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Appearing Smart: The Impression Management of Intelligence, Person Perception Accuracy, and Behavior in Social Interaction
Abstract
Intelligence is an important trait that affects everyday social interaction. The present research utilized the ecological perspective of social perception to investigate the impression management of intelligence and strangers' evaluations of targets' intelligence levels. The ability to effectively portray an impression of intelligence to outside judges as well as interaction partners was appraised and the effect of impression management on the accurate judgment of intelligence was assessed. In addition, targets' behavior was studied in relation to impression management, perceived intelligence, and actual measured intelligence. Impression-managing targets appeared more intelligent to video judges but not to their interaction partner as compared to controls. The intelligence quotient (IQ) of impression-managing targets was more accurately judged than controls' IQ. Impression-managing targets displayed distinct nonverbal behavioral patterns that differed from controls. Looking while speaking was a key behavior: It significantly correlated with IQ, was successfully manipulated by impression-managing targets, and contributed to higher perceived intelligence ratings.
... Additionally, we consider the behavioral dimension of interpersonal calmness (vs. nervousness; e.g., nervous speech patterns, freezing; Albright, Kenny, and Malloy 1988;Asendorpf, Banse, and Mücke 2002;Borkenau and Liebler 1992;Borkenau et al. 2004;Creed and Funder 1998;Funder and Sneed 1993;Leising and Bleidorn 2011;Naumann et al. 2009;Troisi 2002;Zeigler-Hill, Besser, and Besser 2020) and intellectual competence (e.g., responsiveness, goal-orientation, eloquence; Borkenau and Liebler 1992;Borkenau et al. 2004;Breil et al. 2021;Grünberg et al. 2018;Murphy 2007;Reynolds and Gifford 2001). Prior research has shown that these behavioral dimensions vary reliably across individuals and are utilized by judges in a wide variety of interpersonal judgments within and outside of the selection context, including motivation and performance in selection interviews (Gallois, Callan, and Palmer 1992;Gifford 1994;Tullar 1989), status (Mast and Hall 2004), popularity (Back, Schmukle, and Egloff 2011;Leckelt et al. 2015;Naumann et al. 2009), competence (Burgoon, Birk, and Pfau 1990;Murphy et al. 2019;Reis et al. 1990;Reynolds and Gifford 2001), and leadership (Gerpott et al. 2019;Oostrom, Lehmann-Willenbrock, and Klehe 2019). ...
... The coded behavioral cues in this study were task unspecific and were selected and confirmed to comprehensively cover different facets of interpersonal behavior (for a comprehensive description of the cue selection and validation process, see Breil et al. 2023). The codings were derived based on interpersonal theory (Abele and Wojciszke 2007;Bakan 1966;Wiggins 1979) and then extended based on established findings from behavioral personality science (Asendorpf, Banse, and Mücke 2002;Borkenau et al. 2004;Creed and Funder 1998;Funder and Sneed 1993;Murphy 2007). Thus, the codings can be mapped onto the four main axes of the interpersonal circumplex, the two major axes of dominance (agency) and warmth (communion), and the diagonal axes of expressiveness (agency and communion) and arrogance (agency and low communion; Wiggins 1979) as well as onto the two additional domains of interpersonal calmness (e.g., Leising and Bleidorn 2011) and intellectual competence (e.g., Breil et al. 2023;Murphy 2007). ...
... The codings were derived based on interpersonal theory (Abele and Wojciszke 2007;Bakan 1966;Wiggins 1979) and then extended based on established findings from behavioral personality science (Asendorpf, Banse, and Mücke 2002;Borkenau et al. 2004;Creed and Funder 1998;Funder and Sneed 1993;Murphy 2007). Thus, the codings can be mapped onto the four main axes of the interpersonal circumplex, the two major axes of dominance (agency) and warmth (communion), and the diagonal axes of expressiveness (agency and communion) and arrogance (agency and low communion; Wiggins 1979) as well as onto the two additional domains of interpersonal calmness (e.g., Leising and Bleidorn 2011) and intellectual competence (e.g., Breil et al. 2023;Murphy 2007). The diagonal dimensions between agency and communion were included to accurately and comprehensively assess the broad variety of behavioral variation in the interpersonal circumplex, thus also capturing behaviors that are theoretically related to both agency and communion (Breil et al. 2023;Gurtman 1992Gurtman , 2009). ...
Although Assessment Center (AC) role‐play assessments have received ample attention in past research, their reliance on actual behavioral information is still unclear. Uncovering the behavioral basis of AC role‐play assessments is, however, a prerequisite for the optimization of existing and the development of novel automated AC procedures. This work provides a first data‐driven benchmark for the behavioral prediction and explanation of AC performance judgments. We used machine learning models trained on behavioral cues ( C = 36) to predict performance judgments in three interpersonal AC exercises from a real‐life high‐stakes AC (selection of medical students, N = 199). Three main findings emerged: First, behavioral prediction models showed substantial predictive performance and outperformed prediction models representing potential judgment biases. Comparisons with in‐sample results revealed overfitting of traditional approaches, highlighting the importance of out‐of‐sample evaluations. Second, we demonstrate that linear combinations of behavioral cues can be strong predictors of assessors' judgments. Third, we identified consistent exercise‐specific patterns of individual cues and cross‐exercise consistent behavioral patterns of behavioral dimensions and interpersonal strategies that were especially predictive of the assessors' judgments. We discuss implications for future research and practice.
... Many works have since investigated the use of thin slice sampling to predict outcome variables and have reproduced similar results. For example, Murphy (2007) demonstrated that 1-min slices were sufficient to predict participant intelligence, Hirschmann et al. (2018) found that 10-and 40-min slices were comparable for predicting maternal sensitivity, and Roter et al. (2011) showed that 1-min slices were adequate for predicting communication over sessions longer than 10 min. However, other studies have identified losses in predictive validity of various outcomes whilst using the thin slice sampling approach (e.g., Murphy et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2020). ...
... A 5 min portion of each interaction was chosen for coding, a choice that was made for a previous, unrelated study involving the Bristol videos. This choice is consistent with previous studies in thin slice sampling that have also used 5-min slices to represent entire sessions (e.g., Murphy, 2007;Murphy et al., 2019). At the beginning of the Bristol Mums and Bristol Dads videos, the parent would typically spend a few moments setting up the infant headcam and reading the study information sheet provided, before starting the interaction. ...
... Our analyses were also limited by the length of the coded interactions. Whilst previous work suggests that 5 min is enough time to constitute as a full session in thin slice sampling (Ambady & Rosenthal, 1992;Murphy, 2007;Murphy et al., 2019), it is plausible that a longer full session would provide new and different insights to those in our work. Unfortunately, as the data used in this work had already been collected and pre-processed for earlier projects (with different aims), most of the interactions were around 5 min in length anyway, and extending our work to interactions of 10 or 20 min would have massively reduced number of viable videos for us to include. ...
Behavioural coding is time-intensive and laborious. Thin slice sampling provides an alternative approach, aiming to alleviate the coding burden. However, little is understood about whether different behaviours coded over thin slices are comparable to those same behaviours over entire interactions. To provide quantitative evidence for the value of thin slice sampling for a variety of behaviours. We used data from three populations of parent-infant interactions: mother-infant dyads from the Grown in Wales (GiW) cohort ( n = 31), mother-infant dyads from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) cohort ( n = 14), and father-infant dyads from the ALSPAC cohort ( n = 11). Mean infant ages were 13.8, 6.8, and 7.1 months, respectively. Interactions were coded using a comprehensive coding scheme comprised of 11–14 behavioural groups, with each group comprised of 3–13 mutually exclusive behaviours. We calculated frequencies of verbal and non-verbal behaviours, transition matrices (probability of transitioning between behaviours, e.g., from looking at the infant to looking at a distraction) and stationary distributions (long-term proportion of time spent within behavioural states) for 15 thin slices of full, 5-min interactions. Measures drawn from the full sessions were compared to those from 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-min slices. We identified many instances where thin slice sampling (i.e., < 5 min) was an appropriate coding method, although we observed significant variation across different behaviours. We thereby used this information to provide detailed guidance to researchers regarding how long to code for each behaviour depending on their objectives.
... However, in both cases, the effect sizes were small;for the combined judgment, the Cohen's W was.129 and for the combined intelligent target, it was .209.It seems that particularly about intelligence, there are some traces of accurate social perceptions among the evidences of biases and inaccuracies. The trace of accuracies in the perception of intelligence is somewhat in accordance with some previous studies Murphy et al., 2003;Murphy, 2007;Rule et al., 2013). ...
... Then, it can be possibly discussed that among the inaccurate judgments made, there are still some traces of accuracy beyond positive biases. The traces that are in accordance with some previous studies about evidences of accurate perception of intelligence Murphy et al., 2003;Murphy, 2007;Rule et al., 2013) and accurate perception of the variables that were conceptually near to morality (Berry, 1990;Burgoon & Le Poire, 1999). But this little evidence of accurate perception of morality is not congruent to the study of Rule et al. (2013). ...
... In the same vein, Rule et al., (2013) in the case of morality (trustworthiness) have shown high consensus and no accuracy. There might be some reasons behind such repeated false or true perception, such as the verbal or nonverbal cues (Murphy et al., 2003;Murphy, 2007;Rhodes, 2004, Linkeet al., 2016) or the clothes (Mahmud and Swami, 2010) or attractiveness Talamaset al., 2016) of the targets that led to judge's prejudice or judge's accurate perceptions. ...
... There have been some evidences about accuracy in social perception of intelligence Murphy, Hall & Colvin, 2003;Murphy, 2007;Ruleet al., 2013). Murphy (2007) in a study showed that although impression managing targets did appear more intelligent to video judges, they could not pretend themselves as more intelligent in the real interaction. ...
... There have been some evidences about accuracy in social perception of intelligence Murphy, Hall & Colvin, 2003;Murphy, 2007;Ruleet al., 2013). Murphy (2007) in a study showed that although impression managing targets did appear more intelligent to video judges, they could not pretend themselves as more intelligent in the real interaction. revealed the role of facial cues and Murphy et al. (2003) However, though confirming the accuracy in intelligence perception, there are the potentialities of several biases. ...
... However, in both cases, the effect sizes were small;for the combined judgment, the Cohen's W was.129 and for the combined intelligent target, it was .209.It seems that particularly about intelligence, there are some traces of accurate social perceptions among the evidences of biases and inaccuracies. The trace of accuracies in the perception of intelligence is somewhat in accordance with some previous studies Murphy et al., 2003;Murphy, 2007;Rule et al., 2013). ...
Some studies have revealed that most individuals tend to concentrate on others' morality and intelligence at their social perception. The present study aimed to examine the accuracy of these social perceptions in zero acquaintance condition. Nine female students who had high, low or average moral identity/intelligence were considered as targets and the short video clips of their lectures about the same nonrelated subject were presented to other students to judge about them through three studies (total N: 208). The perceptions were full of above-than-chance inaccuracies which were repeated across the three studies. Considering the inaccurate positive account about many targets, accurate perceptions about highly moral/intelligent targets were explained by positive bias to targets than by actual accurate perception. Although beyond such bias, there were some little traces of accuracy particularly in intelligence, it seems that due to many inaccuracies especially about morality, such little traces of accuracy are not much reliable for judgments in settings with zero acquaintance.
