EC is one of the most important factors limiting the use of SMS as a growing medium [74,82]. Bryla and Scagel [83] reported that to achieve optimum strawberry development, the EC of the growing media should be maintained at ≤1.3 mS·cm −1 during the early stage, and later at ≤3.4 mS·cm −1 , while Caso et al. [84] and D'Anna et al. [85] reported higher EC values of 3.49 mS·cm −1 and 2.5 mS·cm −1 of the substrates had no negative influence on the overall performance of strawberries in soilless production. ...
... In line with these findings, in our study, the EC of all SMS-based substrates before plant cultivation, both in autumn and spring planting, were in this range (0.66-2.99 mS·cm −1 ), which demonstrated the suitable chemical properties of studied SMSs as peat substitutes. The substrate mixes prepared based on SMSs were reported to be highly saline [73,74,76], whereas in the present study, none of the prepared substrate combinations (A-15-P-25) based on SMSs (A-SMS, L-SMS, and P-SMS) at the beginning of cultivation were observed to be saline for strawberry cultivation. At the end of cultivation, the higher EC values were recorded in A-25 (6.66 mS·cm −1 ), A-15 (5.90 mS·cm −1 ), and P-25 (4.28 mS·cm −1 ) in spring planting which was out of the specified optimum range of EC [77,83]. ...
The performance of autumn and spring-planted strawberry cv. ‘Elsanta’ in peat and peat supplemented with fresh spent mushroom substrate (SMS) of Agaricus bisporus, Lentinus edodes, and Pleurotus ostreatus in 15% and 25% was evaluated. The morphological and yield parameters, dry matter distribution, uptake, and partitioning of macro- and micronutrients were studied. The experiment was carried out during 2020–2021 in an unheated tunnel and was laid out in a randomised complete block design in five replicates. The study aimed to deliver greater insight into utilising fresh SMS as a sustainable substitute to peat. The shoot and root length, leaf number, crown diameter, plant dry weight, and marketable yields were superior in SMS-based substrates in autumn planting. The nutrient uptake varied among substrates and planting seasons, where higher plant nutrient uptake was noticed in SMS-based substrates. Nutrient partitioning among leaves, crowns, and roots was dynamic. The N, P, K, and Mn were mainly recovered in leaves. While Mg was almost equally partitioned among plant organs. The higher amounts of Na, Zn, and Cu were found in crowns. The greater accumulation of Ca and Fe in roots was evident. Correlation indicated that plant macro- and micronutrients had both positive and negative interactions. Overall, the superior morphological and yield performances of cv. ‘Elsanta’ were more noticeable in SMSs than in peat in autumn-planted strawberries.
... The high value of EC is one of the most important factors limiting the use of SMS as a growing medium [34,70,71] [74], respectively. However, these values may vary as the composition of SMS greatly depends on the mushroom species cultivated [75]. ...
... The high value of EC is one of the most important factors limiting the use of SMS as a growing medium [34,70,71]. Many researchers have reported that EC values of Agaricus-SMS, Lentinus-SMS, and Pleurotus-SMS range between 0.58-10.70 ...
... Many researchers have reported that EC values of Agaricus-SMS, Lentinus-SMS, and Pleurotus-SMS range between 0.58-10.70 mS·cm −1 [71][72][73], 1.96 mS·cm −1 , and 0.89-4.01 mS·cm −1 [74], respectively. ...
The present study aimed to evaluate fresh spent mushroom substrate (SMS) as a growing medium in soilless strawberry cv. ‘Honeoye’ production. Fresh SMS after commercial production of Agaricus bisporus, Lentinus edodes, and Pleurotus ostreatus was used as a peat substitute in 15 and 25% (v/v), for strawberry cultivation in an unheated plastic tunnel. In the experiment, seven different substrates were studied, including peat (100%) as control and six substrate combinations (prepared by mixing SMSs with peat). The study was carried out in a randomized complete block design in five replicates. The results indicated that the electrical conductivity (EC), pH, and nutrient content varied among the studied substrates. The experiment also demonstrated that the substrates significantly influenced strawberry yield, leaf area, and fresh and dry plant weights. However, no significant differences were observed for selected photosynthetic parameters (Fv/Fm, Fv/F0, and PIabs) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values among the evaluated substrates. Differences were recorded for the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI) and Modified Chlorophyll Absorption in Reflectance Index (MCARI) values. The present investigation revealed that fresh SMSs can be an effective and inexpensive peat substitute in 15 and 25% (v/v). Therefore, such easy and immediate utilisation of SMSs could overcome associated disposal problems.
... Post-hydrolysis sugar determinations in samples of SMC were always lower as a result of SE compared to NE; however, there was no clear distinction between EE and WE ( Table 3). A previous compositional study on 63 different SMC samples taken from various sites within Ireland determined that SMC contained an average of 38% cellulose and 19% hemicellulose with respective ranges of 18-62% and 2-41% [24]. These contrast with the results shown in this study, with the total post-hydrolysis sugar determinations of NE SMC samples close to the sum of the minimum cellulose and hemicellulose ranges but lower than the sum of the average values reported by previous studies [24]. ...
... A previous compositional study on 63 different SMC samples taken from various sites within Ireland determined that SMC contained an average of 38% cellulose and 19% hemicellulose with respective ranges of 18-62% and 2-41% [24]. These contrast with the results shown in this study, with the total post-hydrolysis sugar determinations of NE SMC samples close to the sum of the minimum cellulose and hemicellulose ranges but lower than the sum of the average values reported by previous studies [24]. While these differences may be due to variation in sample source, it is more likely that they arise from differences between methodologies employed. ...
... Considering (i) the difficulty in unambiguously identifying trends in post-hydrolysis sugar determinations following extraction in SMC, and (ii) the differences in results between this and previous studies [24], it is suggested that a more comprehensive and detailed study of the carbohydrate composition of SMC is necessary. In addition, since extraction caused the solubilization and removal of some non-cell-wall carbohydrates, determinations for total lignocellulosic sugars following extraction are considered to be a more accurate representation of structural cell-wall polysaccharides. ...
As the utilization and consumption of lignocellulosic biomass increases, so too will the need for an adequate supply of feedstock. To meet these needs, novel waste feedstock materials will need to be utilized. Exploitation of these novel feedstocks will require information both on the effects of solvent extraction on the succeeding analysis of potential novel feedstocks and how accurate current methodologies are in determining the composition of novel lignocellulosic feedstocks, particularly the carbohydrate and lignin fractions. In this study, the effects of solvent extraction on novel feedstocks, including tree foliage, tree bark and spent mushroom compost, with 95% ethanol, water and both sequentially were examined. Chemical analyses were carried out to determine the moisture content, ash, extractives, post-hydrolysis sugars, Klason lignin (KL) and acid-soluble lig-nin (ASL) within the selected feedstocks. The result of extraction could be seen most strongly for Klason lignin, with a strong association between higher levels of Klason lignin levels and greater amounts of non-removed extractives (tree foliage and bark). Higher Klason lignin levels are reported to be due the condensation of non-removed extractives during hydrolysis, hence the lower Klason lignin determinations following extraction are more exact. In addition, total sugar determi-nations were lower following extractions. This is because of the solubility of non-cell-wall carbohydrates ; thus, the determinations following extraction are more accurate representations of structural cell-wall polysaccharides such as cellulose. Such determinations will assist in determining the best way to utilize novel feedstocks such as those analyzed in this work.
... The mean total N of stored SMS in this study ranged between 23 and 27 g/kg dry weight (6.9-10.7 g/kg wet weight). These levels are similar to average total N contents reported for fresh SMS at 27 g/kg and 21 g/kg (dry weight) by Fidanza et al. (2010) and Jordan et al. (2008), respectively. The results showed that N levels were significantly higher on a dry weight basis, when SMS was stored under cover ( Figure 2, Table S1). ...
... Nonetheless, the variability in P levels in SMS that has been demonstrated over the years suggests that they should be monitored on an ongoing basis to ensure that over application of P to soils in SMS is avoided. Potassium is an important element in crop nutrition and according to Walsh (2009), the K in SMS is 90% available and can supply 100% of the K requirement of a winter wheat crop on a soil with a K index of 3. The mean total K of stored SMS in this study ranged between 22 and 37 g/kg dry weight (6.6-15 g/kg wet weight) (Figure 2, Table S1), which is more variable compared to the 20 g/kg and 24 g/kg (dry weight) reported for fresh SMS by Jordan et al. (2008) and Fidanza et al. (2010), respectively. Walsh (2013) reported that fresh SMS contained between 9.7 and 5.4 kg/t K (wet weight) with high variability within samples. ...
... The optimum soil pH required for most agriculture and horticulture crops is in the range of 6.3-7.0 (Wall & Plunkett, 2016). The mean pH of stored SMS in this study was 7.8-8.1 (Table 1), while the average pH for fresh SMS is 6.6-6.8 (Jordan et al., 2008;Fidanza et al., 2010). The application of SMS to a fine sandy loam soil with pH 6.5 resulted in an increase in soil pH over a 4-year period (Stewart et al., 1998) but had no effect on an alkaline clayey-loam soil (Medina et al., 2012); thus, consideration should be given to the pH of the soil when applying SMS and it could be used with benefit on acidic soils, replacing or supplementing applications of ground limestone. ...
Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is an organic manure that can be used with advantage in agriculture. Under European Union (EU) (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of Waters) Regulations, SMS cannot be applied to land over the winter months and must be stored on concrete surfaces, either covered or uncovered, to prevent nutrient-rich runoff seeping into groundwater. Spent mushroom substrate at four storage facilities, two covered and two uncovered, was analysed for physical and chemical characteristics after storage for up to 12 mo. Significant differences (P<0.05) were identified for all parameters across the four sites, except for pH, but there were no consistent differences that correlated with uncovered or covered storage conditions. The content of nitrogen (N) and manganese (Mn) was significantly lower in uncovered SMS, while the content of iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) was significantly higher. The chemical nitrogen-phospous-potassium (NPK) fertiliser equivalent value of SMS, when applied at a rate of 10 t/ha, was between €105 and €191 per hectare. Nitrogen-phospous-potassium concentrations per kg wet weight were all higher in SMS that was stored under cover, meaning higher chemical fertiliser savings are possible. The high pH of stored SMS (7.8–8.1) means it could be used with good effect on acid soils instead of ground limestone. The low bulk density of SMS (0.545–0.593 g/cm ³ ) makes it an ideal amendment to soils to improve soil structure and quality. There is some variability in the nutrient content of SMS from different sources, so it is advisable to get the material analysed when including in nutrient management plans.
