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CLINICAL REVIEW
BMJ | 24 FEBRUARY 2007 | VOLUME 334 413
Dog bites
Marina Morgan,1 John Palmer2
For the full versions of these articles see bmj.com
Bites and maulings by dogs, sometimes fatal, are a
worldwide problem and particularly affect children.
Every year 250 000 people who have been bitten by250 000 people who have been bitten by
dogs attend minor injuries and emergency units in
the United Kingdom,
1
and some of them are admit-
ted to hospital for surgical debridement or intravenoussurgical debridement or intravenous
antibiotics.
Increasingly, dog bites are the subject of litigation
because bite wounds are still being sutured when they
should be left open and because of incorrect antimicro-
bial prophylaxis.
The “hole and tear” effect—whereby canine teeth
anchor the person while other teeth bite, shear, and tear
the tissues—results in stretch lacerations, easily piercing
immature cranial bones. The biting force of canine jaws
varies with the breed, from 310 kPa to nearly 31 790
kPa in specially trained attack dogs.
w1 w2
Large wounds,
significant devitalisation, and high mortality can result,
with the highest mortality in neonates (six times that in
toddlers), who are usually bitten by household pets.2 3
This review is aimed at clinicians who deal with dog
bites. The basic principles of wound management andThe basic principles of wound management and
indications for use of antimicrobials and rabies prophy-
laxis apply to clinicians in all countries, but the primary
focus of this article will be the UK.
Overall, the clinical approach in the UK to man-
agement of dog bites is pragmatic and based largely
on consensus opinion rather than firm evidence.
The major basis for recommending co-amoxiclav
is in-vitro sensitivity data of organisms related to
dog bites, and most authorities recommend using
prophylactic antimicrobials in selected patients at
high risk of infection.
Sources and selection criteria
We reviewed the Cochrane Library and performed
Medline searches to identify relevant systematic reviews
on the management of dog bites, using the keywords
“dog-bites”, “reviews”, “prophylaxis”, and “treatment”.
We consulted personal archives, Clinical Evidence, and
UK national NHS (Prodigy) guidelines.
How big is the problem?
Of the estimated 740 people per 100 000 population
bitten by dogs annually,
4
a minority seek medical
attention. Overall, 2.6/100 000 population need hos-
pital admission. Half of all children are reportedly
bitten by dogs at some time, boys more than girls. A
recent telephone survey of 1184 families found that
the annual incidence of bites in children aged under
15 years was 22/1000.5
Accurate mortality figures are poorly documented
in the medical literature and difficult to obtain. How-
ever, because deaths are newsworthy, the popular
press reports are probably reliable indicators of the
true number in the UK, and during the past five years,
two to three cases a year have made headlines. In the
United States annual mortality is 7.1/100 million popu-
lation, with 57% of deaths occurring in children aged
under 10 years.
Why do dogs bite?
Most attacks are apparently unprovoked, but dogs are
not always to blame. Dogs resent being disturbed while
1Old Pathology Laboratory, Royal
Devon and Exeter Foundation
Trust, Exeter EX2 5AD
2Department of Plastic and
Reconstructive Surgery, Royal
Devon and Exeter Foundation
Trust, Exeter
Correspondence to: M Morgan
marina.morgan@rdeft.nhs.uk
BMJ 2007:334:413–7
doi: 10.1136/bmj.39105.659919.BE
SUMMARY POINTS
Wound management is as important as use of
antimicrobials in preventing infection
Primary closure should be avoided in limb injuries where
possible because of increased risk of infection
For patients considered to be at higher risk of infection, the
prophylaxis of choice is co-amoxiclav
Erythromycin or flucloxacillin should never be used alone
prophylactically as Pasteurella infection is usually resistant
Infected wounds presenting within 12 hours of injury are
usually due to Pasteurella multocida
Patients at particularly high risk of infection are
immunosuppressed patients, particularly those with
asplenia or cirrhosis or those who have had a mastectomy
Box 1 |
Points to consider during history and examination
History
• For travellers bitten abroad, assess risk of rabies and consider rabies prophylaxis
• Note immunocompromising factors, such as splenectomy, cirrhosis,w5 and steroid therapy9
• Note recent antibiotics (infection despite flucloxacillin or erythromycin makes
superinfection with resistant organisms such as Pasteurella multocida likely)
Examination
• Children with facial or cranial bites need cervical immobilisation until cervical lesions are
excluded
• Take careful documentation with diagrams of the wound (photographs may be useful)
• Assess size and depth of the wound, degree of crush injury and devitalised tissue, nerve or
tendon damage, and involvement of bones and joints
• Full wound examination and debridement, with local or general anaesthetic if necessary
• Radiography is indicated to exclude embedded teeth or dental fragments, fractures, and
bony damage, or in scalp wounds in children
CLINICAL REVIEW
414 BMJ | 24 FEBRUARY 2007 | VOLUME 334
eating and dislike being threatened or feeling that their
territory is being invaded, and they can be jealous of
attention given to other family members.