... In human-human conversations, we tend to use shorter and less complex sentences when talking to a kid from sixthgrade versus when talking to an adult co-worker [68]. The verbosity of conversational language we produce thus depends on our mental model of how intelligent we perceive our interlocutor to be, which will drive the way we communicate our cognitive planning and execution of thoughts to others [27]. ...
... Depending on our perception of the interlocutor, the linguistic (and topical) diversity of our language could vary, i.e., the diversity of the conversation topics or the richness of language used. Linguistic diversity has been suggested to correlate with perceived intelligence during human-human interactions [68]. In human-CA interactions, when the CA behaves in a more natural and authentic way, users also tend to employ a richer set of language, conveying positive attitudes towards the CA [72]. ...
... This finding adds some support to previous work on human-CA interaction that suggested positive association between high lexico-semantic diversity and perceived human-likeness of the CA [72]. Contradictory to observations related to human-human interactions [68], our observations suggest that people's linguistic diversity does not necessarily indicate how intelligent one perceives an agent to be. ...
... It is important to establish experimental control over goals and measure behaviors empirically, which a few studies have done (Godfrey et al., 1986;Lakin & Chartrand, 2003;Murphy, 2007). However, these studies, which can make the strongest case for behavioral mediation due to their direct behavioral observations, have fallen short of actually testing for it. ...
... However, these studies, which can make the strongest case for behavioral mediation due to their direct behavioral observations, have fallen short of actually testing for it. For example, Murphy (2007) found behaviors correlated with assignment to appear intelligent and appearing intelligent (to video raters) but did not test mediation between both. In this study we analyzed nine verbal and nonverbal behaviors and employed bootstrapping to quantify mediation (Bollen & Stine, 1990;Mallinckrodt et al., 2006;. ...
... The main reason for thinking effectiveness would translate is that what is instructed in the laboratory is not very different from what is done in social life. In goal-assigned studies, participants are typically instructed to interact with an unfamiliar partner while achieving an impression, either freely or under a given conversation topic (Godfrey et al., 1986;Levine & Feldman, 1997;Murphy, 2007). While in daily life people are not usually assigned to make impressions on others, they frequently attempt to do so (Amaral et al., 2019;DePaulo, 1992). ...
Studies assigning impression goals to achieve in the laboratory typically assume their results translate to social success outside. To test this, 156 participants interacted with a confederate, first with no goal (baseline) and then with a goal (post-goal). Goals were to appear likeable, intelligent, likeable and intelligent, or no goal (Control). Up to 10 friends provided ratings of participants. According to video perceivers, participants achieved their goals on average (relative to Control). Confident-type behaviors mediated Likeability condition assignment (relative to Control) and post-goal likeability, and less smiling/laughing mediated Intelligence condition assignment (relative to Control) and post-goal intelligence. Post-goal perceiver ratings (controlling for baseline) correlated with self-rated and friend-rated social life outcomes, suggesting laboratory impression success translates to outside social success.
... Observers' evaluations of speakers with high confidence may be affected by another aspect of mentalizing: observers' expectations or beliefs about the visual cues a speaker with high confidence (stereotypically) produces (Schmid Mast et al., 2006). For example, in Murphy (2007), speakers were asked to appear intelligent (Acting condition) or were not given any instruction about their behavior (Control condition) as they engaged in an informal conversation with another speaker. Speakers in the Acting condition were more likely to display eye contact while speaking, a serious face and an upright posture compared to speakers in the Control condition. ...
... Speakers in the Acting condition were more likely to display eye contact while speaking, a serious face and an upright posture compared to speakers in the Control condition. From these cues, only a speaker's eye contact while speaking was significantly correlated with their perceived intelligence (Murphy, 2007). This difference in the frequency of visual cues produced by the Acting and Control speakers was likely influenced by speakers' beliefs about displays of intelligence, which may be similar to the visual cues indicating a speaker's high confidence in the content of their speech. ...
... We also replicated previous findings in terms of the visual cues that speakers with high and low confidence, respectively produce (Goodwin and Goodwin, 1986;Doherty-Sneddon and Phelps, 2005;Swerts and Krahmer, 2005;Murphy, 2007). For example, speakers with high confidence in their speech content were more likely to produce sustained eye contact, a serious facial expression, and no shifts in posture. ...
Evidence suggests that observers can accurately perceive a speaker's static confidence level, related to their personality and social status, by only assessing their visual cues. However, less is known about the visual cues that speakers produce to signal their transient confidence level in the content of their speech. Moreover, it is unclear what visual cues observers use to accurately perceive a speaker's confidence level. Observers are hypothesized to use visual cues in their social evaluations based on the cue's level of perceptual salience and/or their beliefs about the cues that speakers with a given mental state produce. We elicited high and low levels of confidence in the speech content by having a group of speakers answer general knowledge questions ranging in difficulty while their face and upper body were video recorded. A group of observers watched muted videos of these recordings to rate the speaker's confidence and report the face/body area(s) they used to assess the speaker's confidence. Observers accurately perceived a speaker's confidence level relative to the speakers' subjective confidence, and broadly differentiated speakers as having low compared to high confidence by using speakers' eyes, facial expressions, and head movements. Our results argue that observers use a speaker's facial region to implicitly decode a speaker's transient confidence level in a situation of low-stakes social evaluation, although the use of these cues differs across speakers. The effect of situational factors on speakers' visual cue production and observers' utilization of these visual cues are discussed, with implications for improving how observers in real world contexts assess a speaker's confidence in their speech content.
... In addition, it is plausible that inducing an impression motive can change how individuals perceive the credibility of messages containing jargon. Although direct empirical evidence is lacking, the literature on impression management suggests that intelligence and knowledge are associated with positive social characteristics and are highly desirable traits in social interactions (Murphy, 2007). Given that jargon could signal knowledge, expertise, and a certain level of prestige (Hirst, 2003), individuals driven by an impression motive may assign greater value and credibility to messages containing jargon, enhancing message acceptance. ...
... Moreover, the impression motive may potentially influence the depth and manner of information processing. We posit that individuals may engage in more systematic processing of jargon-rich messages when striving to appear knowledgeable for impression management (Murphy, 2007), as this can provide them with the means to reinforce their perceived intelligence and social standing. In this context, jargon does not merely serve as a linguistic tool but becomes a symbol of intellectual capability and social prowess, thereby affecting how the information is processed and received. ...
A 2 (jargon vs. no jargon) × 3 (motive: control vs. accuracy vs. impression) between-subjects experiment examined the impact of jargon and processing motive in correcting climate change misinformation and promoting policy support. The results revealed a positive effect of jargon use when participants were asked to focus on accuracy during information processing. This effect was mediated by reduced anger, increased systematic processing, and enhanced perceptions of message credibility. However, jargon had a negative effect when no specific motive was induced, and it did not make a difference in correction outcomes when participants were asked to focus on making positive social impressions. These findings provide theoretical implications for information processing and practical insights for addressing misinformation in the context of climate change.
... The male speaker was judged to be less attractive than the female speaker in the audio modality, but their testimony was judged to be more believable than the female speaker's testimony when the modality was written. Furthermore, Murphy (2007) found that perception of intelligence was affected by modality. In Murphy's (2007) study, video recordings were made of actors who were instructed to speak in a way that made them appear more intelligent. ...
... Furthermore, Murphy (2007) found that perception of intelligence was affected by modality. In Murphy's (2007) study, video recordings were made of actors who were instructed to speak in a way that made them appear more intelligent. These actors were not provided with instructions to modify specific aspects of voice in order to sound intelligent, but were instead told to use their own judgement in order to appear 'smart, competent, and bright' (Murphy 2007: 328). ...
This article examines whether the representation of linguistic features within transcripts and audio recordings of police interviews can influence people’s perceptions of the interviewee. We specifically examine the influence of the representation of pauses through an experimental methodology. Participants were presented with a police interview either in audio format or in one of a series of transcript formats and asked to make a series of judgements about the interviewee. We manipulated both the presence and representation of pauses within the audio and transcript stimuli to assess how this would influence perceptions. Results showed differences between perceptions of the interviewee in the audio and transcript conditions, and that different representations of pauses within transcripts created perceptual instability between participants. The findings illustrate that the presence and representation of linguistic features in transcripts can affect perceptual judgements. We argue this should be explicitly considered by those using transcripts within the legal system.
... Impression management is useful for eliciting a specific response from others and for more expressive reasons, such as developing a general presentation of oneself that will last beyond single encounters; both facilitate social contact and inspire in others an understanding of their identity consistent with the individual's own claimed or desired self-identity. 18 The impression management theory 16 views selfpresentation not only as a means of influencing how one is treated by others but also as an essential aspect of social interaction. Impression management theory posits that the self is not a static entity residing within individuals, but a social process. ...
... According to impression management theory, individuals seek to create a desirable self for social engagement with others and instill a desirable impression in others. 16,18 While there are numerous definitions for social engagement, this study focuses on the community-and relationship-building aspects of social engagement through informal interaction within virtual settings. 27 When successful presentation of desirable impressions seems difficult, they become anxious and reluctant to engage in social interactions. ...
Despite growing interest in studying the metaverse, a theory-driven investigation into the factors that contribute to an enjoyable metaverse experience remains scarce. The current study examined the impacts of avatar identification, social engagement, and avatar customization on users' enjoyment of the metaverse based on the impression management theory. A total of 301 metaverse users were recruited for the study. The hypothesized models of mediation effect of social engagement and moderation effect of avatar customization were tested between avatar identification and enjoyment. Results indicated that social engagement mediates the relationship between avatar identification and enjoyment in metaverse participation. Furthermore, the significant moderation effect implied that the degree of avatar customization affected the relationship between avatar identification and enjoyment in the metaverse. Empirical evidence from this study contributes to theorizing the transformative role of social engagement and conditional effects based on avatar customization in shaping a positive emotion (i.e., enjoyment) from a metaverse experience. The findings allow researchers and practitioners to gain an initial understanding of the factors contributing to a favorable metaverse experience.
... Self-and informant-ratings of behavior frequencies and personality traits predict measured frequencies of some behaviors (Tackman et al., 2020;Vazire & Mehl, 2008). For example, judgments of targets' intelligence predict performance on intelligence tests and GPA at moderate to large effect sizes (Borkenau et al., 2004;Murphy, 2007), and judgments of conscientiousness and emotional stability predict academic and job performance (Connelly & Ones, 2010). Furthermore, judgments of personality traits pre dict important life outcomes: Extraversion and Conscientiousness predict longevity and Neuroticism predicts romantic relationship quality (Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006). ...
... For example, what is it about a target that makes a perceiver say the person is "dominant" or "kind?" We know some of these indicators (e.g., judgments of intelligence are predicted by eye gaze at an interaction partner; Murphy, 2007; see also Breil et al., 2021), but the picture is far from complete. Perhaps even more important are questions about the factor structure of these substantive differences. ...