... Hence, 63.7 million tons of spent mushroom compost (SMC) waste were generated in 2018, and this number is expected to reach around 104 million tons by 2026. In general, SMC is a mixture of poultry litter, straw, gypsum, peat, lime and some additives [2,4]. However, its composition differs due to variations in substrate ingredients, substrate preparation method, and type of cultivated mushrooms [4]. ...
... In general, SMC is a mixture of poultry litter, straw, gypsum, peat, lime and some additives [2,4]. However, its composition differs due to variations in substrate ingredients, substrate preparation method, and type of cultivated mushrooms [4]. ...
... However, it needs to be stabilized and neutralized by fermentation prior to its usage as feedbuff, which incur significant costs [6]. This is due to its high organic matters that can reach as high as 64 wt% while the rest is inorganic matter (between 8 wt% and 20 wt%) which is highly affluent with calcium, phosphorus and sulfur [2,4]. SMC can also be fermented along with specific additives, such as urea, sesame residue, chicken manure, and other microorganism, to produce soil fertilizers [7]. ...
The effects of operating conditions (temperature, residence time, and water contents) of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of spent mushroom compost (SMC) waste on the hydrochars (HCs) and liquid effluent characteristics were experimentally revised and ranked in increasing order: residence time < dilution factor < temperature. HTC upgraded the energy capabilities by doubling their heating values and increasing their fixed carbon contents four times. HTC also enhanced the soil amendment characteristics of SMC feedstock in terms of increasing the adsorption polar heads concentration, enriching its calcium and heavy metals contents after a thorough inorganic contents evaluation, doubling the surface area and increasing the pore size by a factor of five. When compared against biocoal from torrefaction in another study, HCs contained less toxic oxygenated compounds and had an 11% higher HHV at lower temperature (i.e. lower energy cost). On the other hand, HCs showed higher surface area (25 m2/g at 250 °C in HTC compared to 16 m²/g at 550 °C in pyrolysis), close adsorption characteristic, and comparable energy capabilities (22.72 MJ/kg at 700 °Cs in pyrolysis compared to 20.7 MJ/kg at 250 °C in HTC) to pyrolysis at significantly lower temperature. GCMS along with UV were used to verify the reviewed degradation mechanism and evaluate the effect of process parameters on this mechanism and on the composition and toxicity of the HTC liquid effluent. They showed that acetic and formic acids, ethanol, phenol, and acetaldehyde were the major compounds that had resulted from the degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Their concentrations increased with temperature and residence time, but was dependent on temperature in the case of increasing the dilution factor. Nevertheless, HTC degradation enhanced the total acids-phenols concentration in the liquid effluent by 700%.
... It contains remains of the mycelia of the cultivated fungi and of the constituent components of their growth substrates; for A. bisporus, it was based on composted wheat straw, chicken manure and calcium sulphate, for P. eryngii, hardwood sawdust, seed hulls, and wheat bran and for P. ostreatus wheat straw [28,29]. In addition to featuring noteworthy physicochemical values (Table S1), it contains fiber and polymers such as lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose [30,31]; as well as enzymes like amylase, cellulase, laccase, xylanase, and versatile peroxidases [32]. ...
... The PC2, on the other hand, retained 14.08% of the variance. This component was positively associated with the degradation of hydrocarbons, particularly EC 21-35 , C [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] , and several fungal genera, including Ochroconis, Cadophora, Exophila, and Agaricus among others. The only fungal genus negatively related to PC2 was Pleurotus. ...
... 60%) with low pyrite (<5%) (Table S1), and all treatments are within the rehabilitation criteria defined by (Gräfe and Klauber, 2011). Similarly, all treatments were non-saline and these levels of salinity are suitable for plant establishment (Jordan et al., 2008b), as they do not reduce water availability for roots absorption or promote saline stress. Soil bulk density and particle density are fundamental parameters to assess management-induced changes in soil physical quality (Muñoz et al., 2016). ...
... Results for Ta1 (tailings) indicate a poor substrate for supporting plant growth. Subsoil material exhibited improved values with organic amendment, as previously reported for other poor soils (Jordan et al., 2008b;Courtney et al., 2009). Amendment with organics caused a decrease in bulk density, due to the dilution effect obtained mixing of the organic fraction with the mineral fraction of the residue , where a concomitant effect in particle density with improved porosity was also noted. ...
... Other a ments, such as spent mushroom compost were less consistent. This is in concordanc Jordan et al. [18] who observed that there was a significant difference in spent mush compost sourced from different locations. ...
... Other amendments, such as spent mushroom compost were less consistent. This is in concordance with Jordan et al. [18] who observed that there was a significant difference in spent mushroom compost sourced from different locations. ...
Application of organic amendments to soil is commonplace in domestic gardening. However, a vast array of materials could be labelled as ‘compost’ by retailers and suppliers. We investigated six different amendments currently used, or available for use, in horticulture: composted bark, composted bracken, spent mushroom compost, composted horse manure, garden waste compost (at two different application rates), and peat. Using a controlled field experiment, we examined the physicochemical differences between the amendments, the subsequent effects on soil characteristics, and resultant yield and biometrics of Lavatera trimiestris. Amended soils resulted in a significantly different multivariate soil environment and N budget when compared to the unamended control. However, the effect on yield and plant biometrics (number of flowers, plant height, etc.) depended on the amendment used. Application of garden compost resulted in up to a five-fold increase in yield. However, there was no significant difference in yields in soils amended with composted bark or peat, when compared to the unamended control. This has implications, as there is increasing pressure to remove peat from products available to domestic gardeners. The variability in the different amendments investigated in our research, in addition to the variable effects on plant growth parameters, suggests that repeated use of a single amendment may not be best practise for gardeners.
... The spent mushroom substrate is a good material for fertilisation because of its high content of macroelements, including nitrogen. It is a valuable resource of organic matter as well [Jordan et al., 2008;Medina et al., 2009;Kalembasa, Majchrowska-Safaryan, 2009;Kalembasa et al., 2012;Majchrowska-Safaryan, Tkaczuk, 2013;Becher, Pakuła, 2014;Mohd Hanafi et al., 2018;Zied et al., 2020]. Uncontrolled disposal of spent substrate is a potential danger because of migration outside the prism of nitrogen and environment eutrophication. ...
... The narrow C:N ratio of indicates its beneficial properties as a fertiliser. The ratio indicates mineralisation of organic nitrogen compounds to prevail over their synthesis, which results in releasing nutrients, which are available to plants [Kalembasa, Majchrowska-Safaryan, 2006;Jordan et al., 2008;Szulc et al., 2009;Rutkowska et al., 2009;Kalembasa, Becher, 2011;Becher, Pakuła, 2014]. ...
In the last decades, Poland has become the leader in mushroom Agaricus bisporus production in Europe. Mushroom production generates large amounts of spent substrate, which as a waste material must be recycled. Significant in this macronutrient content, inducing nitrogen, encourages the use of this organic waste material to fertilize, especially light soils. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of spent mushroom substrate fertilization on the properties of A horizon of the Stagnic Luvisol, especially for the variation in the nitrogen fraction, in the two-year cultivation period. The following laboratory analyses were performed: soil pH, organic carbon content, total content of nitrogen and sorption properties. The sequential extraction of nitrogen compounds was performed with a 0.25 M KCl solution (for the extraction of mineral nitrogen forms and the most labile organic nitrogen compounds) and with 0.25 and 2.5 M H 2 SO 4 (hot hydrolysis for sequencing of organic nitrogen compounds that are easily hydrolysing and difficult to hydrolyse). The application of spent mushroom substrate to the A horizons of the experimental objects had an effect on differentiation of soil properties and increased their value (pH, Corg, N-tot, Hh, CEC) in comparison to the control object to a greater degree after the first, then after the second year of cultivation. As the content of nitrogen mineral forms was differentiated, more nitrogen was found in an ammonium form (N-NH 4 ) than in a nitrate form (N-NO x ). The organic nitrogen content formed the following series of increasing amounts: soluble organic nitrogen N OS < N OEH < N ODH < N ONH .
... One example of an organic material commonly used in passive treatment systems is spent mushroom compost (SMC). SMC is a by-product derived from edible mushroom cultivation on substrates containing lignocellulose-rich materials, such as wheat straw, (horse and poultry) manure, and amendments like gypsum (Hackett, 2015;Jordan et al., 2008). Due to the high diversity and concentration of organic compounds, SMC seems to be a rich source of various groups of microorganisms characterized by their broad metabolic potential. ...
... Nitrates and sulfates are a particularly significant factor for the growth of anaerobic microorganisms such as sulfate-reducing bacteria and denitrifying bacteria, which are involved in anaerobic digestion processes in the compost. Jordan et al. indicated, that SMC is a group of highly diverse materials, which have to be investigated prior to use since compost stability varies in individual compost samples and influences its properties (Jordan et al., 2008). ...
Spent mushroom compost (SMC) is a lignocellulose-rich waste material commonly used in the passive treatment of heavy metal-contaminated environments. In this study, we investigated the bioremediation potential of SMC against an inorganic form of arsenic, examining the individual abiotic and biotic transformations carried out by SMC. We demonstrated, that key SMC physiological groups of bacteria (denitrifying, cellulolytic, sulfate-reducing, and heterotrophic) are resistant to arsenites and arsenates, while the microbial community in SMC is also able to oxidize As(III) and reduce As(V) in respiratory metabolisms, although the SMC did not contain any As. We showed, that cooperation between arsenate and sulfate-reducing bacteria led to the precipitation of As x S y. We also found evidence of the significant role organic acids may play in arsenic complexation, and we demonstrated the occurrence of As-binding proteins in the SMC. Furthermore, we confirmed, that biofilm produced by the microbial community in SMC was able to trap As(V) ions. We postulated, that the above-mentioned transformations are responsible for the sorption efficiency of As(V) (up to 25%) and As(III) (up to 16%), as well as the excellent buffering properties of SMC observed in the sorption experiments.
... MSW varies in composition and quality; this will influence the attributes of vermicompost produced from it. SMC is more consistent than MSW but still variable (Jordan et al., 2008). Vermicomposting effectively reduces variability in addition to lowering EC, which is typically high in SMC (Tajbakhsh et al., 2008;Domínguez-Gutiérrez et al., 2022). ...