There is much debate about which dogs attack
humans the most. Most reviewers conclude that the
higher risk animals include larger dogs, German shep-
herd dogs, pit bull terriers, Rottweilers, and chows,
but all dogs should be considered dangerous; even
smaller dogs such as Jack Russell terriers inflict severe
bites.6-8
What are the medicolegal aspects of dog bites?
Litigation associated with dog bites occurs at a steady
rate in the UK—initiated by people attacked while
walking or delivering mail; compensation claims are
also made regularly against clinicians for alleged mis-
management of the original injury. An estimated 5000
postal workers seek medical help for bites annually in
the UK.
Police can prosecute owners under the Dangerous
Dogs Act 1991 (which makes ownership of certain
breeds illegal), and magistrates have the power to have a
dog put down. A civil claim against the owner for dam-
ages can be made under the Animal Act 1971. Adults
have a three year limit in which to begin action, and
“no win, no fee” legal firms already exploit this area of
litigation. Compensation claims have varied, from a few
thousand pounds to tens of thousands of pounds (and
even hundreds of thousands for sportsmen whose career
is affected by injury).
How should dog bites be managed?
Box 1 suggests how to take a history and do an exami-
nation in a patient presenting with a dog bite, and
box 2 outlines initial management procedures. Where
adequate debridement of deep penetrating wounds is
not possible, it is common practice, although unsup-
ported by strong evidence, to irrigate the wound with
250 ml saline, using a 19 or 20 gauge needle or plastic
intravenous catheter on a 35 ml syringe.w3 w4
Irrigation is particularly important if the dog is sus-
pected of being rabid. Gentle debridement after irriga-
tion is essential as irrigation alone may not remove the
virus from wound edges; the wound should then be
covered with a sterile dressing or a clean dry cloth.
Factors increasing the risk of infection are arbitrarily
divided into patient and wound factors (box 3). Many
studies involving small numbers of patients have sug-
gested various predisposing factors. A larger observa-
tional study—of 769 sequential patients with dog bite
wounds presenting to an emergency department—
found that the strongest predictors for the develop-
ment of infection were wound depth, need for surgical
debridement, and being female.
9
Box 4 indicates when
referral for specialist care is necessary.
Head and neck bites
Unlike adults, in whom only 10% of bites involve the
head and neck, most bites in children are to the head
or face, with 76% affecting lips, nose, or cheeks.11
Exsanguination after carotid trauma is the major
cause of death due to bites in children aged under
10 years, so with major trauma, resuscitation is the
priority. Penetrating wounds of the neck and thoracic
inlet are especially dangerous, and early angiography
and exploration may be necessary. Avulsed body parts
should be kept cool pending reattachment.
A complete physical examination, followed by
intraoral examination to exclude cheek lacerations
extending into the oral cavity, is necessary. Children
with facial or cranial bites need cervical immobilisation
until cervical lesions are excluded. Careful examina-
tion and appropriate imaging are necessary; a small
scalp puncture wound may overlie intracranial injury
and facial fractures.
Facial bites can often be closed primarily.