This article presents an overview of the current state of knowledge in personality judgment research. We discuss accuracy and bias in personality judgments, including types of inter-rater agreement and elements of criteria used to determine levels of agreement and accuracy. We then address 1) the words and phrases that people use to describe one another and themselves, 2) research investigating judgments of targets by perceivers per trait, and 3) research investigating judgments of targets by perceivers on profiles or sets of traits. We also provide 4) an outlook regarding important research questions that remain unanswered in this field.
... Similarly, characteristics and behaviours that likely influence cue availability have also been linked to greater accuracy, such as extraversion (Colvin, 1993b) and speaking more in getting-acquainted situations . Finally, characteristics and behaviours that likely foster greater cue detection, such as greater social communication skills (Cheek, 1982;Mills & Hogan, 1978), physical attractiveness (Lorenzo et al., 2010), and experimentally manipulated positive self-presentation (Human, Biesanz, Parisotto, & Dunn, 2012;Murphy, 2007), have also been linked to being viewed more accurately. Thus, there are several possible routes to becoming a good target and perhaps the best targets are those who can facilitate multiple stages simultaneously, making expressive accuracy quite a complex individual difference. ...
... However, Cheek interpreted this finding as indicating that people with greater social communication skills are better able to accurately convey their personalities to others (see also Mills & Hogan, 1978). This is in line with experimental work demonstrating that those instructed to engage in positive self-presentation are seen more accurately, even when using relatively objective accuracy criteria, such as IQ test scores (Human et al., 2012;Murphy, 2007). Thus, to the extent that self-monitoring and self-presentation skills predict greater self-other agreement, this is more likely because such skills help to facilitate expressive accuracy, not because they are convincing others to view them in line with a desired but inaccurate self-perception. ...
People vary widely in their expressive accuracy, the tendency to be viewed in line with one's unique traits. It is unclear, however, whether expressive accuracy is a stable individual difference that transcends social contexts or a more piecemeal, context‐specific characteristic. The current research therefore examined the consistency of expressive accuracy across three social contexts: face‐to‐face initial interactions, close relationships, and social media. There was clear evidence for cross‐contextual consistency, such that expressive accuracy in face‐to‐face first impressions, based on brief round‐robin interactions, was associated with expressive accuracy with close others (Sample 1; Ntargets = 514; Ndyads = 1656) and based on Facebook profiles (Samples 2 and 3: Ntargets = 126–132; Ndyads = 1170–1476). This was found on average across traits and for high and low observability traits. Further, unique predictors emerged for different types of expressive accuracy, with psychological adjustment and conscientiousness most consistently linked to overall expressive accuracy, extraversion most consistently linked to high observability expressive accuracy, and neuroticism most consistently linked to low observability expressive accuracy. In sum, expressive accuracy appears to emerge robustly and consistently across contexts, although its predictors may differ depending on the type of trait. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology
... Because we had videos of the participants in interaction, we examined behaviors as mediators between political skill and perceiver impressions of likeability and intelligence. In previous literature, smiling and eye contact have been associated with likeability (Godfrey, Jones, & Lord, 1986;Mason, Tatkow, & Macrae, 2005), while speaking time and eye contact have been correlated with appearing intelligent (Murphy, 2007). ...
... Indeed, sounding confident and initiating new topics may have helped one look more involved or comfortable during interaction, leading to a more positive impression. While past literature has shown that eye contact relates to both appearing likeable and intelligent (Mason et al., 2005;Murphy, 2007), it was related to neither in this study. Finally, although other behaviors in this study (e.g., smiling and laughing) contributed to positive perceiver impressions, they were not candidates for mediation because they did not correlate significantly with political skill or its subscales. ...
The concept of political skill has been extensively studied in work and professional life but not yet in social life. To study how political skill relates to social life outcomes, participants engaged in a videotaped interaction in the laboratory that was rated for likeability and intelligence by naïve perceivers and coded for behavior by trained coders. Participants also took the Political Skill Scale (PSI; Ferris et al., 2005) (with workplace references removed) and other personality questionnaires. Finally, ratings from participants' friends were gathered. Political skill was related to self-rated social life quality, perceiver-rated likeability, and friend-rated positive sociality. When controlling for extraversion, self-monitoring, and social self-efficacy, all relations stayed significant except ones with self-rated social life quality. Results were strongest for the PSI's subscales for networking ability and interpersonal influence. Sounding confident and initiating topics mediated relations between political skill and perceiver ratings.
... Regarding paraverbal behavior, some past research suggests that cognitive ability may manifest in several ways. Individuals with higher cognitive ability tend to speak for a longer duration (Murphy, 2007), with a higher speech rate, and are easier to understand (Borkenau & Liebler, 1995;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). These paraverbal behaviors have been found to relate positively to interviewer ratings (DeGroot & Motowidlo, 1999;Feiler & Powell, 2016). ...
Automated video interviews (AVIs) that use machine learning (ML) algorithms to assess interviewees are increasingly popular. Extending prior AVI research focusing on noncognitive constructs, the present study critically evaluates the possibility of assessing cognitive ability with AVIs. By developing and examining AVI ML models trained to predict measures of three cognitive ability constructs (i.e., general mental ability, verbal ability, and intellect [as observed at zero acquaintance]), this research contributes to the literature in several ways. First, it advances our understanding of how cognitive abilities relate to interviewee behavior. Specifically, we found that verbal behaviors best predicted interviewee cognitive abilities, while neither paraverbal nor nonverbal behaviors provided incremental validity, suggesting that only verbal behaviors should be used to assess cognitive abilities. Second, across two samples of mock video interviews, we extensively evaluated the psychometric properties of the verbal behavior AVI ML model scores, including their reliability (internal consistency across interview questions and test–retest), validity (relationships with other variables and content), and fairness and bias (measurement and predictive). Overall, the general mental ability, verbal ability, and intellect AVI models captured similar behavioral manifestations of cognitive ability. Validity evidence results were mixed: For example, AVIs trained on observer-rated intellect exhibited superior convergent and criterion relationships (compared to the observer ratings they were trained to model) but had limited discriminant validity evidence. Our findings illustrate the importance of examining psychometric properties beyond convergence with the test that ML algorithms are trained to model. We provide recommendations for enhancing discriminant validity evidence in future AVIs.
... Indivíduos com alto QI frequentemente demonstram uma capacidade impressionante de gerenciar impressões de inteligência e influenciar positivamente a percepção de terceiros quanto a seus pág. 105 níveis intelectuais (Murphy, 2007). Paralelamente, estudos revelam que habilidades em gerenciar emoções estão positivamente correlacionadas com a qualidade das interações sociais, ressaltando a validade preditiva da inteligência emocional (Lopes et al., 2004). ...
Este estudo aborda as diferenças comportamentais em sociedades de alto quociente de inteligência (QI), fundamentado em análises e depoimentos de membros dessas sociedades, relatos de vítimas de bullying e contribuições de profissionais das áreas de neuropsicologia, neurociências, psiquiatria, além dos insights do projeto RG-TEA, focado em estudos sobre o autismo. Observou-se que no percentil 98 de sociedades de alto QI, há uma maior incidência de comportamentos agressivos, bullying e perseguição, em contraste com o percentil 99,9, onde esses comportamentos são menos frequentes. A pesquisa revela que a inteligência emocional e social, juntamente com a resiliência, desempenham um papel crucial nas dinâmicas comportamentais desses grupos, além da mera inteligência cognitiva. A análise também destaca a significativa presença de indivíduos autistas com altas habilidades e superdotação no percentil 98. Contrariamente, observa-se uma menor representação de autistas no percentil acima de 99. Muitos diagnósticos de superdotação em autistas estão relacionados à busca ativa por avaliações de QI, frequentemente motivadas por diferenças notadas por pais e profissionais. Notavelmente, autistas com QI acima de 145, frequentemente classificados como Asperger, apresentam uma maior capacidade de sociabilização e controle emocional, sugerindo que a inteligência superior pode compensar os déficits na inteligência emocional e social.
... Previous research using a zero-acquaintance or thin-slices-of-behavior approach has shown that personality characteristics, such as the Big Five, and other characteristics, such as intelligence, are usually perceived with substantial accuracy (Ambady & Rosenthal, 1992); Borkenau, Leising, & Fritz, 2014;Murphy, 2007;Murphy, Hall, & Colvin, 2003;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). In this research, judgments are mainly based on indicators related to the physical appearance and general behavioral pattern of a target, e.g., gestures. ...
... As the stage metaphor makes clear, the audience's approval holds considerable power. Concerns about audience views are prevalentimpression management is seen in the workplace (e.g., Cheng, Chiu, Chang, & Johnstone, 2014;Roulin, Bangerter, & Levashina, 2014), in interactions between strangers, friends, and partners (e.g., Murphy, 2007;Salvy, Jarrin, Paluch, Irfan, & Pliner, 2007), and even in private behavior (e.g., Leary, Allen, & Terry, 2011). Impression management concerns influence many decisions from mundane to potentially life-altering and can vary considerably based on audience and context (e.g., Kim & Yi, 2016). ...
When faced with the potential threat of an extreme weather event, such as a hurricane, people must make important decisions about how much, if it all, they will prepare for that event. Many factors may influence people’s decisions to prepare or not prepare – including social factors. In three studies among predominately White, female, and affluent online samples (total N = 784), we tested whether social factors—in particular, impressions of others and impression management concerns—predicted participant’s intentions to prepare for two real hurricanes and one hypothetical hurricane. We use Integrative Data Analysis (IDA) to examine pooled results from the three studies. Results revealed two important sets of findings. First, the actions people take to prepare (or not prepare) during a hurricane influenced participants impressions. For example, participants tended to view making errors in preparation (i.e., over- or under-preparing) more negatively, with underpreparing facing the highest level of scrutiny. Second, impressions (particularly impressions of others under or over-preparing) predicted actual preparation intentions and behavior. Results have important implications for the better understanding the social nature of decision-making and for potential intervention.
... It is possible that perception of intelligence is related to the public presentation of self (e.g., self-control in social settings; Uziel 2010). It was found by Murphy (2007) that people were attributed greater intelligence if they were good at impression management, and likewise positive impression management is uncharacteristic of high-secondary (but not high primary) psychopathy sub-facets (Gillard and Rogers 2015). It would therefore be interesting to further examine whether perceptions of self-control are the driving force behind viewing high-secondary psychopathy vignettes as being less intelligent. ...
Background: Primary psychopathy (i.e., unemotional and callous predisposition) is associated with career, educational, and general life success, whereas secondary psychopathy (i.e., impulsivity and risk-taking) relates to criminality, hedonistic lifestyles, and detrimental behaviours. Although psychopathy sub-types have differential relationships to career and life success, how these traits are perceived by others relating to intelligence has not previously been researched. It is also unclear what role an individual’s own psychopathy score plays in perceptions of intelligence. Methods: In an online experiment (n = 458), we investigated perceptions of intelligence (via a combined proxy of whether the rater thought the character in the vignettes had a high IQ and had attended university), using 12 vignettes of high and low primary and secondary psychopathic individuals. Results: High-secondary-psychopathy vignettes were perceived as least intelligent (in agreement with the literature which states people high in secondary psychopathy traits are usually involved in petty crimes, risk taking, and substance abuse, and therefore perceived as socially undesirable). Low-secondary-psychopathy vignettes were perceived significantly more intelligent than high-primary-psychopathy vignettes (in-line with the literature suggesting the placidity and kindness which comes with being low in psychopathic traits is an amenable quality in our society). There was evidence for assortative intelligence perceptions: those high-primary psychopathy self-scorers perceived primary psychopathy vignettes as intelligent (which could be evidence of a ‘likes attract’ phenomenon, whereby those high in primary psychopathy admire others who are similarly high in primary psychopathy). Conclusions: The results suggest individuals demonstrating risk-taking behaviours are perceived as least intelligent, supporting previous research associating secondary psychopathy with poor academic or career success.