Agaricus bisporus mushrooms are an economically important crop in Ireland and globally. Currently black peat plays a key role in mushroom production and the industry is under pressure to find alternatives. Peat is the primary component of mushroom ‘casing’, which is a layer applied on top of the growing substrate. This provides moisture and induces the fungal reproductive phase. Further to producing mushroom yield and quality comparable to peat, alternative materials must also be easily sourced and economically viable for growers. This systematic review was based on articles related to mushroom production on alternative casing materials published between 1970 and 2023. A wide range of alternative materials have been tested, with varying degrees of success. Specific combinations of alternative materials may offer superior performance. Additionally, there was little consistency in both experimental approach and materials utilised. For example, while peat is used as a control, the properties of this peat vary depending on origin. The same was true of ostensibly similar alternative casing materials, which frequently had been processed differently or had different origins potentially divergently altering their properties. These inconsistencies hamper the compilation and evaluation of findings from previous studies, which is vital in informing the direction of future research.
... www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Mushroom substrate used in the experiment contained as much as 30% of dry matter (Table 2), with Jordan et al. 32 reporting similar amounts. N concentration of 20.9 g kg −1 was also high, while organic C concentration, as an indicator of soil biological activity, was 284 g kg −1 . ...
The aim of the experiment was to determine the yield of Miscanthus × giganteus M 19 in the first three years of cultivation and its bioaccumulation of Zn and Ni in aboveground and underground parts in response to different doses of sewage sludge and substrate left after the production of white mushrooms. Miscanthus × giganteus is a grass species that adapts to different environmental conditions and can be grown in various climatic zones of Europe and North America. In April 2018 the experiment was established in a randomized block design and with four replications in central-eastern Poland. Waste organic materials (municipal sewage sludge and mushroom substrate) were applied to the soil in 2018 in the spring before the rhizomes of giant miscanthus were planted. Each year (from 2018 to 2020) biomass was harvested in December. The yield of fresh and dry matter and the total content of Zn and Ni, after wet mineralization of plant samples, were determined by optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). After the third year of cultivation, the content of Zn and Ni in rhizomes and in the soil was determined again. In relation to control, an increase in the yield of miscanthus biomass in response to organic waste materials was noted. Plants responded to mushroom substrate (SMS) with the highest average yield (16.89 Mgha⁻¹DM), while on the control plot it was 13.86 Mg ha⁻¹DM. After the third year of cultivation, rhizomes of Miscanthus x giganteus contained higher amounts of Zn (63.3 mg kg⁻¹) and Ni (7.54 mg kg⁻¹) than aboveground parts (40.52 and 2.07 mg kg–1), which indicated that heavy metals were retained in underground parts.
... The composition of MS is subjectable to variation according to the local mushroom production practices. For instance, a substrate in Northern Ireland is made of soya hull, oak and wheat bran, while a substrate in India/China contains rice/wheat harvest residues, chicken manure, corn cob, saw dust and horse manure [24,25]. For characterization, the substrate was dried in the hot air oven at 105 • C until the moisture content (64.7 %) was completely removed and stored under airtight conditions until downstream analysis [26]. ...
Circular approaches to revalorise waste biomass from agriculture and food production sectors are crucial for developing a sustainable bioenergy strategy. For instance, while the demand for edible mushroom cultivation has increased globally, the production generates a substantial amount of waste biomass, known as Spent Mushroom Substrate (MS). Thermochemical biomass conversion technologies such as hydrothermal carbonisation offers a robust strategy to produce “hydrochar” from the wet biomass and can be used downstream for various environmental applications. In this study, we assess the feasibility of MS-derived hydrochar for energy application, specifically as a blend with coal. The key parameters for the hydrochar production such as temperature, time and moisture content were optimised (205 °C, 3.65 h, and 73.18 %, respectively) using a statistical tool “Response Surface Methodology (RSM)” to obtain a carbon material with higher yield and calorific value. The hydrochar from MS exhibited an acidic pH (4.42), increased fixed carbon content (23.7 %), reduced sulphur content (0.26 %), coarser porous surface, enhanced oxygenated functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl and ketonic) and the formation of minerals like Sodium Carbonate (NaCO3), whewellite (CaC2O4·H2O) and gypsum (CaSO4). Combustion behaviour of hydrochar was also assessed using calorimetry and thermogravimetry, specifically to test different coal and hydrochar blends on the feasibility of using hydrochar as a supplement to conventional solid fuels. Our results suggest that a blend of 20 % hydrochar with 80 % coal as an ideal blending ratio (with a calorific value of 27.65 MJ kg−1) highlighting the use of hydrochar as supplement with conventional fuel like coal.
... Spent mushroom compost is then heat-treated at 70 °C for 12 h before it is used as a growing medium constituent (Maher et al., 1993). The fraction of organic matter in spent mushroom compost is usually high (about 66% of the total volume) but may be as low as 407 g/kg (Jordan et al., 2008). Other physio-chemical properties of mushroom compost are extremely variable. ...
... Agaricus bisporus produces these ligninolytic enzymes when grown on compost during commercial white button mushroom production (Colmenares-Cruz et al. 2017). The spent mushroom substrate (SMS), a waste stream after harvesting of the mushroom (Gerrits 1994), still contains ligninolytic activity (Jordan et al. 2008;McGee 2018). SMS of A. bisporus can be used to bioremediate dye-containing water (van Brenk 2024). ...
Water bodies are increasingly contaminated with a diversity of organic micropollutants (OMPs). This impacts the quality of ecosystems due to their recalcitrant nature. In this study, we assessed the removal of OMPs by spent mushroom substrate (SMS) of the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and by its aqueous tea extract. Removal of acesulfame K, antipyrine, bentazon, caffeine, carbamazepine, chloridazon, clofibric acid, and N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) by SMS and its tea was between 10 and 90% and 0–26%, respectively, in a 7-day period. Sorption to SMS particles was between 0 and 29%, which can thus not explain the removal difference between SMS and its tea, the latter lacking these particles. Carbamazepine was removed most efficiently by both SMS and its tea. Removal of OMPs (except caffeine) by SMS tea was not affected by heat treatment. By contrast, heat-treatment of SMS reduced OMP removal to < 10% except for carbamazepine with a removal of 90%. These results indicate that OMP removal by SMS and its tea is mediated by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic activities. The presence of copper, manganese, and iron (0.03, 0.88, and 0.33 µg L⁻¹, respectively) as well as H2O2 (1.5 µM) in SMS tea indicated that the Fenton reaction represents (part of) the non-enzymatic activity. Indeed, the in vitro reconstituted Fenton reaction removed OMPs > 50% better than the teas. From these data it is concluded that spent mushroom substrate of the white button mushroom, which is widely available as a waste-stream, can be used to purify water from OMPs.
... Kalembasa and Wiśniewska (2009) reported a lower content of Ba (52.5 mg kg −1 ) than ours in Italian SMS. The PTEs content of SMS determined within this study is compared to levels reported in previous studies which it verifies that the Ba and Zn levels are elevated, while Cd and Cu is invariably lower that those reported in other countries (Kalembasa & Wiśniewska, 2009;Jordan et al., 2008;Medina et al., 2012). ...
Urban agriculture should be promoted as long as the food produced is safe for consumption. Located in the metropolitan region of São Paulo-Brazil, Santo André has intense industrial activities and more recently an increasing stimulus to urban gardening. One of the potential risks associated to this activity is the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs). In this study, the concentration of PTEs (As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni, Mo, Pb, Sb, Se, V and Zn) was evaluated by soil (n = 85) and soil amendments (n = 19) in urban gardens from this municipality. Only barium was above regulatory limits in agricultural soil ranging from 20 to 112 mg kg⁻¹. Geochemical indexes (Igeo, Cf and Er) revealed moderate to severe pollution for As, Ba, Cr, Cu, Pb Se and Zn, especialy in Capuava petrochemical complex gardens. A multivariate statistical approach discriminated Capuava gardens from the others and correlated As, Cr and V as main factors of pollution. However, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were below the acceptable range for regulatory purposes of 10–6–10–4 for adults. Soil amendments were identified as a possible source of contamination for Ba, Zn and Pb which ranged from 37 to 4137 mg kg⁻¹, 20 to 701 mg kg⁻¹ and 0.7 to 73 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. The results also indicated the presence of six pathogenic bacteria in these amendments. Besides that, the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance for Shigella, Enterobacter and Citrobacter isolates suggests that soil management practices improvement is necessary.
... These disposals may lead to environmental issues such as soil, air, and water pollution [9] . SMS is the lignocellulosic by-product of mushroom cultivation mainly referring to biomass waste which is not completely degraded as the degradation efficiency of edible fungi species only reached 40%−80% [10,11] . The term 'spent mushroom compost' (SMC) can be used interchangeably with SMS describing the agro-residues and fungal mycelium left after mushroom harvest [12] . ...
This study aimed to investigate the effects of spent mushroom substrate (SMS, 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%, w/w) addition to degraded grassland soil on the growth and nutrient uptake of alfalfa through a greenhouse pot experiment. Meanwhile, we compared with the inorganic fertilizer (CF, 200 N mg/kg and 30 P mg/kg) application treatment, and explored the most suitable SMS addition amount for alfalfa yield. Our results showed, that compared with the control treatment (CK), 10% SMS, 20% SMS, 30% SMS, and CF treatments increased alfalfa shoot biomass by 1.19, 1.67, 1.77, and 1.77 times, respectively. Total carbon content in leaves and total nitrogen content in stems of 20% SMS treatment were significantly higher than other treatments. Adding SMS increased the nodule number, especially the 20% SMS treatment. In addition, the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon, available phosphorus, and microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen were significantly enhanced with increasing SMS addition, and there was no significant difference between CF and CK treatments except for available phosphorus. Shoot biomass was significantly correlated with available phosphorus. In summary, adding SMS (20% and 30%) to degraded grassland soil can significantly improve soil nutrients and microenvironment to increase alfalfa yield, but considering economic benefits, 20% SMS is the most suitable application amount. This study provides the theoretical basis and technical support for the large-scale application of SMS in the field.
... The organic waste did not exceed them, which allowed its use in the cultivation of Spartina pectinata. The 30% dry matter content of mushroom substrate was relatively high (Tables 2 and 3), which was confirmed by many authors [32,33]. Organic carbon content, an indicator of soil biological activity, was 284 g kg −1 . ...
