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Arch Sex Behav
DOI 10.1007/s10508-006-9123-6
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Prevalence of Masturbation and Associated Factors in a British
National Probability Survey
Makeda Gerressu · Catherine H. Mercer ·
Cynthia A. Graham · Kaye Wellings · Anne M. Johnson
Received: 18 April 2006 / Revised: 19 September 2006 / Accepted: 19 September 2006
C
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2007
Abstract A stratified probability sample survey of the
British general population, aged 16 to 44 years, was con-
ducted from 1999 to 2001 (N = 11,161) using face-to-face
interviewing and computer-assisted self-interviewing. We
used these data to estimate the population prevalence of
masturbation, and to identify sociodemographic, sexual be-
havioral, and attitudinal factors associated with reporting this
behavior. Seventy-three percent of men and 36.8% of women
reported masturbating in the 4 weeks prior to interview (95%
confidence interval 71.5%–74.4% and 35.4%–38.2%, re-
spectively). A number of sociodemographic and behavioral
factors were associated with reporting masturbation. Among
both men and women, reporting masturbation increased
with higher levels of education and social class and was
more common among those reporting sexual function
M. Gerressu · C. H. Mercer · A. M. Johnson
Centre for Sexual Health and HIV Research,
Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences,
University College London,
Mortimer Market Centre, off Capper Street, London, England
C. A. Graham
Oxford Doctoral Course in Clinical Psychology, University of
Oxford, Warneford Hospital,
Oxford, England
K. Wellings
Centre for Sexual and Reproductive Health Research, London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,
London, England
M. Gerressu (
)
Centre for Sexual Health and HIV Research,
Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences,
University College London,
Mortimer Market Centre, off Capper Street,
London WC1E 6JB, England
e-mail: mgerressu@gum.ucl.ac.uk
problems. For women, masturbation was more likely among
those who reported more frequent vaginal sex in the last
four weeks, a greater repertoire of sexual activity (such as
reporting oral and anal sex), and more sexual partners in
the last year. In contrast, the prevalence of masturbation
was lower among men reporting more frequent vaginal
sex. Both men and women reporting same-sex partner(s)
were significantly more likely to report masturbation.
Masturbation is a common sexual practice with significant
variations in reporting between men and women.
Keywords Masturbation
.
Sexual behavior
.
Sex survey
.
Gender differences
Introduction
From a public health perspective, masturbation is consid-
ered a safe sexual activity. It has been promoted as a safe
alternative to higher risk practices by both researchers and
clinicians (Pinkerton, Bogart, Cecil, & Abramson, 2002).
It has been recommended as a way for people to familiar-
ize themselves with their body and their sexual responses
(Zamboni & Crawford, 2002) and used as a treatment for
premature ejaculation and orgasmic disorders in women
(Heiman & LoPiccolo, 1988). Masturbation has also been
presented as a way people in later life might fulfil their
sexual needs if experiencing difficulty finding new sexual
partners (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002).
Despite its sexual health potential, masturbation has been
stigmatized over the centuries. Held as a moral sin by
Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, masturbation became per-
ceived as a mortal threat to health in the 18th century. It was
renamed “onanism” and for two hundred years physicians
warned patients of the multitude of illnesses associated with
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Arch Sex Behav
masturbation (Laqueur, 2003). It was claimed that mastur-
bation would lead inter alia to insanity, fits, blindness, and
impotence (Bullough, 2002). Many “cures” were developed,
ranging from circumcision for both men and women to cas-
tration (Darby, 2003). According to Laqueur (2003), this
anxiety stemmed from the belief at the time, that allowing
people to withdraw into their isolated private sexual fantasy
world would be socially disruptive.
In the 20th century, with better understanding of the causes
of sexually transmitted infections and their symptoms, and
the influence of psychoanalysts, artists, the feminist and gay
rights movements, views of masturbation changed (Laqueur,
2003). The topic remains one that tends not to be openly
discussed and negative attitudes persist (Coleman, 2002)but
it is also a frequently raised subject on sex and relation-
ship phone lines and Internet sites in a number of countries
(Barbey, 1991; Cardamakis, Vinakos, Lambou, & Papathana-
siou, 1993; International Planned Parenthood Federation,
1996; Kitamura, 1990; Kuriansky, 1996).