... Zebrowitz et al., 2002). This finding was corroborated with dynamic behavioral information (Borkenau et al., 2004;Borkenau & Liebler, 1993;Carney et al., 2007;Murphy, 2007;Murphy et al., 2003;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). In some cases, correlations with ability scores rose to r = .43. ...
Recently, multiple, speeded assessments (e.g., "speeded" or "flash" role-plays) have made rapid inroads into the selection domain. So far, however, the conceptual underpinning and empirical evidence related to these short, fast-paced assessment approaches has been lacking. This raises questions whether these speeded assessments can serve as reliable and valid indicators of future performance. This article uses the notions of stimulus and response domain sampling to conceptualize multiple, speeded behavioral job simulations as a hybrid of established simulation-based selection methods. Next, we draw upon the thin slices of behavior paradigm to theorize about the quality of ratings made in multiple, speeded behavioral simulations. In two studies, various assessor pools assessed a sample of 96 MBA students in 18 3-min role-plays designed to capture situations in the junior management domain. At the individual speeded role-play level, reliability and validity were not ensured. Yet, aggregated across all assessors' ratings of all speeded role-plays, the overall score for predicting future performance was high (.54). Validities remained high when assessors evaluated only the first minute (vs. full 3 min) or received only a control training (vs. traditional assessor training). Aggregating ratings of performance in multiple, heterogeneous situations that elicit a variety of domain-relevant behavior emerged as key requirement to obtain adequate domain coverage, capture both ability and personality (extraversion and agreeableness), and achieve substantial validities. Overall, these results show the importance of the stimulus and response domain sampling logic and send a strong warning to using "single" speeded behavioral simulations in practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... In our analysis, we focus on three characteristics attributed to luxury brand users: status, intelligence and attractiveness. These variables are related to each other and are the desired attributes that make up the image of a sympathetic and likable as well as competent and efficient person (Jones & Pittman, 1982;Kanazawa, 2011;Murphy, 2007). Status is defined as the importance of a person compared with other group members (Hogg, 2001). ...
Based on social exchange theory and social identity theory, this article examined how displays of luxury—manipulated through the presence of luxury brand on clothes—affects consumers' perceptions. Through two experiments, we found that consumers with a high level of consumer brand engagement (CBE) assessed an individual with a visible logo of the brand, in which they were engaged, as higher in status, more intelligent and attractive. Moreover, we found a mechanism that explains this phenomenon. Identification with the brand user mediates these relationships, such that displays of luxury in individuals with high levels of CBE leads to identification with the brand user, which in turn enhances the perception of status, intelligence and attractiveness. These results indicate that luxury display may increase more positive person's perception among individuals who engage with the luxury brand. Summing up, our paper reveals that the phenomenon of luxury displays is not universal and should be treated not only in terms of an evolutionary adaptive strategy.
... Another area of behavior that has a long tradition in behavioral personality science involves how individuals deal with intellectually challenging interpersonal situations. This has been labeled the domain of intellectual competence, referring to behaviors such as responsiveness, goal-orientation, or an eloquent way of speaking (e.g., Borkenau et al., 2004;Borkenau & Liebler, 1995;Burgoon et al., 1990;Grünberg et al., 2018;Murphy, 2007;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). Whereas some models treat intellectual competence as a subdimension of agency (e.g., Abele et al., 2016), a growing number of studies have shown that being, acting, or perceiving that someone is dominant and assertive should not be simply equated with being, acting, or perceiving that someone is intellectual or clever (e.g., Carrier et al., 2014;Kervyn et al., 2013;Oliveira et al., 2019). ...
Although the behaviors displayed by assessees are considered to be the currency of assessment centers (ACs), they have remained largely unexplored. This is surprising because a better understanding of assessees’ behaviors may provide the missing link between research on the determinants of assessee performance and research on the validity of performance ratings. On a practical level, a focus on assessees’ behaviors also informs dimension selection, exercise design, rating aids, and assessor training. Therefore, this study draws on behavioral personality science to scrutinize the behaviors that assessees express in interpersonal AC exercises. Our goals were to investigate (a) the structure of interpersonal behaviors, (b) the consistency of these behaviors across AC exercises, and (c) their effectiveness. We obtained videotaped performances of 203 assessees who took part in short interpersonal AC role-plays in a high-stakes context. Apart from assessors’ performance ratings, trained experts also independently coded assessees on over 40 specific behavioral cues in these role-plays (e.g., clear statements, upright posture, lively expressions, freezing). Results were threefold: First, the structure underlying behavioral differences in interpersonal AC exercises was represented by four broad behavioral constructs: agency, communion, interpersonal calmness, and intellectual competence. Second, assessees’ behaviors showed more consistency across exercises than performance ratings did. Third, the behaviors were related to role-play performance and predicted future interpersonal performance. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this study’s granular, behavior-driven perspective.
... Another area of behaviors that has a long tradition in behavioral personality science involves how individuals deal with intellectually challenging interpersonal situations. This has been labeled the domain of intellectual competence, referring to behaviors such as responsiveness, goal-orientation, or an eloquent way of speaking (e.g., Borkenau et al., 2004;Borkenau & Liebler, 1995;Burgoon et al., 1990;Grünberg et al., 2018;Murphy, 2007;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). Whereas some models treat intellectual competence as a subdimension of agency (e.g., Abele et al., 2016), a growing number of studies have shown that being, acting, or perceiving that someone is dominant and assertive should not be simply equated with being, acting, or perceiving that someone is intellectual or clever (e.g., Carrier et al., 2014;Kervyn et al., 2013;Oliveira et al., 2019). ...
Although the behaviors displayed by assessees are the currency of assessment centers (ACs), they have remained largely unexplored. This is surprising because a better understanding of assessees’ behaviors may provide the missing link between research on the determinants of assessee performance and research on the validity of performance ratings. Therefore, this study draws on behavioral personality science to scrutinize the behaviors that assessees express in interpersonal AC exercises. Our goals were to investigate (a) the structure of interpersonal behaviors, (b) the consistency of these behaviors across AC exercises, and (c) their effectiveness. We obtained videotaped performances of 203 assessees who took part in AC role-plays in a high-stakes context. Apart from assessors’ performance ratings, trained experts also independently coded assessees on over 40 specific behavioral cues in these role-plays (e.g., clear statements, upright posture, freezing). Results were threefold: First, the structure underlying behavioral differences in interpersonal AC exercises was represented by four broad behavioral constructs: agency, communion, interpersonal calmness, and intellectual competence. Second, assessees’ behaviors showed more consistency across exercises than performance ratings did. Third, the behaviors were related to role-play performance and predicted future interpersonal performance. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this study’s granular, behavior-driven perspective.
... Unstructured interviews enable job applicants to employ a range of self-presentation tactics, including adjusting one's appearance, self-promoting, misleading the interviewer, flattering the interviewer, and managing nonverbal cues such as smiling and eye contact (Barrick et al., 2009). On the one hand, targets explicitly aiming to selfpresent in a positive light tend to be rated more accurately on the Big Five traits and intelligence (Human et al., 2012;Murphy, 2007). On the other hand, job applicants frequently consciously distort and lie during interviews (Levashina & Campion, 2007), and these tactics have a greater influence on interviewer ratings (e.g., of applicant suitability, intent to hire) during unstructured interviews (compared with structured interviews; Barrick et al., 2009). ...
Social perceivers seek to understand the opportunities and threats others potentially afford—for example, whether a teammate will behave tenaciously or a romantic partner, faithfully. We typically detect affordances and draw trait inferences by observing behaviors that reveal or predict others’ likely intentions and characteristics. However, detection and inference from simple observation are often difficult (e.g., even dishonest people are frequently honest, people often mask unpopular beliefs). In such cases, we propose that people test, actively manipulating others’ circumstances to reveal hard-to-observe affordances and characteristics. The Observation-Testing Model is a framework predicting circumstances under which testing is more likely to happen, which affordances and characteristics are more likely to be tested for, and which people are more likely to test and be tested. We identify preliminary support for the model from a range of literatures (e.g., employment assessment, coming-of-age rituals, dating processes) and identify areas needing further research.
... Further, self-presentation of targets, often involving the aim to convey a positive but authentic impression (Schlenker & Pontari, 2000), may enhance observer attention and the accuracy of respective trait inferences (e.g., Human, Biesanz, Parisotto, & Dunn, 2012). For example, targets' self-presentational goal of appearing smart led to more accurate observer impressions of individuals' intelligence (Murphy, 2007). ...
In this chapter, we present variants of Brunswik’s lens model aimed to understand whether, when, and why trait judgments are more or less accurate. After outlining the basic concepts of lens models, we describe exemplary studies which have applied the lens model to unravel personality expression and impression formation processes that lead to more or less accurate judgments. Next, we give an overview on factors that can influence the accuracy of trait judgments and explain these accuracy moderators within the lens model framework. We then describe an extension of the lens model, the dual lens model, that differentiates more controlled versus more automatic aspects on all levels of the lens model (i.e., personality self-concept, cues, personality judgments). We also briefly summarize further extensions and highlight the lens model as a flexible tool to study cue processes underlying accuracy and related interpersonal perception phenomena. Finally, we conclude the chapter by outlining suggestions for future lens model applications in accuracy research.
... That is, traits will exist within an individual with some regularity across various situations, such as at work and at home (Epstein, 1979). Underlying this tenet is the idea that personality is evident in behavioral expressions, and a host of research supports this notion (Allport, 1937;Murphy, 2007;Leikas et al., 2012;Letzring et al., 2021). While acknowledging situational variance, research persistently supports behavioral consistency in the expression of personality (Funder and Colvin, 1991;Shoda, 1999;Fleeson and Law, 2015;Geukes et al., 2017). ...
Thin slices are used across a wide array of research domains to observe, measure, and predict human behavior. This article reviews the thin-slice method as a measurement technique and summarizes current comparative thin-slice research regarding the reliability and validity of thin slices to represent behavior or social constructs. We outline decision factors in using thin-slice behavioral coding and detail three avenues of thin-slice comparative research: (1) assessing whether thin slices can adequately approximate the total of the recorded behavior or be interchangeable with each other (representativeness); (2) assessing how well thin slices can predict variables that are different from the behavior measured in the slice (predictive validity), and (3) assessing how interpersonal judgment accuracy can depend on the length of the slice (accuracy-length validity). The aim of the review is to provide information researchers may use when designing and evaluating thin-slice behavioral measurement.