Increasingly cultivated all over the world, energy crops, with their large biomass production, can be used to produce liquid biofuel and biogas. The aim of the research was to evaluate the yield and selected energy parameters of prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata L.) treated with different doses of municipal sewage sludge and mushroom substrate. Heat of combustion, calorific values and ash content were investigated in the first three years of its cultivation. Carried out between 2018 and 2020, the research was based on a field experiment established at an experimental facility in Central-Eastern Poland. Organic waste doses, each of them introducing 170 kg N ha−1, were applied once in spring 2018 before planting pieces of Spartina pectinata rhizomes. The experimental factors (organic waste doses and years of research) significantly affected the yield of prairie cordgrass. Significantly, the highest yield of its biomass was produced in response to municipal sewage sludge applied together with mushroom substrate (O25 + PP75) and in response to mushroom substrate applied on its own (SMS). Those values, averaged over three years of research, were, respectively, 4.23 and 4.18 Mg ha−1. Organic waste treatment had a significant impact on ash content in dry matter. On average, the highest ash content in dry matter was recorded in response to mushroom substrate (5.73%) and the lowest (4.98%) in plants treated with the highest dose of sewage sludge together with the lowest dose of mushroom substrate (O75 + PP25). The higher dry matter content in plant biomass was, the better the energy parameters were.
... SMW thus contain diverse and high levels of SOM, macro-and micronutrients, and are suitable for improving soil pH, SOM and soil nutrient levels. For example, soil pH, SOM, total N, total P, total K, total Ca and Mg levels in SMS varying respectively from 6.0 to 8.25, 407-740 g kg -1 , 17-28 g kg -1 , 7-38 g kg -1 , 11-34 g kg -1 , 3-101 g kg -1 , and 0.6-39 g kg -1 have been reported (Jordan et al., 2008;Paredes et al., 2016). Unlike inorganic fertilizers, SMW have a slow mineralization and release nutrients slowly, making them a suitable source for these nutrients. ...
Manipulation of the rhizosphere can improve soil health; and foster sustainable
management of pests and diseases. Biological inputs such as spent substrates from
edible mushrooms (e.g., Pleurotus ostreatus) gardens offer sustainable alternatives on
that direction. This work presents a meta-analysis of major trends in knowledge
generation on edible mushroom use in agriculture, especially to benefit the crop
rhizosphere. It further delves into a detailed synthesis of the effects of spent mushroom
wastes (SMW) on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil
rhizosphere and agroecosystems. The review concludes by providing an outlook on
how SMW can potentially support the management of key soil health challenges in
organic banana production systems.
... SMC, which is organic matter left after the harvesting of mushrooms, has been shown to be applicable in the remediation of industrial wastewater containing heavy metals (Cheong et al. 2010;Corral-Bobadilla et al. 2019). Specifically, the use of SMC as a substrate for bioreactors has been linked to its organic carbon-rich content and circumneutral pH (Jordan et al. 2008). Moreover, the reuse of SMC for mine water treatment is economically beneficial as SMC is considered as a waste material, which involves substantial disposal costs (Kapoor and Viraraghavan 1995). ...
Mine water containing copper and zinc exceeding the permissible discharge limit has been discharged from the S mine site in South Korea. To evaluate the feasibility of applying passive treatment methods for treating water discharged from this mine, bench-scale experiments were conducted by using columns simulating successive alkalinity-producing systems (SAPS) and bioreactors. As substrate materials, limestone and spent mushroom compost (SMC) were applied, with their structures and mixing ratios varied. The efficiency of metal removal for each column was then evaluated. SAPS (column B) and bioreactors (columns C and D) exhibited Cu removal efficiencies of 99.7%, 98.0%, and 97.1%, respectively, while the limestone reactor (column A) had an average removal efficiency of 81.3%. Except for the re-dissolution events, Zn removal efficiencies were 99.5%, 97.6%, and 88.4%, respectively, while the limestone reactor had an average removal efficiency of 29.2%. Facilitated by a pH increase caused by the dissolution of limestone, the bacterial sulfate reduction (BSR) reaction was shown to be effective at removing metal in the SAPS and bioreactor columns; the process was revealed through the presence of sulfide in the effluent. When comparing bioreactors with different compost mixing ratios, columns with greater SMC ratios had higher removal efficiencies, as well as higher alkalinity, which shows the importance of SMC in metal removal. Overall, this study will be helpful in determining on-site treatment methods for Cu- and Zn-rich mine water by reusing waste materials, SMC, through bacterial metal reduction reactions, as well as considering the potential lifespan of the treatment facility.
... We obtain spent mushroom substrate after the sporocarps have been harvested from mushroom beds or cultures (Antunes et al., 2020). It contains decomposed renewable agricultural residues from crop straws, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust, ground corncobs, cocoa husks, cottonseed meals, etc. (Jordan et al., 2008). ...
Lignocellulosic wastes are low-cost, renewable, plentiful, and are a good natural resource for bioenergy and many other useful products. The cost of conversion is high; therefore, scientists are trying to develop cost-effective methods to transform these tough to degrade raw materials into value-added products having different applications. Large amounts of lignocellulosic wastes are produced as residues from agriculture and agroforestry sectors. The global annual generation of lignocellulosic wastes is in the order of 140 gigatons and presents significant management problems. They are generally burnt or left as garbage leading to air pollution and deterioration of soil and water quality. Value addition of these wastes using cost-effective techniques would lead to better utilization of these wastes. The bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes through mushroom cultivation offers an ecologically sound alternative to convert these wastes into protein-rich foods and thus reduce pollution. Mushrooms are good sources of crude soluble fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, and contain no starch, and have low calorific value. They are considered a good replacement for meat and their nutritional values are at par with several vegetables. Commercially available mushrooms are generally cultivated on lignocellulosic wastes such as wood chips, sawdust, and straw, thus, converting wastes into high-quality food to provide better nutrition and medicines to humankind. Mushroom cultivation also results in different by-products having application in different fields viz. development of nutraceutical as well as pharmaceutical formulations. Besides, these by-products could be used as animal feed, fertilizer, energy production, making cosmetics, and bioremediation. This chapter highlights how various lignocellulosic wastes can be value-added, especially employing mushroom cultivation, and summarizes other value-added products of mushrooms too.
... A mushroom substrate is a co-product of composted organic medium from the mushroom growth process which is usually the production of renewable agricultural residues including sugarcane bagasse, cottonseed meal, cocoa shells, oil palm empty fruit bunch, and others [76]. After mushrooms are harvested, the mushroom substrates which are enriched in cellulose, lignin and protein could be more easily digested by animals due to enzymolysis of mushroom cultivating [77]. ...
Recently, industrial and agricultural by-products, resulting from crops, fruit and vegetable processing which can be used in animal diets have become a hot topic in the animal feed industry. This review focuses on the agro-industry by-products as feeds, not only for the nutritional values, but also for their nutricine contribution. In this review, we described the chemical composition of some by-products as feeds and their limiting factors in animal feeding.
... More importantly, an increase in the nutrient content in the amended soil was observed after adding the SMS. SMS is rich in organic matter and macroand micronutrients, and is an important source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for crops (Jordan et al. 2008;Collela et al. 2019). Soil pH decreased when the frequency of applying SMS was increased, while the content of organic matter, nitrogen, and potassium increased after the 60-day incubation (Table 1). ...
PurposeAgricultural soils are faced with increasingly prevalent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution. To remediate the PAH-contaminated agricultural soils, the degradation of PAHs in aged contaminated soils by spent mushroom substrate (SMS) of Pleurotus eryngii at different rates and frequencies was analyzed.Materials and methodsP. eryngii SMS was applied in the soils at different rates (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%) and frequencies (1, 2, 4), and the soils were incubated for 60 days. The soil physicochemical properties, soil enzymatic activities, biomass of the degrading bacteria, and degradation efficiency of PAHs were analyzed. The degradation products of phenanthrene and fluoranthene were studied.Results and discussionThe degradation efficiency of 16 PAHs in soils increased with the increase in the rate and frequency of the SMS application. The highest efficiency was 48.3% when SMS was applied at a rate of 20% and a frequency of 4. The content of soil organic matter, available potassium, and alkaline nitrogen was high when 20% SMS was applied at a high frequency. The biomass of PAH-degrading bacteria and enzyme activities in soils increased when SMS was applied. The degradation efficiency of PAHs was positively correlated with the biomass of PAH-degrading bacteria and activities of most soil enzymes (r = 0.815–0.915, p < 0.05).Conclusions
Applying SMS at a high rate and frequency enhanced the degradation of PAHs in soils. The PAHs were cleaved and the ring was opened due to the P. eryngii SMS.
... Due to the property of municipal sludge itself is usually difficult to meet the conditions required by sludge composting, it is necessary to add auxiliary materials to reduce sludge moisture content (MC) and improve porosity, so as to meet the needs of microbial growth, thus speeding up the composting process, improving the composting effect and promoting the detoxification of composting to heavy metals. Spent mushroom is rich in OM and nutrients, and has a fluffy structure, so it has been used as one of the conditioner of sludge compost to improve the fertilizer and structural porosity of compost (Jordan et al., 2008). Spent bleaching earth is a by-product of refining process of oil factory. ...
This study researched microbial community succession in response to sludge composting efficiency and heavy metal detoxification during municipal sludge co-composting with spent mushroom and spent bleaching. The change law of key physicochemical properties, the heavy metals contents and forms during composting were analyzed, and the passivation of heavy metals after composting was explored. High-throughput sequencing was used to analyze the microbial community structure of treat 2 during composting, and the correlation analysis of microbial community structure with heavy metal contents and forms were carried out. The results showed that the sludge of each treatment reached composting maturity after 26 days of composting. Organic matter content, electrical conductivity, pH and seed germination index of treat 2 were all in line with the standard limit of agricultural sludge. Because of the presence of compost bacteria addition, the passivating heavy metals performance of treat 2 satisfied the standard limit of agricultural sludge after composting, which was superior to that of treat 1 and treat 3. The diversity of microbial communities in treat 2 decreased during composting. Extensive bacteria such as Bacillus, Geobacter, Lactobacillus, and Pseudomonas, which possessed the abilities of heavy metal passivation and organic oxidizing, were dominant in treat 2 during the heating stage. However, as composting proceeded, Tuberibacillus with ability of organic oxidizing gradually became the most dominant species at the thermophilic and cooling stages. Changes in microbial function varied from changes of microbial community in treat 2, subsequently affected the performances of heavy metal passivation and organic oxidizing during composting.