11 12
Although rarely necessary, antibiotic prophylaxis
decreases the risk of infection to 1%.12
Extremity and hand bites
Anatomically, the hand contains many small com-
partments, and there is a relative lack of soft tissues
separating the skin from the bone and joint. Surgical
debridement needs to be done by an experienced clini-
cian. Overall, only a fifth of dog bites become infected,
compared with 36% of hand bites,
13
and loss of function
can result from infection. Hence thorough documenta-
tion of the injury and nerves affected is necessary. With
a strict protocol of vigorous debridement and irrigation
the infection rate can be as low as 0.5%.
w4
Pus needs
draining and preferably should be cultured (actual pus
rather than a swab). Wounds on extremities should
Box 2 |
Procedures for initial wound management
• Irrigate copiously, using tap water or normal salinew3 w4
• Remove foreign bodies (teeth)
• Perform a thorough wound toilet and debridement where necessaryw3 w4
• Delay closure of the wound where possible
• Raise and immobilise the limb if the injury is associated with (or is likely to cause) swelling
• Give antibiotics, depending on the risk factors for infection
• With infected wounds, send pus or a deep wound swab for culture (in clinically uninfected
wounds, swabbing is unhelpful)
• Review bites within 24-48 hours, especially if the bites need antimicrobial prophylaxis
• Although tetanus after animal bites is rare, all guidelines in common use advise tetanus
prophylaxis, with immunoglobulin and toxoid to be administered to patients with a history
of two or fewer immunisations
Box 3 |
Factors that increase risk of infection*
Patient factors
• Alcoholism (increased susceptibility to Pasteurella infection9)
• Cirrhosis, asplenia (increased risk of Capnocytophaga)
• Steroid therapy, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, and lymphoedema after
radiotherapy (all increase risk of Pasteurella infection9
Wound factors
• Wounds >6 hours old
• Devitalised tissue10
• Previously sutured wounds
• Full thickness wounds involving tendons, ligaments, and joints
• Bites on limbs, especially hands
*According to case reports and small reviews9 w1
Box 4 |
Indications for
referral to specialist care9
• If systemic
manifestations of
infection are present
• If bone, joints, or
tendons are affected
• If hand bites are serious
or the bites require
reconstructive surgery
• If bites are cranial,
especially in an infant
• If the patient has severe
cellulitis or infection is
refractory to oral therapy
CLINICAL REVIEW
BMJ | 24 FEBRUARY 2007 | VOLUME 334 415
not be closed primarily, but left unsutured (with the
limb raised and immobilised) and sutured only when
considered clean and free of infection.
With adequate debridement and wound toilet, pri-
mary suturing may be possible.14 Severe bites require
“second look” surgery 24-48 hours after initial radical
debridement—to exclude residual dead tissue or infec-
tive focus.
Which infections result from animal bites?
Dog bite related infections are polymicrobial, predom-
inantly Pasteurella and Bacteroides spp. Infected bites
presenting less than 12 hours after injury are particu-
larly likely to be infected with Pasteurella spp, whereas
those presenting more than 24 hours after the event are
likely to be predominantly infected with staphylococci
or anaerobes.
Inform the laboratory of the nature of the wound,
as routine laboratory methods may fail to isolate or
identify more unusual organisms.
15
Thirty per cent of
infections thought to be penicillin sensitive Staphylo‑
coccus aureus are actually S intermedius.w6
Culturing aerobically alone or for less than 5-7 days
may explain the paucity of pathogens reported in older
studies, particularly anaerobes such as Prevotella, Por‑
phyromonas, and Fusobacteria spp.15
Dog bite organisms often have strange names,
the classic example being Capnocytophaga canimorsus
(dysgonic fermenter type 2 or DF2). With nearly 100
reported cases, DF2 septicaemia is often mistaken for
fulminant meningococcal disease.
16
w5
Infection usually
follows a trivial bite in patients with asplenia or cir-
rhosis. Typically, Gram negative rods are seen within
polymorphs on peripheral blood films.
16
w5
DF2 is
sensitive to penicillin and ciprofloxacin.
Clinical infection may also result from incorrect
management in primary care (figs 1 and 2). Erythro-
mycin or flucloxacillin must never be used alone in
prophylaxis. In one small study 70% patients with
Pasteurella multocida infections (see box 5) had received
inadequate or incorrect antibiotics, usually flucloxa-
cillin or erythromycin.