... across traits and contexts (Back & Nestler, 2016;Connelly & Ones, 2010;Hall, Andrzejewski, Murphy, Mast, & Feinstein, 2008;Kenny & West, 2010). Judgments of other characteristics (e.g., intelligence) show similar amounts of accuracy (Borkenau, Leising, & Fritz, 2014;Murphy, 2007;Murphy, Hall, & Colvin, 2003;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). Profile-based approaches have shown comparable ranges of accuracy, whereby normative accuracy levels usually substantially outperform distinctive accuracy outcomes (Back & Nestler, 2016;Borkenau & Leising, 2016). ...
How accurate are teachers’ first impressions and what moderates the degree of first impression accuracy? In previous teacher judgment accuracy research, teachers judged students who were well-acquainted to them, focusing on single traits. Here, we follow the zero-acquaintance paradigm and apply the Social Accuracy Model (SAM; Biesanz, 2010) to examine teachers’ first impressions regarding students’ personality profiles. Three groups of perceivers (student teachers, experienced teachers and psychology students; N = 285) rated students’ (N = 10) academic self-concept, intrinsic motivation and intelligence based on brief videos. SAM analyses revealed that teachers were accurate regarding the average students’ profile of characteristics (normative accuracy), but were not successful at detecting students' unique personality profiles (distinctive accuracy). Moreover, likeable students and those evaluated as more physically attractive were perceived with higher normative accuracy. Personality similarity and teaching experience were unrelated to accuracy. Implications for teacher judgment accuracy research and educational practice are discussed.
... Salovey and Grewal (2005) points out that the relationship between reality and perceived looking intelligent has a long history in psychology. Murphy (2007) points out that looking intelligent is an important feature that affects every day social interpersonal relationships. This study uses social ecology to study intelligence level and gets impression management from vision assessment of the strangers. ...
This study explored the impact of physical attractiveness and looking intelligent on job performance, and considered the influencing factors of work stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in its analysis. The study primarily surveyed Kaohsiung City real estate agency professionals and estimated its findings using linear structural equation modeling (SEM). A total of 322 survey questionnaires were distributed from June 18, 2016, through July 14, 2016, and all 322 questionnaires were returned. However, 30 of the questionnaires were invalid, leaving a total of 292 valid questionnaires, for an effective recovery rate was 90.6%. The empirical results showed that physical attractiveness has a significant and positive impact on looking smart, job satisfaction, and job performance. Physical attractiveness has a significant and negative impact on work stress. Work stress has a significant and positive impact on job satisfaction and job performance. The results of this study imply that a real estate broker with higher physical attractiveness has better job satisfaction and job performance.
... Negative communication occurs when individuals keep changing the direction of looking and uses unpleasant voice. For example, in job interview, it is important for applicants to manage their impressions (Murphy, 2007). Moreover, the conclusion of Murphy, (2007) research indicates that "clear articulation", gaze and looking at the person while speaking or listening in addition to "expressive voice", nodding as well as other features are important in communication and persuasion. ...
This study aim to investigate of body language in terms of eye contact, gestures or body distance, and the ir impact on persuasion. The study was conducted in 2016 using surveys, which were distributed randomly among students in “Jordanian Universities”, using Google form. To achieve the purpose of the study, and in order to analyze the results, the researchers use simple linear regression and multiple linear regression analysis provided by SPSS 22. The results of the study indicated an impact of body language on consumer persuasion in Jordan use of body language factors (eye contact, gestures, and bodydistance ).
... Hollabaugh (1995) stated that codependency can be explained through concepts from the social psychology literature. The concepts of self-presentation and impression management explain how people try to influence others' perceptions (Goffman, 1959;Vohs, Baumeister and Ciarocco, 2005;Murphy, 2007;Schlenker, 2012). Vohs, Baumeister, and Ciarocco (2005) stated that one of the most basic skills in social life is that the individual presents himself/herself pozitively to other people. ...
The purpose of the study is to test the model developed in relation to the mediator role of the need for social approval in the relationship between perfectionism and codependency. The study was conducted on a total of 188 students (144 females and 44 males) attending the Education Faculty of Amasya University. In the study, Spann-Fischer Codependency Scale, Need for Social Approval Scale and Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale were used. The theoretical model proposed in the study was tested with the structural equation model. In the analysis of the collected data, LISREL 8.51 was used. The goodness-of-fit indices calculated for the model were found to be good. The goodness-of-fit indices found for the structural model are as follows: RMSEA=0.07, Standardized RMR=0.08, NNFI=0.90, CFI=0.91 and IFI=0.91. It was found that the structural model constructed to reveal the mediator role of the need for social approval in the relationship between perfectionism and codependency has a good fit and the need for social approval was found to have a partial mediator role in the model.
... Is the tone of voice indicative of gender, does it suggest stereotypical feminine characteristics (e.g., gentleness, compassion, or relational warmth), or does its impact have little to do with gender? Personality attributes, social, emotional, and general intelligence, and interests and ideas can be communicated through voice (Kreifelts, Ethofer, Huberle, Grodd, & Wildgruber, 2010;Murphy, 2007;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). Thus, wellspecified control variables can help guide the literature towards focusing on features and mechanisms around which common conversations can be built. ...
How do top executives’ aesthetic attributes, such as their physical (e.g., attractiveness) and vocal (e.g., voice pitch) features, shape their firms and their own careers? Whereas strategic leadership scholars mostly have focused on top executives’ cognitive, psychological, and affective attributes, researchers increasingly have focused on this research question as well. As a result, a substantial body of research has emerged, as evidenced by the sixty-five empirical studies we located. Our review of the literature indicates that aesthetic attributes are related to executives’ careers and organizational outcomes in important ways, including executive selection and firm strategy. There also appear to be important contingencies, such as other individual differences and cultural factors, that shape these relationships. However, we conclude that there are important theoretical and methodological shortcomings in this literature and that addressing these issues is critical to validating extant findings, establishing more legitimacy, and moving this literature forward.
... Girls also tend to encounter the technology content taught in school less often, thereby acquiring fewer skills and less knowledge about technology (Klapwijk & Rommes, 2009), which may exacerbate disengagement and the feeling of not being technical. On the other hand, teachers play a key role in dismantling such gendered practices and renewing the image of technology education, because they are well placed to induce changes in pupils' perceptions and identities (Murphy 2007). Previous studies show, for example, that girls are less concerned with negative stereotypes when they have a female teacher (e.g. ...
Variance in interest and engagement by gender is a complex and long-standing research agenda in the field of technology education. Studies report that girls are more reluctant to participate in technology education, less interested in the subject and more negative towards technology than boys. It is argued that specific attitudes and roles hinder girls from engaging in technology education because technology is presented as a predominantly male domain, which fuels ideas about what technological agency is as well as whose interest in technology and what kind of technology are regarded as legitimate. There is, however, the potential to improve female engagement if we can gain knowledge about what girls do during lessons and how they think about themselves when learning technology. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the self-image of girls aged 9 to 12 when participating in primary technology education, by using Harding’s (1986) three gender levels: the symbolic, the structural and the individual. The methods used for this study were participant observations during technology classes followed by a focus group interview. From the perspective of Harding’s three levels of gender, the analysis of the observations and the focus group interview reveals that girls confirm the prevailing male norms and conceptions that are linked to what technology is and what it means “to be technical”, despite the fact that the teacher introduces gender-neutral activities. However, there is an ambiguity in our findings because the girls also resist the self-image of not being technical, especially when they work together and have ownership of their work with and learning about technology.
... For example, highly intelligent students have been argued to be easier to identify, as they would stand out in comparison to their peers (Coladarci, 1986). Interestingly, previous research has suggested that while intelligence is commonly viewed as a positive trait (Murphy, 2007), teachers might associate high intelligence with suspicions of maladjustment Preckel, Baudson, Krolak-Schwerdt, & Glock, 2015). This shift in valence could be due to the conviction that high functioning in one domain (i.e., cognitive ability) comes at a cost of inadequacy in another one (i.e., emotional functioning) (Gallagher, 1990) or to the assumption that their asynchronous development would make high ability children more vulnerable to socio-emotional problems (Neihart, Reis, Robinson, & Moon, 2002). ...
Accurate teacher judgments of student cognitive ability are crucial to effective instruction. Building on a large survey among 7th graders and their teachers, this study considers which student characteristics affect teacher and peer recognition of high ability students. High ability judgments by teachers were found to depend more on everyday school achievement (GPA) than on cognitive ability (IQ) itself, even when teachers were urged to distinguish between achievement and ability. Girls were less likely to be perceived as highly able than boys with similar levels of ability. Parental educational level affected high ability judgment, but only through its relation with school achievement. Both the most engaged and the most bored students were more frequently selected as highly able students. Similarly, peer judgments of highly able classmates depended, net of cognitive ability, on everyday school achievement, perceived engagement and disengagement, and gender, with girls being less likely to be judged as highly able.
... 4). One study found that people who looked more at their communication partner were perceived more positively than those who did not (Murphy, 2007), while another found that people who averted their gaze were less effective than those who did not (Guéguen, and Jacob, 2002). ...
The three experiments presented here examined the effectiveness of restaurant servers who memorize customers’ orders rather than writing orders down. In the experiments, participants viewed videos of simulated server-diner interactions and provided ratings of service quality and expected tip amount. Experiment 1 found no advantage to memorizing orders over writing them down. Experiment 2 found that memorized and correctly delivered entrees resulted in statistically significant increases in customers’ perceptions of service quality and in marginally higher tips. In addition, muddled (versus correct) orders resulted in lower ratings of service quality and dramatically lower anticipated tips. Experiment 3 found that memorizing and muddling complex orders had no effect on perceptions of service quality but led to significantly lower expected tips. The applied and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
... Zebrowitz, Hall, Murphy, & Rhodes, 2002). This finding was corroborated with dynamic behavioral information (Borkenau et al., 2004;Borkenau & Liebler, 1993;Carney et al., 2007;Murphy, 2007;Murphy, Hall, & Colvin, 2003;Reynolds & Gifford, 2001). In some cases, correlations with ability scores rose to r = .43. ...
... The investor is endowed with 100 tokens, of which she chooses I 1 ∈ [0, 100] to invest in a "firm" run by the manager. The manager then splits this primary investment, placing X ∈ [0, I 1 ] tokens into a risky fund and Y = I 1 − X tokens into a safe 5 There is also ample evidence of costly intelligence signaling solely in the name of social esteem across a variety of settings (Murphy, 2007;Montano-Campos and Perez-Truglia, 2019;Friedrichsen, König, and Schmacker, 2018;Ewers and Zimmermann, 2015;Bursztyn, Egorov, and Jensen, 2019). However, McManus and Rao (2015) find evidence that in at least one context, individuals who privately value their own intelligence seek to hide it from others. ...
We design a laboratory experiment to test for behavioral differences due to observation within a novel arena: investment games. We �find that fund managers are more risk-averse when investors can observe their investment allocations. This effect is more pronounced when investors, in addition to observing the allocations, can also observe the investment outcomes. Interestingly, allowing investors to observe how their investment is allocated does not impact how much they invest. Last, when the outcome of the risky investment is public knowledge, disclosing managers' allocations leads them to return more tokens to investors and to expropriate fewer tokens for themselves at the end of the game, ceteris paribus. We discuss potential causes of these effects.