... SMC also contains 1-2% of nitrogen and 0.2% phosphorus [7]. It is an effective material for improving soil structure owing to its high organic matter content and the availability of essential plant nutrients [8]. In the agricultural sectors, mushroom compost had low effect as fertilizer. ...
Spent mushroom compost is identified as waste substrate. As the mushroom agriculture industry is growing rapidly, the production also increases and contributes to large amounts of spent mushroom compost annually. The conversion of spent mushroom compost as waste to wealth is a great concept that can give value to agricultural industry and solid waste management of mushroom cultivation. The use of SMC as nurient supplement may reduce the production cost for in vitro culture of fig plant. This research is to study the use of Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm. spent mushroom compost (SMC) as a nutrient supplement of the media in shoot induction of fig plant. Nodal segment of fig’s stem was cultured in MS media supplemented with different concentrations of SMC. With presence of SMC, 10% SMC have the highest shoot proliferation (2.167 ± 1.169) and length of shoot (0.154 ± 0.060 cm). The study revealed that in presence of 10% of SMC could produce new shoots at a frequency which was comparable to the control (p<0.05; n=3; Tukey’s multiple range test). Among the different media combinations of plant growth regulators with SMC, 15 μM Kinetin with 10% SMC is the most effective treatment which gave maximum number of shoot proliferation (3.00 ± 1.27). 30 μM IAA with 10% SMC media have the highest leaves regenerated which were 1.33 ± 0.84. In conclusion, the SMC added in media for plant tissue culture had positive effect on shoot induction thus highlighted the potential of waste substrate of SMC to act as nutrient supplement for plant tissue culture.
... The specific organic compounds can vary in different samples. It has been shown that SMC can be particularly variating depending on the source, season and time of storage of the product (Jordan et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the groups of organic substances, which is mostly discussed in context of SMC is carboxylic acids. ...
Passive wastewater treatment systems are an alternative to costly and ineffective chemical wastewater treatment methods. Lignocellulosic waste materials (LWM) are often used in passive wastewater treatment systems as a cheap and accessible source of nutrients. LWM, such as spent mushroom compost and woodchips, have been implemented for the successful management of mildly alkaline effluents, which constitute a large fraction of industrial wastewater. The objective of the study was to provide an extensive study of the parameters in four types of commonly used LWM (raw and composted sawdust, spent mushroom compost and woodchips), which can be used in the planning of a passive wastewater treatment plant. LWM were shown to remove up to 90% Zn²⁺ and Pb²⁺ from a model solution and neutralize wastewater. Moreover, the LWM were inhabited by a physiologically diverse microbial consortium containing sulfate-reducing and cellulolytic microbes, which can influence the treatment process. Another purpose of this study was to construct a pilot wastewater treatment plant based on the use of LWM and gravel and to present its ability to effectively treat extremely alkaline flotation wastewater (pH = 12) originating from a lead and zinc mine located in Montenegro. The treated wastewater had a unique, but challenging chemical composition for passive treatment, as it was heavily contaminated with sulfates (∼1200 mg/L) and lead (∼1 g/L). The removal within the developed installation reached a rate of 66%, while the treated effluent, after initial neutralization, was maintained at a pH of approximately 7. Lead and zinc concentrations after treatment were also kept at levels required by Montenegrin law for wastewater disposal.
... The specific organic compounds can vary in different samples. It has been shown that SMC can be particularly variating depending on the source, season and time of storage of the product (Jordan et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the groups of organic substances, which is mostly discussed in context of SMC is carboxylic acids. ...
... SMS is a renewable source, and also accounts for a cost-effective process for the production of biomass at a large-scale level [8]. Mushroom farming generates inexhaustible supply of a co-product called as SMS [9]. Every kilogram of grown mushroom generates approximately 5 kg of SMS [7]. ...
In this study, spent mushroom substrate (SMS) obtained from edible mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus florida) was used as a potential biomass for lignocellulolytic enzymes (oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes), and bioethanol production was investigated. The activity of lignocellulolytic enzymes was analyzed in SMS collected at different stages of mushroom cultivation. The activity of oxidative enzymes (VP, MnP, LiP, and laccase) was higher during mycelial growth stage, and the activity of hydrolytic enzymes (CMCase, xylanase, and cellobiohydrolase) was observed maximum during the formation and development of fruiting bodies. Relative proportion of lignocellulosic components (lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose) was analyzed in SMS taken from axenic and non-axenic conditions. The scanning electron microscopy along with X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of SMS showed strong alterations in the lignocellulosic fibers caused by the enzymatic and non-enzymatic action of the fungus in the substrate after the vegetative growth and fruiting stage of A. bisporus and P. florida. The hydrolysis with alkali (NaOH) and in-house produced partially purified enzymes were evaluated for SMS pretreatment to obtain maximal reducing sugar for bioethanol production. Maximum reducing sugar yield from SMS after pretreatment was 14.31 ± 0.49 mg/ml (A. bisporus) and 18.51 ± 0.56 mg/ml (P. florida). The fermentation efficiency of 76.13% and 58.12% was obtained from pretreated SMS of A. bisporus and P. florida at 30 ± 2 °C after 48 h incubation, by using co-culture of different sugar utilizing yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pachysolen tannophilus). The results suggested that SMS of edible mushrooms could be a cheap expedient substrate for sustainable bioethanol production with high lignocellulolytic enzymes recovery.
... A number of studies have reported that SMS contains high levels of organic matter, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients, with such characteristics suitable in applied in agricultural systems (Jordan et al., 2008;Medina et al., 2012;Roy et al., 2015). The benefits of SMS as an organic fertilizer and soil conditioner have also been reported (Courtney and Mullen, 2008;Hackett, 2015). ...
Spent mushroom Substrate is the by-product generated at the end of the mushroom growing cycle. It can be used in agriculture for different purposes, including seedling production, soil conditioning or application as an organic fertilizer. Tomato is one of the world́s most important crops, requiring considerable care, in terms of both nutrition and disease control. The objective of this study was to investigate the viability of spent mushroom substrate as a nutrient source for tomato seedlings and develop an integrated tomato and mushroom co-production system. For seedling production, different compositions were evaluated with spent mushroom substrate from Pleurotus ostreatus or substrate colonized with Agaricus bisporus. The parameters evaluated comprised germination rate, seedling quality and physicochemical analysis. A tomato and mushroom integrated production system was developed using a 40-liter pot divided into upper (spent mushroom substrate and soil), middle (spent mushroom substrate from P. ostreatus) and lower (gravel) layers. For seedlings production, plants treated with the substrate colonized with A. bisporus presented a superior root length (10.1 cm) and aerial part length (6.6 cm). Co-production of tomato and mushrooms was also shown to be viable. In this co-cultivation system between tomato and mushroom, the treatment with the substrate colonized with A. bisporus differed from others, with this treatment presenting high yields of tomato (2.35 kg/plant pot) and mushrooms (1.33 kg/plant pot) within the same bucket. With this co-production system, the tomato production time was reduced by 60 days and prolonged continuous mushroom production by 120 days. These findings show a sustainable approach to manage different agroindustrial residues, encouraging the use of these residues for olericulture and fungiculture production.
... Sawdust contains a large amount of lignin, which is a C-enriched organic polymer (Khan et al. 2014). Both of mushroom residues and sawdust are rich in carbon (C) (Jordan et al. 2008;Guo et al. 2012;Zhang and Sun 2014). Thus, there is a good opportunity to combine mushroom residues or sawdust with pig manure to improve the composting process and produce high-quality compost. ...
Although composting, a measure to dispose agricultural waste, is widely accepted and applied, specific knowledge of microbially driven effects on nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions during composting remains limited. Here, we monitored the impact of sawdust on N2O emissions during pig manure composting. The results suggested that adding sawdust to the compost improved the compost temperature and reduced N2O emissions. The addition of sawdust significantly altered the bacterial community structure and enhanced community turnover during the composting process. The addition of sawdust significantly reduced the relative abundance of denitrification and ureolysis, while increasing the relative abundance of nitrogen fixation. Specifically, adding sawdust may reduce N2O emissions by reducing the relative abundance of Salinithrix, Truepera, Azomonas, Iamia, Silanimonas, Phycisphaera, and Gp21 during the thermophilic and mature phases of the composting period.
... Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) consists of different types of straw, corn cobs, peanut shells, or cotton seed hulls [21,31]. With the high organic matter content in the range of 40.7-86.9% on a dry weight basis [29,32] and available nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus, spent mushroom substrate can be an alternative soil amendment in conventional and organic farming systems [33,34]. Large quantities of SMS are generated in China, the USA, and several European countries, and they increase along with the production of edible mushrooms. ...
Soil organic matter is a key resource base for agriculture. However, its content in cultivated soils is low and often decreases. This study aimed at examining the effects of long-term application of chicken manure (CM) and spent mushroom substrate (SMS) on organic matter accumulation, acidity, and hydraulic properties of soil. Two podzol soils with sandy texture in Podlasie Region (Poland) were enriched with recycled CM (10 Mg ha−1) and SMS (20 Mg ha−1), respectively, every 1–2 years for 20 years. The application of CM and SMS increased soil organic matter content at the depths of 0–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm, especially at 0–20 cm (by 102–201%). The initial soil pH increased in the CM- and SMS-amended soil by 1.7–2.0 units and 1.0–1.2 units, respectively. Soil bulk density at comparable depths increased and decreased following the addition of CM and SMS, respectively. The addition of CM increased field water capacity (at –100 hPa) in the range from 45.8 to 117.8% depending on the depth within the 0–60 cm layer. In the case of the SMS addition, the value of the parameter was in the range of 42.4–48.5% at two depths within 0–40 cm. Depending on the depth, CM reduced the content of transmission pores (>50 µm) in the range from 46.3 to 82.3% and increased the level of residual pores (
... In Ireland, the loading of K and P was found to vary considerably in different batches of SMC [33] whereas the benefits of SMC's useful amount of Mg can be mitigated by high levels of manganese (Mn) and, here, Varteg's mine spoils already contain >1500 mg Mn kg −1 (1.5%) [34]. In Ireland, SMC application to 1 m 2 plots of grass significantly increased plant available soil P, K and Mg, especially at higher application rates, whereas greenhouse pot studies found that it also increased soil exchangeable potassium (EC), pH and bioproductivity [35,36]. ...