17
There are many reports of
clinical failures and several deaths due to failure of
erythromycin therapy.w7
When should prophylactic antibiotics be used?
As only a fifth of all dog bites become infected
13
it is
generally accepted that superficial, easily cleaned dog
bite wounds do not warrant antibiotics if the patient is
otherwise immunocompetent. We found no evidence
justifying routine antibiotic prophylaxis for bites at low
risk of infection. The consensus of opinion, however,
is that antibiotic prophylaxis (co-amoxiclav) should be
considered and is probably indicated for all “high risk”
dog bites.
A postal survey of 21 UK emergency departments
and minor injury units found that prophylaxis was
given routinely in 15. Thirteen departments had a
protocol, and co-amoxiclav was the antibiotic of first
choice.w8
No strong evidence base supports the routine use
of co-amoxiclav. A series of methodologically poor
studies, with differing dosages of various antimicrobials
and inadequate microbiological methods, has produced
a plethora of recommendations for prophylaxis with
little valid evidence. The major basis for recommend-
ing co-amoxiclav is in-vitro sensitivity data.
The NHS guidelines (Prodigy)
19
recommend co-
amoxiclav as first choice prophylaxis where indicated,
since it covers all commonly expected organisms
among the canine oral flora. w9
Co-amoxiclav covers the penicillin resistant S aureus
and anaerobes and P multocida, which is resistant to
flucloxacillin and erythromycin.15 w10 w11
Some authors advise empirical prophylaxis for all
animal bites,
w10
while others take a more sensible
approach, restricting prophylaxis to injuries or patients
deemed at high risk of infection.9 21 22 w1 w3
Fig 1 |
Top: Breakdown of a bite wound and infection seven
days after it was sutured in primary care. Bottom: Resultant
scarring 18 months later
Box 5 |
Characteristics of Pasteurella multocida
• Literally “killer of many species”—probably the most
virulent pathogen in dog bites and responsible for severe
infection
• Present in >50% of dog bites15
• The most likely pathogen in infected wounds presenting
within 12 hours of the bite15
• An aggressive Gram negative pathogen, causing early
intense inflammatory response with considerable tissue
involvement, and likely to cause metastatic infection with
severe sequelae18
• Associated with a mortality of 30% in septicaemia18 w7
• Resistant to erythromycin and flucloxacillin17
• Likely to result in tenosynovitis in hand bites especially,
and may lead to irreparable damage and amputation
CLINICAL REVIEW
416 BMJ | 24 FEBRUARY 2007 | VOLUME 334
Meta-analyses
The conclusion and implications of two meta-analy-
ses relating to antibiotic treatment for animal bites21 22
are not directly relevant to UK practice (table). Both
included trials with no stratification of risk of infec-
tion, comparing differing antibiotic regimens and
dosages, ranging from penicillinase stable penicillins
(such as oxacillin) to co-trimoxazole, cefalexin, and
phenoxymethylpenicillin.
Each meta-analysis included eight trials, with six
trials common to both. Cummings included one
non-randomised controlled trial,21 and the Cochrane
review included one trial of prophylaxis for cat
bites and one for human bites.
22
Overall, the patient
numbers were small. Only one small trial involving
172 dog bites used co-amoxiclav.
23
In that trial co-
amoxiclav (375 mg three times daily for five days)
was given to 84 patients, with 88 given placebo.
This resulted in a significant difference in infection
rates (33% of those receiving co-amoxiclav prophy-
laxis became infected, compared with 60% receiving
placebo).23
Most authors agree prophylaxis is of no proved ben-
efit in simple facial dog bites, but the consensus of
opinion recommends three to five days of prophylaxis
for puncture wounds,
9 19
primary closures,
11 14
high risk
patients, and oral-cutaneous (“through and through”)
bites,
24
with additional indications suggested by several
authors of small reviews of treatment (box 6).
For patients with a true allergy to penicillin, effec-
tive alternatives to co-amoxiclav include tetracycline
or doxycycline plus metronidazole,19 a second genera-
tion cephalosporin with anti-anaerobic activity such as
ceftriaxone, or combination therapy with clindamycin
and a fluoroquinolone.
Pregnant women with a history of rash after penicil-
lin should be offered ceftriaxone.