... Obviously, the characteristics displayed by men need to be perceptible to women, in order to facilitate the decision to choose one man over another. As noted above, some empirical research suggests that even strangers can ascertain, to some degree, the level of intelligence of a person with only a little exposure to the person's behaviour, particularly listening to the person speak (Borkenau & Liebler, 1993;Borkenau, Mauer, Riemann, Spinath, & Angleitner, 2004;Murphy, 2007). Although the effect size is small, there is also evidence to suggest that there are perceptible facial cues that lead to some accurate indications of objective intellectual functioning (Lee et al., 2017;Zebrowitz, Hall, Murphy, & Rhodes, 2002). ...
People can estimate their own and their romantic partner's intelligence (IQ) with some level of accuracy, which may facilitate the observation of assortative mating for IQ. However, the degree to which people may overestimate their own (IQ), as well as overestimate their romantic partner's IQ, is less well established. In the current study, we investigated four outstanding issues in this area. First, in a sample of 218 couples, we examined the degree to which people overestimate their own and their partner's IQ, on the basis of comparisons between self-estimated intelligence (SEI) and objectively measured IQ (Advanced Progressive Matrices). Secondly, we evaluated whether assortative mating for intelligence was driven principally by women (the males-compete/females choose model of sexual selection) or both women and men (the mutual mate model of sexual selection). Thirdly, we tested the hypothesis that assortative mating for intelligence may occur for both SEI and objective IQ. Finally, the possibility that degree of intellectual compatibility may relate positively to relationship satisfaction was examined. We found that people overestimated their own IQ (women and men ≈ 30 IQ points) and their partner's IQ (women = 38 IQ points; men = 36 IQ points). Furthermore, both women and men predicted their partner's IQ with some degree of accuracy (women: r = 0.30; men: r = 0.19). However, the numerical difference in the correlations was not found to be significant statistically. Finally, the degree of intellectual compatibility (objectively and subjectively assessed) failed to correlate significantly with relationship satisfaction for both sexes. It would appear that women and men participate in the process of mate selection, with respect to evaluating IQ, consistent with the mutual mate model of sexual selection. However, the personal benefits of intellectual compatibility seem less obvious.
A series of four studies systematically investigated the boundary conditions of the shame–concealment/pride–exposure relationship through an experimental paradigm. Experiment 1 developed an experimental procedure to assess the shame/pride–concealment/exposure relationship. Shame and pride were induced by randomly assigning participants to either low or high fictitious IQ score conditions, followed by an assessment of concealment and exposure behaviors. The results suggested a strong relationship between failure and concealment, as well as between success and exposure behaviors, a finding that was replicated in the subsequent three experiments. Experiment 2 examined the sensitivity of the shame–concealment relationship to changes in social status by manipulating the relevance of those to whom IQ scores would be disclosed. The results suggested weak to moderate evidence for the effect of status relevance on the shame–concealment relationship. Experiment 3 investigated whether concealment was specific to IQ scores or generalized to other types of information. Moderate evidence was found for the generalization of concealment beyond IQ scores. Experiment 4 distinguished between the effects of receiving a low/high score, the disclosure of the score, and the anticipation of its disclosure on shame feelings and concealment behavior. Results suggested moderate support for the effect of receiving the score on the elicitation of shame and concealment, with inconclusive support for the effect of disclosure compared to anticipated disclosure. The relevance of these results to theories of shame and pride, intra- and interpersonal determinants, and a functional perspective on emotions is discussed.
The prevalence of individuals with psychopathic tendencies in corporate leadership positions has been a growing concern among scholars and a subject of increasing interest in the popular press. Numerous studies suggest that individuals with psychopathic traits may be more likely to ascend to leadership roles due to their charisma, persuasiveness, and ability to manipulate others. But longitudinal studies examining the relationship between psychopathy and leadership are scarce (Holland in Pers Rev 49:1039–1052, 2020), complex, and inconclusive. Most studies concur on one finding: psychopathic traits can lead to negative consequences for workers and their organizations (Landay et al. in J Appl Psychol 104:183–196, 2019; Leeper Piquero et al. in Deviant Behav 42:979–992, 2021). This chapter presents an overview of psychopathy in leaders and its impact on several organizational variables and coworkers.
This handbook reviews theory and research on the accuracy of personality judgments. The various chapters explain the major theoretical models that guide research in this area, describe various methodological approaches to evaluating accuracy, and review recent empirical findings. Topics considered include moderators of accuracy including judge, target, trait, and information. Chapters also summarize recent work on self-other asymmetry, the accuracy of self-knowledge, meta-perceptions and meta-accuracy. The various pieces of information used in making personality judgments, including nonverbal cues, contextual and environmental information, normative information, and group stereotypes are identified and their roles in accurate judgment are described. Examples of some of the domains to which accuracy research can be applied including interpersonal relationships, clinical practice, the workplace, and accuracy training are included. And finally, possible future directions for the study and application of accurate personality judgments are provided.
Photos provide a literal snapshot of a person in a particular context at a specific moment in time. Previous studies have found that people can accurately categorize others from single photos of their faces along various social dimensions, yet this research typically assumes that one photo of an individual representatively samples other photos of the same individual. Across four studies, we investigated this assumption by testing the consistency of perceptions of social categories (viz. sexual orientation and political affiliation) based on multiple photos of the same individuals. We found that judgments of social categories exceeded chance and significantly correlated across different photo contexts, across variability in targets’ motivations, and across time. These data supplement earlier work showing similar consistency for other types of social judgments. Thus, single face photos can consistently convey some aspects of an individual's appearance.
We are constantly forming impressions about those around us. Social interaction depends on our understanding of interpersonal behavior - assessing one another's personality, emotions, thoughts and feelings, attitudes, deceptiveness, group memberships, and other personal characteristics through facial expressions, body language, voice and spoken language. But how accurate are our impressions and when does such accuracy matter? How is accuracy achieved and are some of us more successful at achieving it than others? This comprehensive overview presents cutting-edge research on this fast-expanding field and will be essential reading for anyone interested in the psychology of interpersonal perception. A wide range of experts in the field explore topics including age and gender effects, psychopathology, culture and ethnicity, workplaces and leadership, clinicians' skills, empathy, meta-perception, and training people to be more accurate in their perceptions of others.
This chapter addresses how candidates with dark personalities manage to excel during selection interviews and current best practices in selection processes that may reduce the risk of hiring candidates with dark personalities. Theory: In this section of the chapter, I present Impression Management (IM) tactics used by individuals with dark personalities to enter organizations. I also explain how organizations increase their chances of hiring candidates with dark personalities by only using unstructured interviews. Practice: In this section of the chapter, I offer a step-by-step guide to best hiring practices that include: Job posting, Job analysis, Competency framework, Creating valid interview questions, Conducting an effective interview, Psychometric testing, Reference check, Scoring candidates, and Decision-making. This chapter's practice section also includes an exercise on creating a selection process for different types of positions and a case study.
In this chapter, we summarize research on nonverbal expressions of behavior (nonverbal cues) and how they contribute to the accuracy of personality judgments. First, we present a conceptual overview of relevant nonverbal cues in the domains of facial expressions, body language, paralanguage, and appearance as well as approaches to assess these cues on different levels of aggregation. We then summarize research on the validity of nonverbal cues (what kind of nonverbal cues are good indicators of personality?) as well as the utilization of nonverbal cues (what kind of nonverbal cues lead to personality impressions?), resulting in a catalogue of those cues that drive judgment accuracy for different traits. Finally, we discuss personal and situational characteristics that moderate the expression and utilization of nonverbal cues and give an outlook for future research.
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the current empirical research on psychopathy in the workplace. It integrates findings from research in other settings or with other dark personalities. The chapter offers observations and hypotheses as to how we might apply these findings to psychopathy in business operations. It suggests recommendations and avenues for future research on corporate psychopathy. The chapter uses the term corporate psychopathy to refer to all aspects of psychopathy in the workplace. The Psychopathy Checklist‐Revised is a 20‐item clinical construct rating scale that uses a semi‐structured interview, case history information, and specific scoring criteria to rate each item on a three‐point scale (0, 1, 2) according to the extent to which the item applies to the individual. Much of the research on psychopathy has involved the use of variable‐centered approaches, such as confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling.
Americans have become increasingly likely to dislike, distrust, and derogate their ideological opponents on contemporary social and political issues. We hypothesized that a lack of exposure to compelling reasons, arguments, and evidence from ideological opponents might at least partly explain negative views of those opponents. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that participants assume their ideological opponents, in comparison to their ideological allies, are less likely to have good reasons for their positions. Moreover, we found that the more strongly participants believe their opponents lack good reasons for their positions, the more likely they are to report that those opponents lack both intellectual capabilities and moral character. Critically, exposure to arguments favoring their opponents' position produced more favorable impressions of those opponents. We discuss possible implications of these results for the role of reasons and reasoning in political discourse, and for productive disagreement in a functioning democracy.
Objective
Good targets are those individuals who are seen more accurately than others. The present study examines the extent to which the good target is consistent across two domains and two contexts as well as how being perceived accurately is moderated by target well‐being.
Method
N = 194 participants completed a round‐robin forming first‐impressions design, wrote short essays on five life domains and completed a self‐report including measures of well‐being. An additional N = 211 participants read the essays to assess the author’s personality. We used the social accuracy model to allow for detailed analysis of individual differences among targets across traits and motives.
Results
We found support for the theory that the good target generalizes across both contexts and domains and also found evidence for a likeable target. Target well‐being was not consistently associated with the good target across contexts and domains, though target well‐being was a consistent moderator for the likeable target.
Conclusion
The good target is consistent across contexts and domains, but target well‐being is not a consistent moderator of distinctive accuracy beyond in‐person perceptions of traits. The likeable target is more consistent across contexts and domains and has stronger links to target well‐being.
In this chapter, we summarize research on nonverbal expressions of behavior (nonverbal cues) and how they contribute to the accuracy of personality judgments. First, we present a conceptual overview of relevant nonverbal cues in the domains of facial expressions, body language, paralanguage, and appearance as well as approaches to assess these cues on different levels of aggregation. We then summarize research on the validity of nonverbal cues (what kind of nonverbal cues are good indicators of personality?) as well as the utilization of nonverbal cues (what kind of nonverbal cues lead to personality impressions?), resulting in a catalogue of those cues that drive judgment accuracy for different traits. Finally, we discuss personal and situational characteristics that moderate the expression and utilization of nonverbal cues and give an outlook for future research.
There are several ways to look at what constitutes and brings us fulfillment. In this chapter, we argue that emotional intelligence may be one of its major prerequisites. Self-actualization is the realization of the potential of the self, becoming the most one can be. This may be an ultimate goal, but remains elusive even if lower levels of need are met, and are typically only achieved when previous levels are "mastered." Being skilled at understanding and handling emotions in others and in oneself, channeling them into productive outcomes, and the ability and willingness to connect all play an essential role in success, even over technical skills and capabilities. Possessing emotional intelligence helps us recognize how sensitive events can help or hinder other processes. In examining what contributes to happiness, research has found support for the impact of both wisdom and emotional intelligence on levels of happiness. © The Author(s). Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018. All rights reserved.