Many reclaimed opencast coal-lands in Wales are now seriously degraded. This study explores the 10-year growth of native trees planted on compacted coal spoil. It compares the relative benefits of planting with spent mushroom compost (SMC) or well-rotted farmyard manure (FYM), both with and without supplementary fertilizer. Four main tree species—Common Alder, Oak, Scots Pine and Silver Birch—are considered. The survival of SMC-planted trees (77%) was significantly higher than for FYM-planted (72%). In Year 10, SMC-planted trees were significantly taller than those planted with FYM (4.75 vs. 4.57 m, respectively). Similarly, basal diameter (measured above the root collar) was larger among the SMC-planted trees. Discriminant analysis showed that the key discriminating variable between SMC-planted and FYM-planted trees was the type of fertilizer applied during planting. Adding slow-release fertilizer (SRF) and SRF plus superphosphate (SRF + P2O5) was beneficial to FYM-planted trees. Fertilizer supplements often favor the growth of FYM-planted trees in the early years, but later SMC-planted trees take the lead. The only species that benefited long term from FYM or fertilizer supplements was Alder. Overall, SMC-planted trees perform better than FYM-planted trees, but some of the difference can be mitigated by supplementary fertilization. Overall, SMC-planted trees perform better than FYM-planted trees.
... Moreover, with the increasing pH, the solubility of many nutrients is reduced and some nutrients are precipitated as solid materials that plant cannot use [43]. In contrast many researchers reported high salinity of SMS, which is mostly responsible for the limited use of SMS as a potting media [9]. ...
The commercial production of mushrooms generates a co-product, a virtually inexhaustible supply of spent mushroom substrate (SMS). It represents an ideal growth medium for plants and plant disease suppressive quality. Here we discussed about the contaminated microbial flora of SMS, potential antifungal and plant growth promoting activities, the results of these findings were also discussed in relation to the usage of SMS as a potential product for organic farming. SMS contained moisture content 72%, EC 1.75 mmho.cm−1 and had pH of 6.1. The cellulose and hemicellulose content of paddy straw substrate were 30.25%, 23.18% and 15.31% dry weight respectively. Growth in terms of root and shoot weight of the seedlings of green gram, black gram, tomato and chili were significantly higher when grown in 60% SMS amended soil. Spent mushroom compost from Pleurotus eous used in this study harbored bacterial population including, Bacillus sp., Clostridium sp., Pseudomonas sp. and E. coli. Bacterial isolate B1 was identified as Bacillus sp., isolate B2 was identified as Clostridium sp., isolate B3 as Pseudomonas sp. and B4 as Escherichia coli. These bacterial strains showed significant antagonistic activity against soil borne pathogenic fungi viz., Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp., Phytophthora sp. and Aspergillus sp.
... It is usually derived from renewable agricultural residues. These materials include sawdust, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm empty fruit bunch, wheat straw-bedded horse manure, hay, poultry manure, ground corncobs, cottonseed meal, cocoa shells, gypsum and other substances (Jordan et al., 2008). Approximately 5 million tons of SMS are generated annually as the trend for mushroom cultivation increases (Chiu et al., 1998). ...
Farming generates a tremendous amount of waste in the form of cellulosic biomass. With the constant rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide and the continuous degradation of soil health in farmlands, the management of agricultural waste in a sustainable manner has long been a standing goal. In this paper, the various methods of sustainable waste management through cyclical usage of wastes in various agricultural endeavors are explored. Cellulosic biomass, like rice straw or corn stalk, can be utilized in the green synthesis of nanomaterials. It can also be used as fertilizer through composting, with the aid of rapid composting and enrichment technology. Moreover, cellulosic waste can be used as a substrate in mushroom farming, which produces a healthy yet affordable food source. The spent mushroom substrate, on the other hand, after being subjected to rapid composting and enrichment process, can be an alternative livestock, poultry, and fish feed. The manure from livestock farming can then be combined with cellulosic waste and subjected to composting to produce a compost fertilizer that the rice farmers can use as a supplement or even an alternative to commercial fertilizers. The cyclical utilization of agricultural wastes for a myriad of agricultural and industrial enterprises provides a cost-effective and environment-friendly approach in agricultural waste management.
... Spent mushroom substrate is formally approved for use as fertilizer in agriculture and horticulture [6][7][8]. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is characterized by a high content of organic matter, good availability of macro-and micro-nutrients (in both total and available form), neutral pH, a favorable narrow C/N ratio, and a low content of heavy metals [8][9][10][11]. ...
This experiment was designed to determine the effect of spent mushroom substrate, farmyard manure, and mineral fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on the yield and quality of raw material obtained from two cultivars (“Słoneczko” and “De Dolj”) of common thyme. Unfertilized plots with thyme crops were included as the control treatment. Different row spacings (30 cm and 40 cm) represented the second experimental factor. The highest total yield of thyme raw material was found in the treatment with mineral NPK fertilization, but also in the treatments where spent mushroom substrate (SMS) and mineral NPK fertilization were applied at a ratio of 50:50%. Fertilization with SMS alone (100%) yielded smaller production effects, but they were higher than in the case of fertilization with manure. The high suitability of spent mushroom substrate applied alone or supplemented with mineral fertilization at different rates in spring was confirmed by the best quality parameters and antioxidant properties of the raw material. The use of a wider row spacing (40 cm) resulted in a higher yield of thyme raw material than in the case of a narrower one (30 cm). The narrower row spacing significantly positively affected some of the analyzed quality parameters of the harvested raw material, such as: essential oil content, polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity. The thyme cultivar “Słoneczko” proved to be absolutely more beneficial in terms of yield quantity and quality than the foreign cultivar “De Dolj”.
... The absorption peak intensity from the healthy pine substrate, nematode-infected pine substrate, and nematode-infected pine sawdust at 1458 cm -1 and 1509 cm -1 was lower than in the healthy pine sawdust before the acid hydrolysis (Fig. 3), indicating that the fungal infection caused by pine wilt disease or the edible fungus could hydrolyze lignin content. Whereas acid hydrolysis can further degrade lignin content (Jordan et al. 2008), the absorption peak intensity of all samples decreased in the treated materials when compared with the untreated materials. ...
To improve the nematode-infected pinewood application value, an effective strategy was developed based on the cultivation of Flammulina velutipes to process the pinewood that was infected by the nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Different treatments were compared to determine the optimal method to obtain the highest yields of reducing sugars. The results showed that the cultivation of F. velutipes using the nematode-infected pine sawdust overcame the disadvantage of cultivation by using healthy pine sawdust, and whether fungal infection that happened in the period of pine wilt disease or during the cultivation of F. velutipes both can contribute on the degradation of the polysaccharide content. A high yield of reducing sugars can be obtained using 2% dilute sulfuric acid at 121 °C for 1 h to treat recyclable nematode-infected pine sawdust after the cultivation of F. velutipes. Additionally, the results showed that fungal infection that occurred in the period of the pine wilt disease and during the cultivation of F. velutipes in addition to acid hydrolysis effectively converted hemicellulose to reducing sugars.
In the era of the intensive use of mineral fertilizers, which results in a negative impact on the natural environment, it is necessary to use agrotechnical practices that use the potential of biodegradable waste. The physicochemical properties of the substrate after mushroom cultivation (SMS—spent mushroom substrate) mean that this waste can be a safe and cheap source of ingredients for crops. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different doses of mineral fertilizers and SMS on the yield of two grass species, the nitrogen content in their biomass, and its uptake and use efficiency, as well as its accumulation in the soil. This research was based on a three-year (2017–2019) experiment that was conducted in bottomless pots in field conditions at the experimental facility of the University of Siedlce, Poland. The SMS was used together with mineral fertilization in various proportions. Two forage grass species were tested: Dactylis glomerata and Phleum pratense. In each year, three harvests of the cultivated grasses were collected. The introduction into the soil of the medium dose of the SMS nitrogen, supplemented annually with the medium dose of mineral nitrogen (SMS2 + N2PK), resulted in the greatest yield of the grasses (19.98 g·pot−1), as well as its greatest uptake (410.2 g·pot−1) and use efficiency (105%). The highest content of nitrogen (21.60 g·kg−1) was in the plants treated with the smallest dose of the SMS and supplemented with the greatest dose of the mineral nitrogen (SMS1 + N3PK). The greatest dose of the SMS nitrogen, applied with the smallest amount of the mineral nitrogen (SMS3 + N1PK), resulted in the most (1.70 g·kg−1) nitrogen accumulation in the soil.
The study involved conducting soil column simulation tests and pot experiments to explore the impact of applying five different proportions of amendments on fertilizer retention and ryegrass growth characteristics in copper tailings at high altitudes. The results demonstrated that fertilization with these varying proportions of amendments significantly enhanced the physical structure and nutrient content of the copper tailings, leading to a notable difference compared to the control group. Following application of the amendment to the surface layer (0–20 cm) of the tailings, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels declined with increasing leaching times; however, even after six leaching times, the nutrient content still met afforestation planting soil fertility requirements. In contrast, nutrients in the lower layer (20–40 cm) without amendment initially rose significantly during leaching but ultimately exhibited less fertility increase compared to the control group. This suggests that pure copper tailings have limited capacity for nutrient absorption from leaching solutions and poor fertilizer retention effects. Ryegrass thrived on improved tailings, showing a positive correlation between its growth and organic matter content as well as available potassium, available phosphorus, and alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen levels in the tailings. In conclusion, utilizing amendments for fertilizing copper tailings demonstrates superior fertilizer retention characteristics while providing essential nutrients for ryegrass growth. This approach could prove economical and effective when used for mine ecological restoration purposes aimed at rehabilitating surrounding ecological environments.
Graphical Abstract
The mushroom cultivation industry effectively utilizes a diverse range of lignocellulosic waste but generates a significant amount of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) that poses disposal challenges. However, SMS can be used to generate valuable biogas. This study aimed to generate biogas by utilizing different types of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) obtained from three mushroom varieties. These mushroom varieties were cultivated in three types of greenhouses: Photovoltaic Shading greenhouse (PSG), shading greenhouse (SHG), and Control greenhouse (CG). The study found that the total solids (TS) and the amount of SMS used had a significant impact on both the total gas production and the removal of volatile solids (VS). The results demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing SMS as a raw material for biogas production, with variations observed depending on SMS type and greenhouse conditions. It contributes to knowledge in sustainable waste management and renewable energy production from agricultural by-products.