Kinsey’s sexual behavior studies in the 1940s and 1950s
first provided evidence on the frequency and distribution of
masturbation (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1953;Kinsey,
Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebhard, 1948). For all the negative
views surrounding the practice, it was found to be more
common than previously thought. A substantial gender
difference in the incidence of masturbation was reported,
and associations between masturbation and various sociode-
mographic variables, such as education and religion, were
identified. Some 40 years later, masturbation was excluded
altogether from the first National Survey of Sexual Attitudes
and Lifestyles in Britain (Natsal 1990). This was a decision
prompted partly by its low risk status (Editorial, 1994)
and partly as a result of developmental qualitative research
findings that masturbation elicited a level of “awkwardness
and embarrassment” (Spencer, Faulkner, & Keegan, 1988).
More recent national surveys of sexual behavior in several
countries have included questions on masturbation (B
´
ejin,
1996; Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002; Laumann, Gagnon,
Michael, & Michaels, 1994; Spira, Bajos, & ACSF Group,
1994). The reported rates of masturbation varied widely, in
part reflecting methodological differences in terms of survey
design, question wording, and method of questioning. One
consistency across studies was the striking gender differ-
ence in the prevalence of masturbation (Kontula & Haavio-
Mannila, 2002; Laumann et al., 1994; Oliver & Hyde, 1993;
Spira et al., 1994). Gender differences in many other sex-
ual behaviors have narrowed, but the gender gap in reported
masturbation remains substantial (Hyde, 2005).
Laumann et al. (1994) found that the largest proportion
of their participants chose “to release sexual tension” and to
obtain “physical pleasure” as their reasons for masturbating
but other reasons given were “to relax,” to “get to sleep”
or because their current partner did not want sex (the latter
was reported by three times as many men as women). The
most common reasons were perhaps the most obvious; how-
ever, there has been debate around whether masturbation is
a substitute for sex with a partner (Dekker & Schmidt, 2002;
Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002
; Pinkerton et al., 2002)or
a behavior that is part of a wide repertoire of acts aimed at
sexual expression and satisfaction, irrespective of partner-
ship status (Laumann et al., 1994; Pinkerton et al., 2002).
Some studies report that while frequency of intercourse in
the last four weeks decreased with the increased duration
of the relationship, frequency of masturbation actually in-
creased with time in long lasting unions (Dekker & Schmidt,
2002; Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002).
Most studies of masturbation have used convenience sam-
ples in clinics, universities, or community settings and have
explored associations between masturbation frequency and
variables such as relationship status, other sexual activities,
contraceptive use, and attitudes such as guilt (Dekker &
Schmidt, 2002; Pinkerton et al., 2002; Robinson, Bockting,
& Harrell, 2002). However, findings from convenience sam-
ples are not generalizable, and there are few robust data inter-
nationally that permit us to measure prevalence and identify
correlates of masturbation from representative, general pop-
ulation samples.
Britain’s second National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and
Lifestyles (Natsal 2000), conducted between 1999 and 2001,
included for the first time a question on masturbation (Erens
et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2001). In this article, we used
these nationally representative, contemporary data to explore
the prevalence of reporting masturbation and to identify asso-
ciated sociodemographic, sexual behavioral, and attitudinal
factors.
Method
Participants
Natsal 2000 was a stratified probability sample survey of the
general population aged 16 to 44 years, resident in Britain.
In total, 11,161 people (4762 men and 6399 women) were
interviewed between May 1999 and February 2001. Details
of the methodology and question wording were published
elsewhere (Erens et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2001). Briefly,
a sample of 40,523 addresses was selected from the small-
user Postcode Address File for Britain with a multistage
probability cluster design, with over-sampling in Greater
London.
Procedure
Interviewers visited all selected addresses and recorded the
number of residents aged 16 to 44 years. One resident from
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Arch Sex Behav
every household was invited by random selection to partic-
ipate in the study. Natsal 2000 achieved a response rate of
65.4%, which is in line with other major surveys conducted
in Britain (Lynn & Clarke, 2002). Trained interviewers con-
ducted face-to-face interviews in participants’ homes, in-
cluding a computer-assisted self-interview (CASI). The face-
to-face interview included questions on sociodemographics,
attitudes, sexual attraction, and experience. Participants who
reported no sexual experience of any kind in the face-to-
face interview, and those aged 16 and 17 years with some
heterosexual experience but no heterosexual intercourse or
same-sex experience reported in screening questions, were
not given the CASI.