Because of special characteristics of nonverbal behaviors (e.g., they can be difficult to suppress, they are more accessible to the people who observe them than to the people who produce them), the intention to produce a particular nonverbal expression for self-presentational purposes cannot always be successfully translated into the actual production of that expression. The literatures on people's skills at using their nonverbal behaviors to feign internal states and to deceive are reviewed as they pertain to the question of whether people can overcome the many constraints on the translation of their intentions into expressions. The issue of whether people's deliberate attempts to regulate their nonverbal behaviors can be detected by others is also considered.
Based on total of 290 undergraduates, the split-half reliability of the Wonderlic Personnel Test was .87 and the Pearson correlation between test score and mean grade was .21. Implications are presented for the use of this test in an academic setting.
One reason that physical attractiveness affects per son perception judgments is that it is easily available informa tion. It was hypothesized that when another characteristic, such as intelligence is made apparent, that it will evoke a stereo type similar to that evoked by attractiveness. A videotaped stimulus person, whose level of intelligence and attractive ness were manipulated, was rated by 68 subjects. The findings suggest that impressions are formed on the basis of all available information, rather than being primarily influenced by physical appearance, as previous studies have implied.
The bad genes and anomalous face overgeneralization accounts of facial preferences were tested by examining cue validity, cue utilization, and accuracy in judging health and intelligence from faces in the upper and lower halves of the distributions of attractiveness and its components: averageness, symmetry, and masculinity. Consistent with the bad genes hypothesis, facial attractiveness, averageness, symmetry, and male face masculinity each provided valid cues to intelligence and/or health for faces in the lower but not the upper halves of the distributions of these facial qualities. Consistent with the anomalous face overgeneralization hypothesis, attractiveness and its components were utilized as cues not only for faces in the lower halves of the distributions, but also for those in the upper halves. Intelligence and health were judged accurately for faces in the lower but not the upper half of the attractiveness distribution, and attractiveness mediated this accuracy at all ages except adolescence. Since adolescence is the prime mating age, the latter finding raises questions about the utility of attractiveness as an evolved mechanism to ensure the selection of high quality mates.
The authors investigated accuracy of judging intelligence from facial photos of strangers across the lifespan, facial qualities contributing to accuracy, and developmental paths producing correlations between facial qualities and IQ scores. Judgments were more accurate than chance in childhood and puberty, marginally more accurate in middle adulthood, but not more accurate than chance in adolescence or late adulthood. Reliance on the valid cue of facial attractiveness could explain judges’ accuracy. Multiple developmental paths contributed to relationships between facial attractiveness and IQ: biological, environmental, influences of intelligence on attractiveness, influences of attractiveness on intelligence. The findings provide a caveat to evolutionary psychologists’ assumption that relationships between attractiveness and intelligence or other traits reflect an influence of “good genes” on both, as well as to social and developmental psychologists’ assumption that such relationships reflect self-fulfilling prophecy effects. Each of these mechanisms failed to explain some observed correlations.
We investigated whether people were accurate at judging other people's status, what behavioral and appearance cues they relied on when assessing status, whether the way those cues were used was accurate, and whether target gender affected any of the results. Targets (N = 48) were university employees (faculty and staff) who were photographed while interacting with a coworker. One sample of perceivers (66 females, 42 males) rated the relative status of the two people in the photograph to each other, and another sample (60 females and males) rated each target in the photograph on status. Additionally, an array of behavioral and appearance cues of targets in the photograph was assessed. Results showed that (1) people were able to assess status in others, (2) the cues they used to assess female and male targets were somewhat different, and (3) how much people relied on specific cues corresponded to how status was expressed in these cues.
This study examined how particular interpersonal goals relate to the expression of emotions during social interaction for people particularly high and low in self-monitoring needs. Before interacting with a partner, participants were assigned a goal of either self-promotion (appearing competent), ingratiation (appearing likable), or were assigned no specific goal. Naive judges viewed 15-sec segments of these interactions and rated participants regarding the emotions displayed. Results indicate that displays of positive and negative emotion are differentially affected by an individual's self-monitoring status, self-presentational goal, and gender. Overall, high self-monitors and women expressed less negative emotion and more positive emotion than low self-monitors and men. Furthermore, although women showed little variability in their displays of negative emotion due to goal, men's displays of negative emotion were affected by self-presentational goals.
Several studies have shown above-chance agreement of self-reports on extraversion and conscientiousness with ratings by strangers, indicating that ratings by strangers might be quite accurate. Because self-reports are a less-than-ideal criterion to evaluate the accuracy of stranger ratings, however, the present study compared them also with ratings by acquaintances and with targets' performance on an intelligence test. Ratings of extraversion, conscientiousness, and intelligence by strangers having been exposed to a videotape of targets were significantly related to self-reports of these traits as well as to ratings by acquaintances. Moreover, ratings of intelligence by strangers were related to targets' measured intelligence, provided that judges had been exposed to a sound film of the targets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relative contributions of verbal cues and full-channel (verbal-plus-nonverbal) cues, using a new method for studying the process of interpretation. This method, the Social Interpretations Task (SIT), is a videotape of 20 unposed sequences of spontaneous behavior, which are paired with multiple-choice questions requiring interpretation. For each SIT question, there is an unambiguous criterion of accuracy (e.g., in one scene, 2 men discuss a game of basketball they have just played, and the viewer is asked to decide which man won the game). The SIT was presented to undergraduates in 2 communication conditions: (a) a verbal transcript version containing only a written record of what was actually said in each SIT scene (76 Ss), and (b) a full-channel version, containing all the verbal and nonverbal behaviors that occurred in each scene (370 Ss). The 2 conditions produced radically different levels of interpretation accuracy. Ss in the verbal transcript version actually did worse than chance; Ss in the full-channel version did strikingly and significantly better. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined social behaviors and interpersonal attributes perceived to be associated with high and low intelligence. 211 college students completed questionnaires concerning the speech style and interpersonal behavior of a hypothetical male or female target individual who was either highly intelligent or not very intelligent. Results show that specific stereotypes existed regarding intelligence, and some of these effects were moderated by the gender of the target. Ss believed high intelligence targets were more likely to use a steady eyegaze and talk with their hands. Also, high intelligence targets were thought to fidget less, speak at a quicker rate, hesitate less while speaking, use less fillers, possess a pleasant speech style, and be clear communicators. Stronger stereotypes regarding walking gait, rate of speech, and posture were held for male targets, as compared to female targets. The belief that intelligent individuals use pauses more during their speech was held more strongly for female targets than male targets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
As a brief measure of general intelligence, the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) has been shown by C. B. Dodrill (see record
1982-00123-001) to render IQ scores closely resembling the WAIS Full Scale IQ (FSIQ). Long-term stability of the WPT IQ has not yet been demonstrated, however. In the present study, 30 normal adults were administered both the WPT and the WAIS on 2 occasions 5 yrs apart. Ss were 17–69 yrs of age at the 2nd testing. Test–retest reliability was .94 for the WPT and .96 for the WAIS FSIQ. The 2 tests were similar in terms of reliability of clinical classification, but the WPT demonstrated fewer practice effects than the WAIS. It is concluded that the WPT merits additional attention by clinical psychologists. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT In this study, we investigated the relationship of participants' observable attributes to measures of their personality and intelligence; we also studied the ways in which strangers formed their perception of participants' personalities and intelligence. Fifty pairs of intimate acquaintances were videotaped in a standard situation, were administered an intelligence test, and provided self-reports of their personality and descriptions of their partner's personality. In addition, various observable attributes (such as hair color, stature, physical mannerisms) of the targets were measured. Strangers watched the videotapes and rated either the observable attributes or the personality traits of the targets. The observable attributes were then correlated with the personality measures and the intelligence and trait inferences by strangers. Extraversion was the trait with the most external manifestations and the strongest match between cue utilization and cue validity. Intelligence was inferred from visual as well as from acoustic attributes, but only acoustic cues mediated the correlation between psychometric intelligence and perceptions of intelligence by strangers.
A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of various objective outcomes in the areas of clinical and social psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5 min). The overall effect size for the accuracy of predictions for 38 different results was .39. Studies using longer periods of behavioral observation did not yield greater predictive accuracy; predictions based on observations under 0.5 min in length did not differ significantly from predictions based on 4- and 5-min observations. The type of behavioral channel (such as the face, speech, the body, tone of voice) on which the ratings were based was not related to the accuracy of predictions. Accuracy did not vary significantly between behaviors manipulated in a laboratory and more naturally occurring behavior. Last, effect sizes did not differ significantly for predictions in the areas of clinical psychology, social psychology, and the accuracy of detecting deception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The links between 13 auditory and visual behavioral cues, mea- sured intelligence, and observer judgments of intelligence in a zero-acquaintance context were examined in a lens model study. Auditory-plus-visual, auditory-only, and visual-only informa- tion conditions, in addition to a transcript-only control condi- tion, were employed to determine whether auditory or visual cues encode measured intelligence more strongly and which are used more in judgments of intelligence. Five cues (of both types) accounted for nearly half the variance in measured intelligence, but it was much more strongly associated with auditory than visual cues. Observers' judgments of intelligence were also much more strongly related to auditory than visual cues. Visual cues may even depress accuracy; accuracy was higher in an auditory- only condition than in an auditory-plus-visual condition.
This article develops a parallel processing model of nonverbal communication that emphasizes the interdependence of behavioral and person perception processes from a functional perspective on social interaction. The form and outcome of the behavioral (encoding) and person perception (decoding) processes are a product of three related elements, including: (1) determinants, (2) the social environment, and (3) cognitive-affective mediators. In this model, the determinants (biology, culture, gender, and personality), in combination with the partner and setting, influence interpersonal expectancies, dispositions, goals, affect, and cognitive resources. In turn, these mediators constrain the attention and cognitive effort applied to behavior management and person perception. In general, fewer cognitive resources and decreased effort will have less effect on the outcome of automatic behavioral (e.g., scripts) and person perception (e.g., impressions based on appearance and nonverbal cues) processes than on more demanding ones. The utility of this theory in integrating behavioral and person perception processes into a single system is discussed.
Four hundred stimulus behaviors and their mean normative ratings for kindness, intelligence, goodness, and normality were
presented for use in person perception and memory studies. Each of the four normative ratings was based on a separate sample
of 35 to 39 undergraduate students from the University of Illinois. Rankings of the mean ratings were provided to facilitate
a quick comparison of the behavior ratings along each of the four trait dimensions. In addition, a cluster analysis of the
behaviors was reported, using the mean kindness, intelligence, and normality ratings as defining variables. Six clusters were
distinguished: (1) behaviors that primarily conveyed kindness; (2) behaviors that primarily conveyed unkindness; (3) behaviors
that conveyed an unusual amount of intelligence; (4) behaviors that conveyed general intelligence; (5) behaviors that conveyed
a general lack of intelligence; and (6) behaviors that conveyed very little information about kindness or intelligence.
To examine whether young, middle-aged, and older adults view the concept of intelligent person as similar or different during adulthood, 140 adults of various ages rated how likely it would be for individuals of average and exceptional intelligence at 30, 50, and 70 years of age to be engaged in behaviors previously identified by adults as characterizing adult intelligence. Adults perceived more similarity between exceptionally intelligent prototypes of closer ages (i.e., 30 and 50 and 50 and 70). Intelligence was perceived to consist of interest and ability to deal with novelty, everyday competence, and verbal competence--dimensions that were perceived to be differentially important for different-aged prototypes and by individuals of different ages. Participants' conceptions also included the idea that intelligence is malleable and that abilities differentially increase or decrease across the life span.