Sustainable solutions for environmental remediation are of great interest due to the escalated release of toxic substances into the ecosystem. Here, Ca-impregnated pyro-hydrocarbon (Ca-SMS) was synthesized from spent mushroom substrate (SMS) via hydrothermal carbonization at a relatively low process temperature, followed by subsequent physicochemical activation. Ca-SMS underwent characterization using various analytical techniques, and its efficacy in removing acridine red (AR) and methylene blue (MB) was assessed through batch experiments. The results suggested that Ca-SMS is an effective adsorbent for AR and MB, visiting a removal capacity of 33.82 and 81.98 mg g−1 at 35 °C, respectively. The kinetic investigation uncovered that the dye removal process mostly agreed with the pseudo-second-order (PSO), while the Langmuir and Freundlich models were the most suitable to describe the removal of dyes. Thermodynamic analyses showed that the remediation process is spontaneous and endothermic. Adsorption mechanisms among dyes and Ca-SMS were multiple: physical adsorption, surface complexation, electrostatic, and π-π interaction. The feasibility of the proposed method for real sample treatment was demonstrated. These findings indicate that Ca-SMS is an effective alternative sorbent for the remediation of textile wastewater and is a viable solution for waste reduction in the rising mushroom cultivation sector.
Salacca zalacca var. amboinensis farming has been positioned as the main source of farmers’ income, which is used to meet various needs, including food. Nowadays, S. zalacca var. amboinensis farming has been carried out organically, although the financial benefits for the farmers are still questionably argued. The aims of the study were to analyze (1) the financial benefits of organic-based S. zalacca var. amboinensis farming, and (2) farmers’ perceptions of the contribution of organic-based S. zalacca var. amboinensis farming to farmers’ economic strengthening and food security. The study was carried out in production centers of S. zalacca var. amboinensis in the province of Bali, and 139 farmers were selected as the respondents of the study. The financial benefits were critically analyzed using a policy analysis matrix approach, and the farmers’ perceptions of the contribution of organic-based S. zalacca var. amboinensis farming to farmers’ economic strengthening and food security were analyzed using descriptive analysis. The results showed that the financial benefits of organic-based S . zalacca var. amboinensis farming in various strata of land areas and harvesting season were positively valued. However, farmers’ perceptions of the contribution of farming to their economic strengthening and food security were mostly positively categorized.
Urban agriculture should be promoted as long as the food produced is safe for consumption. Located in the metropolitan region of São Paulo-Brazil, Santo André has intense industrial activities and more recently an increasing stimulus to urban gardening. One of the potential risks associated to this activity is the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs). In this study, the concentration of PTEs (As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni, Mo, Pb, Sb, Se, V and Zn) was evaluated by soil (n=85) and soil amendments (n=19) in urban gardens from this municipality. Only barium was above regulatory limits in agricultural soil, although enrichment of all elements was observed. A multivariate statistical approach was applied and indicated two groups of elements with strong influence of the petrochemical complex located in this region. However, carcinogenic, and non-carcinogenic risks were not observed. Soil amendments were identified as a possible source of contamination for Ba, Zn and Pb and for pathogenic bacteria. Besides that, the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance suggests some soil management practices are necessary.
Lignocellulosic sulfate-reducing bioreactors are an inexpensive passive approach for treatment of mining-influenced water (MIW). Typically, microbial community acclimation to MIW involves bioreactor batch-mode operation to initiate lignocellulose hydrolysis and fermentation and provide electron donors for sulfate-reducing bacteria. However, batch-mode operation could significantly prolong bioreactor start-up times (up to several months) and select for slow-growing microorganisms. In this study we assessed the feasibility of bioreactor continuous-mode acclimation to MIW (pH 2.5, 6.5 mM SO4²⁻, 18 metal(loid)s) as an alternate start-up method. Results showed that bioreactors with spent brewing grains and sugarcane bagasse achieved acclimation in continuous mode at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 7-12 d within 16-22 days. During continuous-mode acclimation, extensive sulfate-reduction (80 ± 20% – 91 ± 3%) and > 98% metal(loid) removal was observed. Operation at a 3-d HRT further yielded a metal(loid) removal of 97.5 ± 1.3 – 98.8 ± 0.9% until the end of operation. Sulfate-reducing microorganisms were detected closer to the influent in the spent brewing grains bioreactors, and closer to the effluent in the sugarcane bagasse bioreactors, giving insight as to where sulfate-reduction was occurring. Results strongly support that a careful selection of lignocellulose and bioreactor operating parameters can bypass typical batch-mode acclimation, shortening bioreactor start-up times and promoting effective MIW metal(loid) immobilization and treatment.
Edible mushroom are grown commercially using lignocellulosic waste by applying a biological process. However after the harvesting season about 70% of the substrate remain as a spent mushroom compost (SMC). SMC can be the source for retrieving value-added products which support zero waste approach. In this paper, the fate of SMC from agricultural production will be discussed focusing on its utilization. Based on the previous reports, major uses of SMC were in the agricultural field as mushroom media, animal feed, plant compost, fertilizer and others. Extended usage of SMC, i.e., for second cultivation is proposed in this review. In addition, the SMC was also applied in renewable energy production, e.g., feedstock for biogas, bioethanol or biohydrogen.
In this study, the combined application of treated dairy wastewater and agricultural residues for Agaricus bisporus mushroom cultivation is presented. For this, laboratory-scale cultivation of A. bisporus was done on a mixture of wheat straw and sugar cane bagasse substrates moistened with different concentrations of treated dairy wastewater (DWW) including, 0 (borewell water), 25, 50, 75, and 100%, respectively. Additionally, the mushroom growth patterns were analyzed using different kinetics models. The results revealed that substrate moistening using DWW showed a significant increase (P<0.05) in the nutrients composition which subsequently enhanced mushroom productivity. The maximum removal of substrate nutrients by A. bisporus was achieved using 75% DWW treatment with maximum mushroom yield (224.07±6.72 g/kg FS), biological efficiency (112.04±3.36%), and minimum spawn running time (15 days), respectively. In addition, the highest deformation of substrate chemical species was reported using 75% DWW enrichment as revealed from FTIR analysis. Also, the logistic model gave more reliable results as compared to the modified Gompertz model to determine the kinetics of A. bisporus growth and yield. This paper provides an integrated approach for sustainable management of industrial wastewater and agricultural residues in mushroom production while minimizing risks associated with their disposal.
Background
The mushroom industry produces a large amount of spent mushroom substrate (SMS), which requires a large geographical footprint and causes pollution.
Methods
We sought to optimize the C:N ratio of the initial feedstock used in vermicomposting of SMS by adding pig manure additions. We applied five treatments to the initial feedstock (S0, S1, S2, S3, and S4) with different C:N ratio of approximately 35, 30, 25, 20, and 15, respectively.
Results
Our results showed that lignin and cellulose in SMS were degraded after 56 days vermicomposting, especially in S2 (77.05% and 45.29%, respectively) and S3 (65.05% and 48.37%, respectively) treatments. We observed the degradation of the fibrous structure in SMS using pig manure treatments after vermicomposting by microscope and scanning electron microscope. Cellulase and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) were enhanced in pig manure treatments during vermicomposting, especially in the S2 and S3 treatments. The biomass of earthworms in the S2 treatments was at its highest level among all treatments at 28 to 56 days. The high level of PPO activity in the S2 treatment may protect cellulase and earthworms against the aromatic toxicity that is a byproduct of lignin degradation, particularly at 28 to 56 days of vermicomposting. Conclusively, it indicated that the C/N ratio of 25 in the S2 treatment was the optimal for SMS vermicomposting with the addition of pig manure. Our results provide a positive application for the recycling of both SMS and pig manure.
In this study, the isolation of new alkali-thermophilic bacteria with enhanced cellulase producing ability from the spent mushroom substrate was conducted. Repeated streaking was performed on the Microcrystalline-cellulose (MCC) to obtain a pure culture. Two thermophiles bacteria isolates were used for subsequent experiment. Morphological characteristic by gram staining and endospore staining also genetic identification of 16S rDNA was performed and the growth profile had been generated using Polymath Software. Filter paper assay (determination of enzyme activity), Bradford protein concentration were used in plotting the growth associated product curve. Based on the 16S rDNA sequencing results, the bacterium strains of Anoxybacillus geothermalis , incubated at 50˚C, pH 7 and Aeribacillus pallidus , incubated at 60˚C, pH 8 was successfully isolated. Both strains are gram-positive and endospore-forming bacteria. Based on the growth curve, the doubling time for Anoxybacillus geothermalis was calculated to be 49.5 minutes. Whereas, doubling time of Aeribacillus pallidus was 56.7 minutes. Both strains represent the growth assosiated product curve in which, when product formation is growth associated the specific rate of the product formation increases with specific growth rate and vice versa.
Bu çalışmada farklı organik (atık mantar kompostu (AMK) ve çay atığı (ÇA)) gübreler (OG) ile inorganik gübrelerin (İG) çemen (Trigonella foenum graecum) bitkisinin bazı verim unsurları üzerine etkilerinin araştırılması amaçlanmıştır. Deneme faktöriyel dizayna göre 54 saksıda üç tekerrürlü olarak yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada çay atığı (ÇA0: % 0, ÇA1: % 2.5, ÇA2: % 5.0) ve atık mantar kompostu (AMK0: % 0, AMK1: % 2.5 ve AMK2: % 5.0) üç farklı dozda uygulanmıştır. İnorganik gübre olarak NPK kombinasyonu 3 farklı dozda ( 0, 125, 250 mg N kg-1 ; 0, 50, 100 mg P2O5 kg-1 ; 0, 75, 150 mg K2O kg-1 ) uygulanmıştır. Organik materyaller arasındaki farklılığın bitki boyu, bitki yaş ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı kök uzunluğu ve kök yaş ağırlığı üzerine etkileri istatistiksel olarak önemli (P<0.01) bulunmuştur. ÇA uygulamalarının bitki yaş ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı ve kök kuru ağırlığı üzerine etkilerinin % 1 düzeyinde, kök yaş ağırlığı üzerine etkilerinin ise % 5 düzeyinde önemli olduğu belirlenmiştir. AMK ve İG uygulamalarının bitki boyu, bitki yaş ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı, kök yaş ağırlığı ve kök uzunluğu üzerine etkilerinin % 1 düzeyinde önemli olduğu belirlenmiştir. En yüksek bitki boyu (32.94 cm), bitki yaş ağırlığı (2.95 g) ve bitki kuru ağırlığı (0.33 g) ortalamaları ÇA2 uygulamalarında elde edilmiştir. Araştırmada çay atığı ve atık mantar kompostu uygulamalarının bitki gelişim kriterleri üzerine genel olarak olumlu etkilerinin olduğu belirlenmiştir.