Treatment of established infection
Inpatient treatment must cover Pasteurella, anaerobes,
and staphylococci, and be modified according to cul-
ture results. For very severe infections, we use empiri-
cal imipenem with cilastatin (500 mg four times daily,
intravenously) and clindamycin (900 mg four times
daily, intravenously) until Gram stains or cultures are
available to guide treatment. For patients with severe
allergy to penicillin, ciprofloxacin (400 mg twice daily,
intravenously) plus metronidazole (500 mg three times
daily, intravenously) replaces imipenem.
Duration of treatment for established infection
In practice, treatment is usually 10-14 days for celluli-
tis, three weeks for tenosynovitis, four weeks for septic
arthritis, and six weeks for osteomyelitis. Conversion
to oral antibiotics when the C reactive protein concen-
tration falls to <50 mg/l is a pragmatic approach that
we find works well in our hospital. If the C reactive
protein levels off at a high concentration or continues
to rise, then a clinical reappraisal is needed as a second
debridement may be advisable, particularly with joint
space infections.
Rabies
Rabies is transmitted by a transdermal bite or scratch,
or salivary contamination of mucosa or skin wounds.
It kills 30 000 to 50 000 people a year, mainly in
Box 6 |
Indications for antimicrobial prophylaxis
“High risk” wounds
• All bite wounds after primary closure14
• Puncture woundsw3
• Bites to hand and wristw3 w4
• Crush wounds with devitalised tissue9
• Dog bite injuries to the genitals10
“High risk” patients (conditions)9 w1
• Diabetes mellitus
• Immunosuppression
• Splenectomy, cirrhosis (C canimorsus)
• Postmastectomyw1
• Rheumatoid arthritisw1 and prosthetic jointsw1 2
Meta-analyses of trials involving prophylactic antibiotics for dog bites
Study Conclusion Comments
Cummings, 199421 In four of the largest studies antibiotics
decreased the risk of infection; and to prevent 1
infection, 14 patients needed prophylaxis
Meta-analysis of 8 randomised trials; not
a systematic review; 8 trials, 306 patients;
different antibiotics compared, only 1 using co-
amoxiclav
Cochrane review, 200122 No evidence of benefit in dog bites 8 trials, including 6 randomised double blind
controlled and 1 randomised controlled trial;
different antibiotics compared, only 1 using co-
amoxiclav; small numbers of patients; different
antibiotic regimens; dog and other animal bites
included in trials
Fig 2 |
Left: Bite laceration infected with Pasteurella multocida .
Right: Haemorrhaging and resolving cellulitis in same patient
CLINICAL REVIEW
BMJ | 24 FEBRUARY 2007 | VOLUME 334 417
developing countries and especially where unvacci-
nated stray dogs are common. Avoiding exposure to
rabies involves education of travellers and advice not to
touch animals abroad, especially if they appear unwell
and have excessive salivation or paralysis. Prior rabies
vaccination may be sensible for travellers to remote
areas where rabies is highly endemic.25
Rabies is almost invariably fatal, so even seemingly
minor bites in high risk countries should be taken seri-
ously. Local medical advice should be sought on the
risks of rabies and prophylaxis after exposure. Thor-
ough cleansing significantly lessens the risk of rabies.
Hence flushing the wound under a running tap for sev-
eral minutes, washing with soapy water or detergent,
and particularly using wound disinfectants (such as
40-70% alcohol, tincture, or aqueous solution of povi-
done-iodine) is recommended. Again, primary suturing
should be avoided if possible.
Risk assessment in travellers returning with dog bites
Rabies vaccine and immunoglobulin should be given if
required.25 w13 Local advice should be sought, as coun-
tries differ in the risks of contracting rabies and in the
administration and use of vaccine and immunoglobulin.
For example, intradermal vaccination may be used in
some countries where resources are scarce, and equine
rabies immunoglobulin may be the only one available.
For travellers returning home to the UK, intramuscular
vaccine and human rabies immunoglobulin are obtained
by contacting the centres listed in box 7. Information
that general practitioners will need to provide when
discussing the need for prophylaxis with staff at the
centres includes previous vaccination status, country where
bitten, site and date of bite, provoked or unprovoked
bite, domestic or feral dog, current health of animal, and
previous immunisation status of patient.