Pairs of subjects participated in two unstructured conversations spaced one week apart. In the second session, one subject of the pair was asked to participate either as an ingratiator or as a self-promoter. Naive target subjects clearly distinguished between presenters attempting to appear likable or competent. As verified by observer subjects, ingratiators used reactive verbal and nonverbal behaviors, whereas promoters used proactive behaviors. Preparation time did not produce differential behavioral tactics. The results are discussed in terms of the use of conversational resources to produce the attributions of likability and competence.
Linguistic nonfluencies known as mazes (filled pauses, repetitions, revisions, and abandoned utterances) have been used to draw inferences about processing difficulties associated with the production of language. In children with normal language development (NL), maze frequency in general increases with linguistic complexity, being greater in narrative than conversational contexts and in longer utterances. The same tendency has been found for children with specific language impairment (SLI). However, the frequency of mazes produced by children with NL and SLI has not been compared directly at equivalent utterance lengths in narration. This study compared the frequency of filled pauses and content mazes in narrative language samples of school-age children with SLI. The children with SLI used significantly more content mazes than the children with NL, but fewer filled pauses. Unlike content mazes, the frequency of filled pauses remained stable across samples of different utterance lengths among children with SLI. This indicates that filled pauses and content mazes have different origins and should not be analyzed or interpreted in the same way. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science (USA).
This study explores children's images of intelligence: What is the social content of their images of intelligence, and how does gender organize these images? A group of elementary school pupils (N = 170), aged 8-12 years, were asked to draw a picture of an intelligent and an ordinary person. A content analysis of the drawings showed that the most common portrait of an intelligent person was an adult male, with a high social status and involved in a mental-cognitive activity. These characteristics seemed to be more dominating with the older children. For the boys, the prototype of an intelligent person was unequivocally an adult male, whereas the girls had a broader view. The results suggested that elementary school-aged children have already captured some central value-bound ideas of intelligence in our culture.
To examine whether young, middle-aged, and older adults view the concept of intelligent person as similar or different during adulthood, 140 adults of various ages rated how likely it would be for individuals of average and exceptional intelligence at 30, 50, and 70 years of age to be engaged in behaviors previously identified by adults as characterizing adult intelligence. Adults perceived more similarity between exceptionally intelligent prototypes of closer ages (i.e., 30 and 50 and 50 and 70). Intelligence was perceived to consist of interest and ability to deal with novelty, everyday competence, and verbal competence-dimensions that were perceived to be differentially important for different-aged prototypes and by individuals of different ages. Participants' conceptions also included the idea that intelligence is malleable and that abilities differentially increase or decrease across the life span.
Fifty-three men and 56 women viewed brief video segments of 32 male targets and rated them on three personality traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and masculinity-femininity (M-F). Judges were assessed on general intelligence, Big Five traits, and gender-related traits. Two measures of accuracy were computed: 1) consensus accuracy, which measured the correlation between judges' ratings and corresponding ratings made by previous judges, and 2) trait accuracy, which measured the correlation between judges' ratings and targets' assessed personality. There was no gender difference in overall accuracy. However, women showed higher trait accuracy than men in judging neuroticism. Consensus accuracy exceeded trait accuracy, and extraversion and M-F were judged more accurately than neuroticism. M-F judgments showed the highest level of consensus accuracy. Judges' intelligence correlated positively with accuracy. Except for openness, personality traits were generally unrelated to accuracy.
How do we decide what another person is "really like"? How do we influence the impressions others form of us, and how do their reactions affect us in turn? In "Interpersonal Perception" one of the world's leading social psychologists explores these and other intriguing questions about the nature of social interaction. Drawing on nearly 40 years of person perception research, much of it his own, Edward E. Jones provides a unified framework for understanding the thought processes underlying interpersonal relations and illuminates the complex interplay of motive, cognitive inference, and behavior in our encounters with others. Illustrated throughout with examples drawn from daily life and from psychological experiments, and spiced with personal reflections, the book provides a remarkable synthesis of work in the field. Personal, provocative, illuminating, "Interpersonal Perception" should be of great interest to students, professionals, and serious general readers alike. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(cover)
Past research has found higher levels of agreement in personality ratings of others on traits related to extroversion than on other traits such as intelligence, honesty, or conscientiousness, particularly at low levels of acquaintance. One explanation for this effect is that verbal information relevant to these latter traits is less likely to be elicited in initial get-acquainted interactions. Providing such information should increase agreement. The present data suggest this is not the case. Agreement was equally low on these difficult-to-judge dimensions whether more or less relevant information was provided. The authors argue that because these traits are highly socially desirable, nonverbal information about the negative pole of the trait dimension is needed to make a confident judgment. Because such information is not available during initial encounters, simply increasing the quantity of relevant verbal information does not improve consensus.
Although questions about how people respond to others' nonverbal cues have always been central to the study of nonverbal communication, the study of individual diVerences in accuracy of nonverbal cue processing, or interpersonal sensitivity, is a more recent endeavor. This chapter focuses on assessment of individual diVerences, emphasizing the major paradigms and instruments for assessing accuracy of nonverbal cue processing, and discussing characteristics of the stimuli and judgment methodologies (e.g. what state or trait is being judged, who is being judged, what cue channels are available, whether the cues are posed or spontaneous, whether judgment is done in live interaction or from standard stimuli, what judgment format is used, what criteria and methods are used for scoring). Relative advantages of diVerent approaches are discussed in terms of psychometric qualities, validity, and utility.
The personality construct of social anxiety was examined employing several methods, including the self-report subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale, descriptions provided both by subjects and two college peers using the modified California Q-sort and direct observations of behavior recorded using the Behavioral Q-sort, of both the target subject and a randomly assigned, opposite sex interaction partner. A remarkable convergence in the content of all three types of descriptions was obtained for both male and female subjects. The socially anxious individual characterizes him/herself and is seen by his/her college peers as fearful, self-pitying and unassertive, while displaying a lack of social skills and a generally awkward interpersonal style in a series of interactions with a stranger of the opposite sex. In addition, it would appear that social anxiety has a negative effect on the behavior of the interaction partner of the socially anxious individual, thus providing support for an interpersonal cycle of social anxiety.
The first part of this book has appeared previously (see Neyman, Jerzy. (Ed.) Berkeley symposium on mathematical statistics and probability. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1949). Part II branches out from 2 of the model experiments in Part I "… in which the level of complexity has reached the criterion of functionality, expanding their basic principles over other areas of perception." The topic of perceptual constancies is expanded (3 chaps.) and their relation to thinking investigated. Other topics include: social perception, a fully representative design with textural ecology, probabilistic cue learning, clinical applications, and theoretical considerations. 211-item bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
propose that impression regulation and management are fundamental features of social behavior / "impression management" is defined as a goal-directed activity of controlling information about some person, object, idea, or event / [suggest that] it is also misleading to think of impression management as superficial, deceptive, an afterthought, a simple bias of socially desirable responding, or immoral / rather it plays a crucial role for self-identification / people try to regulate and control—sometimes consciously and sometimes not—the information they present to audiences / 3 themes contribute to current conceptions of impression management: people as agents, communication as purposive, and audiences as an integral component of self-regulation (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Normative data were secured on 480 children between the ages of 3 and 8 divided into 8 subsamples by age, and stratified for SES. Measures obtained were: articulation of speech sounds, sound discrimination, vocabulary, and verbalizations. Using the terminal status concept and the significance of differences between consecutively tested age groups, age trends were determined. The often-assumed superiority of girls over boys is not entirely substantiated. SES differences are significant. In comparison with previous studies, children today show greater loquacity, possibly reflecting the effect of mass media or other cultural changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study compares the relative accuracy of targets’ self-reports and other-reports of personality in predicting two criteria: (a) emotional experience in daily life and (b) behavior in the laboratory. Ratings of the targets’ extraversion and neuroticism were obtained from two knowledgeable informants and the targets themselves. Target participants wore an electronic signaling device (‘beeper’) for eight days and rated positive and negative emotions at four randomly selected times each day. The participants also interacted with an opposite-sex stranger in a laboratory context and their behavior was coded from videotapes. Targets’ self-reports of personality were consistently more accurate than other-reports in predicting daily emotional experience. Self- reports also outperformed other-reports in predicting extraversion-related laboratory behaviors, but not neuroticism-related behaviors. The relative accuracy of self- and other-reports of personality would seem to depend on the criterion employed; self-reports are clearly better for the prediction of emotional experience, while for behavior the picture is mixed.
This study investigated whether brief segments of nonverbal behavior or “thin slices” would be representative of behavior
across a longer interaction. It was hypothesized that behavioral slices would correlate with behavior across a full 15-minute
interaction. Five commonly investigated nonverbal behaviors were coded: gazing, gestures, nods, smiles, and self-touch. The
findings showed moderate to high positive correlations between the thin slices (1-minute slice, total of two 1-minute slices,
total of three 1-minute slices) and the full interaction for all five behaviors. In regards to behavioral coding, the thin-slice
methodology proposed could save nonverbal researchers considerable time, energy, and money by decreasing resources dedicated
to coding behavior in some types of interactions. Such results suggest that thin slices could represent an individual’s behavior
across a longer length of time.
Past research (e.g., DePaulo & Kirkendol, in press) has documented a motivational impairment effect in the communication of deception, whereby people who are more highly motivated to get away with their lies (relative to those who are less highly motivated) are less successful at doing so whenever observers can see or hear any of their nonverbal cues. In the present study, we report a conceptual replication of the effect: Subjects who told ingratiating lies under conditions in which they thought that the ability to convey particular impressions was an important skill (high competence-relevance) were less successful at getting away with those lies when judges could observe their nonverbal behaviors. We also report a conceptual replication of an unpredicted finding from an earlier study (DePaulo, Stone, & Lassiter, 1985b): Under the same conditions (ingratiating lies, high competence relevance), women were more likely to show the motivational impairment effect than were men. We predicted in this study that more attractive speakers would be less susceptible to the motivational impairment effect than less attractive speakers. Consistent with this prediction, under high motivational conditions (ingratiating lies, high competence-relevance), more attractive speakers were less likely to show the impairment than were less attractive speakers. Finally, we report suggestive evidence that the motivational impairment effect may occur when subjects are trying deliberately to control simultaneously all of their verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Private and Public Self-enhancementSociometer TheoryState and Trait Self-esteemModerating Effects of Self-esteem on Self-presentationEffects of Self-presentation on Self-esteemPrivate Self-enhancement and Self-deceptionConclusions
Because of special characteristics of nonverbal behaviors (e.g., they can be difficult to suppress, they are more accessible to the people who observe them than to the people who produce them), the intention to produce a particular nonverbal expression for self-presentational purposes cannot always be successfully translated into the actual production of that expression. The literatures on people's skills at using their nonverbal behaviors to feign internal states and to deceive are reviewed as they pertain to the question of whether people can overcome the many constraints on the translation of their intentions into expressions. The issue of whether people's deliberate attempts to regulate their nonverbal behaviors can be detected by others is also considered.