Spent mushroom compost (SMC) was used as a soil amendment for field-grown vegetables. Four rates (0, 2, 10, or 20 kg/m ² ) of SMC were applied to a fine sandy loam in 1981 and 1982. SMC application decreased bulk density and increased the percentage of small pore space, pH, and electrical conductivity. Yields of cucumber and snap bean increased and yield of onion decreased, as the rate of SMC increased in 1981. Yields of cabbage, radish, and tomato were not affected significantly by the addition of SMC. Tomato yield was maximum at 10 kg/m ² , then declined as SMC was increased to 20 kg/m ² in 1982. Yield responses of cucumber, fall-planted radish, spinach, and mustard were similar to that of tomato. Salt sensitive crops, such as snap bean, onion, and spring-planted radish, suffered severely reduced plant stands and, consequently, decreased yields. Yield of cabbage, a relatively salt tolerant crop, was not affected by SMC. Concentrations of K in all leaf tissues increased significantly as the level of SMC increased. Mg content in leaf tissue decreased.
The paper describes the potential benefits economically and environmentally of recycled Spent Mushroom Substrate. An experiment on its agricultural applications yielded favorable results despite its high salt level reputation. Investigations showed that many ornamental woody species grew well on 6-liter regular nursery containers amended with different proportions of SMS mixed with bark. Despite variable species response, there was little relationship of growth performance to: source of SMS; initial or subsequent salt levels in the media; chemical or physical characteristics of the media, including increasing shrinkage with added amounts of SMS; or contents of leaf nutrients. Almost all test plant species achieved marketable size and quality at harvest.
Selected physical and chemical properties of fresh spent mushroom compost were evaluated and compared to the properties of spent mushroom compost which was aged aerobically for 6 weeks. Bulk density, total pore space, total water at saturation, and percentage air space in fresh and aged spent composts were acceptable for plant growth. Both contained very high levels of soluble salts which were readily leachable. Concentrations of metals were acceptable, but concentrations of K, Ca, and Mg could lead to plant nutrient imbalances. Concentrations of NH 4 -N in fresh spent mushroom compost were high.
Of the 280,000 t of spent mushroom compost (SMC) produced annually in Ireland, 27% is produced in Co. Monaghan and 72% of this is spread on land. On account of the serious levels of environmental pollution which exist in Monaghan, a study was carried out to investigate the effects of surface spreading and incorporation into the soil of SMC on soil properties and grass growth. In Experiment 1, SMC was applied in spring at rates of 0, 16.5 and 49.5 t/ha to small plots of permanent grassland in Co. Monaghan. Three ages of SMC were used (fresh, aged outdoors for 6 months, and aged outdoors for 12 months) in a fully randomised factorial design with 10 replications of each application rate/age combination (90 plots). Herbage dry matter (DM) production was measured over the growing season, at the end of which soil was removed from all plots for physical and chemical analysis. In Experiment 2, SMC of the three ages used in Experiment I was incorporated in pots with surface soil from three areas of contrasting soil type and land use in Co. Monaghan at a rate of 49.5 t/ha. There was also an untreated control in a fully randomised factorial design with six replications of each age/soil combination (72 pots). Pots were sown with perennial ryegrass and, after an 8-month period, herbage DM production was measured and selected soil chemical parameters were evaluated. In Experiment 1, application of SMC led to increased (P < 0.05) levels of plant-available soil phosphorus, potassium and magnesium, soil pH and herbage DM production but did not affect plant-available soil calcium, percent organic carbon, electrical conductivity (EC), root mass in the upper 10 cm, bulk density or percent water-stable aggregates. Age of SMC had no effect on any of the variables measured. In Experiment 2, SMC amendment affected (P < 0.05) plant-available soil phosphorus, pH, EC, and herbage DM production. Interaction effects suggested that application of well-aged SMC may give rise to unacceptably high plant-available soil phosphorus levels on high-pH soils and susceptibility to drought on sandy soils.
In The Netherlands, 760,000 metric tons of Spent Mushroom Substrate (sold under the name Champost) were produced in 1993. The annual production is still rising. Analytical data concerning fertilizer elements like N, P, K, Ca and Mg, show that the composition of SMS has been fairly constant since the mid sixties. However, the last few years, dry matter, ash and phosphate content are decreasing due to reduced composting time and cropping cycle. Heavy metals and arsenic were not analyzed until 1983. In connection with manure surpluses in The Netherlands, a ‘Decree Use of Animal Manure’ was laid down as part of the Soil Protection Act, which dates from 1986. The Decree regulates the maximum quantity of manure that may be used, based on its phosphate content. The rules will be accentuated in the next few years. Since 1993, SMS falls under another item of the Soil Protection Act, the ‘Decree Use and Quality of Other Organic Fertilizers,’ controlling sewage sludge and all kinds of composts. The quantity that may be used depends on phosphate and heavy metal content. The total load of heavy metals, supplied per hectare, is controlled by limiting the amount of dry matter. Each year, 6 metric tons of dry matter may be used per hectare, provided that the compost is ‘clean’. To check phosphate and heavy metals, samples have to be analyzed regularly. In 1993, 620 samples have been analyzed. All compost fell within the category ‘clean’ and 17% was even characterized as ‘very clean.’ Production of vegetable, fruit and garden waste, a type of compost very competitive to SMS, is strongly increasing. Alternative ways of disposal of SMS will be discussed briefly.
Spent mushroom substrates (SMS) have traditionally been discarded as wastes, creating an environmental nuisance. In recent years, mushroom growers all over the world are facing increasing pressure of environmental legislation, giving rise to the need for a more suitable solution for the disposal of SMS. At the same time, there is an increasing demand for organic residues and composts, which could provide several potential outlets for SMS. Agriculture, horticulture, soil reclamation projects and projects for the purification of contaminated soil, water and air are examples of such outlets. Each demands its own specific properties for the organic product. These properties are defined by chemical, physical and biological parameters. SMS should be treated to suit the specific demand of each outlet. The manipulation of SMS, mainly by recomposting, could produce products with several advantages over other recycled wastes. Such products could be used successfully to solve agronomic or environmental problems, while generating more income for the mushroom growers.
The fibre present in mushroom compost samples was separated by a standard method of selective hydrolysis into three components: acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and lignin. Results of differential thermogravimetric (DTG) analysis of these fractions suggest that with NDF the matrix polysaccharides were detected as a shoulder to the cellulose peak and that structural hemicelluloses pyrolysed before the lignin decomposition peak. However, in ADF, only cellulose and lignin pyrolysis peaks were detected and a hemicellulose decomposition peak or shoulder was not present. In the lignin there were two pyrolysis peaks which represented residual polysaccharides and lignin. Thermograms of humus which had been separated from the compost by ultrasonic treatment showed that microbial polysaccharides and phenolic compounds were the main components. Lignin and humus contained high concentrations of nitrogen compared with the other fractions. Comparison of thermograms of uncomposted wheat straw and straw from compost showed that straw cell-wall components were altered by fermentation.
Spent mushroom compost as an organic manure and potting compost component
- Maher
Maher, M.J., 1988. Spent mushroom compost as an organic manure and potting compost component. In: Bidlingmaier, W., L'Hermite, P. (Eds.), Proceedings – Compost Processes in Waste Management, Monastery of Neresheim (FRG) 13–15 September 1988. CEC, Brussels, pp. 71–82.
Official Methods of Analysis Soluble salt Methods of Soil Analysis Part II, Chemical Methods
- Anon Horowitz
- Dc Washington
- C A Bower
- L V Wilcox
Anon, 2003. Mushroom Newsletter. Teagasc, Dublin. AOAC, 1995. Official Methods of Analysis. Horowitz, Washington, DC. Bower, C.A., Wilcox, L.V., 1965. Soluble salt. In: Black, C.A. (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis Part II, Chemical Methods. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 933–951.
Cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel
- Soon
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Analytical methods - flame atomic adsorption spectrometry. Publication number 85-100009-00
- Varian
Varian, 1989. Analytical methods – flame atomic adsorption spectrometry. Publication number 85-100009-00. Varian Australia Pty. Ltd., Victo-ria, Australia.
The use of spent mushroom compost in vegetable production
- Male
Male, R.T., 1981. The use of spent mushroom compost in vegetable production. Mushroom Science 6, 111–121.
Effects of spent mushroom compost on the production of greenhouse-grown crops
- Dallon
Dallon, J., 1987. Effects of spent mushroom compost on the production of greenhouse-grown crops. In: Combined proceedings of the Interna-tional Plant Propagators Society, 37. Ramapo college of New Jersey, Jersey, USA, pp. 323–329.
Spent Mushroom Compost – Options for Use
- M J Maher
- J J Lenehan
- W P Staunton
Maher, M.J., Lenehan, J.J., Staunton, W.P., 1993. Spent Mushroom Compost – Options for Use. Teagasc, Dublin, pp. 1–44.
Chemical characterisation of plant tissue Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis
- J E Richards
Richards, J.E., 1993. Chemical characterisation of plant tissue. In: Carter, M.R. (Ed.), Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis. Canadian Society of Soil Science, pp. 115–139.
SPSS for Windows (Version 11) Mush-room compost as a soil amendment for vegetable gardens
- Chicago Stephens
- J M Henry
- G C Castro
- B F Bennett
SPSS, 2002. SPSS for Windows (Version 11). Chicago. Stephens, J.M., Henry, G.C., Castro, B.F., Bennett, D.L., 1989. Mush-room compost as a soil amendment for vegetable gardens. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 102, 108–111.
Spent mushroom compost, a possible growing medium ingredient? In: Compost production, quality and use. Proceedings of a symposium organised by the commission of the European communities, directorate – general science, research and development
- V G Devonald
Devonald, V.G., 1987. Spent mushroom compost, a possible growing medium ingredient? In: Compost production, quality and use. Proceedings of a symposium organised by the commission of the European communities, directorate – general science, research and development, Udine, Italy, 17–19 April 1986. Elsevier, London, UK, pp. 785–791.
Proceedings of a symposium organised by the commission of the European communities, directorate - general science, research and development
- V G Devonald
Comparison of compost standards within the EU, North America and Australia
- Hogg
An international look at compost standards
- Briton
Chemical characterisation of plant tissue
- Richards
Mushroom compost as a soil amendment for vegetable gardens
- Stephens