Prevention
An educational intervention, “Prevent a bite” (designed
primarily for schoolchildren), was effective in increas-
ing precautionary behaviour among children when
confronted with a dog.
w14
Generally, children should
be taught to treat dogs with respect, avoid direct eye
contact, and not tease them. They should be taught
not to approach an unfamiliar dog; play with any dog
unless under close supervision; run or scream in the
presence of a dog; pet a dog without at first letting it
sniff you; or disturb a dog that is eating, sleeping, or
caring for puppies.
We thank Elizabeth Saunders for valuable comments on the manuscript.
Contributors: MM searched the literature on therapeutics and drafted the
article; JP added aspects on surgery. Both authors completed and revised the
content critically and are joint guarantors.
Competing interests: None declared.
Provenance: Commissioned, peer reviewed.
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2 Sacks JJ, Lockwood R, Hornreich J, Sattin RW. Fatal dog attacks 1981-94.
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3 Rohrich RJ. Man’s best friend revisited: who’s watching the children?
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4 Wolff K. Management of animal bite injuries of the face: experience in
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5 De Keuster, T Lamoureaux J, Kahn A. Epidemiology of dog bites: a
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6 Gershman KA, Sacks JJ, Wright JC. Which dogs bite? A case-control study
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7 Shewell PC, Nancarrow JD. Dogs that bite. BMJ 1991;303:1512-3.
8 Cole RP. Dog bites to children. BMJ 1991;303:467.
9 Dire DJ, Hogan DO, Riggs MW. A prospective evaluation of risk factors
from dog-bite wounds. Acad Emerg Med 1994;3:258-65.
10 Gomes CM, Ribeiro-Filho L, Giron AM, Mitre AL, Figueira ER, Arap S.
Genital trauma due to animal bites. J Urol 2000;165:80-3.
11 Palmer J, Rees M. Dog bites of the face: a fifteen year review. Br J Plast
Surg 1983;36:315-8.
12 Mcheik JN, Vergniss P, Bondonny JM. Treatment of facial dog bites
injuries in children: a retrospective study. J Ped Surg 2000;35:580-3.
13 Callaham M. Controversies in antibiotic choices for bite wounds. Ann
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14 Moore F. I’ve just been bitten by a dog. BMJ 1997;314:88-9.
15 Talan DA, Citron DM, Abrahamian FM, Moran GJ, Goldstein EJC.
Bacteriologic analysis of infected cat and dog bites. N Engl J Med
1999;340:285-92.
16 Kullberg B-J, Westendorp RG, Van’t Wout, JW Meinders AE. Purpura
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19 Management of animal bites. Prodigy guidance.
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ADDITIONAL EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
Resources for healthcare professionals
• Keogh S, Callaham M. Bites and injuries inflicted by
domestic animals. In: Auerbach PS, ed. Wilderness
medicine. 4th ed. St Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 2001.
• Solomon TN, Marston D, Mallewa M, Felton T, Shaw S,
McElhinney LM, et al. Paralytic rabies after a two week
holiday in India. BMJ 2005;331:501-3.
• Rupprecht CE, Hanlon CA, Hemachudha T. Rabies re-
examined. Lancet Infect Dis 2002;2:327-43.
• Immunisation against infectious diseases—the green
book. 2006 edition. www.dh.gov.uk/ [search for title].
• Warrell MJ, Warrell DJ. Intradermal post exposure rabies
vaccine regimens. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:477-80.
Resources for patients
• Dog and cat bites (www.prodigy.nhs.uk/patient_
information/pils/dog_and_cat_bites.pdf)—guidance on
what to do after a bite
• Travel health information sheet (www.nathnac.org/travel/
factsheets/rabies1.htm)—information about rabies
Box 7 | Who to contact about risk and management of rabies
• Health Protection Agency Centre for Infection, 61
Colindale Avenue, London NW9 5EQ (www.hpa.org.uk/
infections/default.htm)
• Health Protection Scotland, Clifton House, Clifton Place,
Glasgow G3 7LN (www.hps.scot.nhs.uk/)