In the CASI, eligible participants were asked questions on
various sexual practices, including masturbation: “When, if
ever, was the last occasionyou masturbated? That is, aroused
yourself sexually?” Participants were given a choice of seven
response options: in the last 7 days; between 7 days and
4 weeks ago; between 4 weeks and 6 months ago; between
6 months and 1 year ago; between 1 year and 5 years ago;
longer than 5 years ago; never masturbated or aroused myself
sexually.
The study was approved by the University College Hos-
pital and North Thames Multi-Centre Research Ethics Com-
mittee and all the Local Research Ethics Committees in
Britain.
Data analysis
All analyses were performed using the survey analysis func-
tions of STATA 7.0 to account for stratification, clustering,
and weighting of the data. The data were weighted to correct
for unequal selection probabilities, including over-sampling
in Greater London, and to match Britain’s age/sex population
profile (Erens et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2001).
As in previous publications (Fenton et al., 2005; Johnson
et al., 2001; Wellings et al., 2001), we used binary logistic
regression to obtain odds ratios (OR) to compare estimates
for participants who did and did not report masturbation in
the last 4 weeks. We also present ORs adjusting for selected
sociodemographic characteristics (see Table 2), numbers of
sexual partners in the last year, and whether or not partic-
ipants reported same-sex genital contact (ever). Statistical
significance was considered as p < .05 for all analyses.
Results
Prevalence of masturbation
Ninety-five percent of men and 71.2% of women reported
that they had masturbated at some point in their lives (Table
1). Seventy-three percent of men and 36.8% of women
reported masturbating in the four weeks before their inter-
view, while approximately half of the men (51.7%) and one
in six women (17.8%) reported masturbating in the previous
seven days. This gender difference in prevalence was highly
statistically significant, χ
2
(1) = 1861.15, p < .0001.
Sociodemographic factors
Table 2 shows that reporting masturbation in the last four
weeks (referred hereafter for brevity as “reporting mastur-
bation”) was significantly associated with age for men and
women, with prevalence highest among those aged 25–34.
Previously married and single men were significantly more
likely to report masturbation than married or cohabiting men.
This was true even after adjusting for sociodemographic fac-
tors. Among women, cohabiting, single, and previously mar-
ried women were more likely to report masturbation than
married women, an association which remained significant
after adjustment. Both men and women with children were
significantly less likely to report masturbation, even after
adjustment.
Higher educational achievement and higher social class
were both associated with high prevalence of reporting mas-
turbation, associations that remained after adjustment. Men
and women who self-reported their ethnicity as “white”
Table 1 Last occasion of
masturbation by gender
Men % Women %
(95% CI) (95% CI)
Denominator (unweighted, weighted) 4410, 5281 5999, 5132
Last occasion of masturbation
a
Last 7 days 51.7% (50.0%–53.3%) 17.8% (16.7%–18.8%)
Between 7 days and 4 weeks ago 21.3% (20.0%–22.7%) 19.0% (17.9%–20.1%)
Between 4 weeks and 6 months ago 8.3% (7.4%–9.2%) 13.7% (12.8%–14.7%)
Between 6 months and 1 year ago 4.3% (3.7%–5.0%) 6.5% (5.8%–7.2%)
Between 1 year and 5 years ago 4.6% (3.9%–5.3%) 7.7% (7.0%–8.5%)
Longer than 5 years ago 4.5% (3.9%–5.3%) 6.5% (5.8%–7.2%)
Never 5.4% (4.7%–6.2%) 28.8% (27.6%–30.1%)
p value for gender difference p < .0001
a
Participants were asked
“When, if ever, was the last
occasion you masturbated? That
is, aroused yourself sexually?”
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Arch Sex Behav
Table 2 Selected sociodemographic factors associated with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
Age p < .0001 p = .0001 p = .0308 p < .0001
16–24 72.6% (69.3%–75.6%) 1.00 1.00 1033, 1272 33.9% (31.0%–36.9%) 1.00 1.00 1224, 1244
25–34 76.9% (74.6%–79.0%) 1.26 (1.03–1.53) 1.69 (1.32–2.16) 1708, 2037 38.8% (36.7%–41.0%) 1.24 (1.05–1.45) 1.53 (1.25–1.87) 2451, 1994
35–44 69.2% (66.7%–71.6%) .85 (.70–1.03) 1.36 (1.04–1.79) 1669, 1972 36.5% (34.4%–38.8%) 1.12 (.95–1.32) 1.73 (1.39–2.15) 2324, 1914
Marital status p < .0001 p < .0001 p = .0003 p = .0001
Married 68.5% (66.1%–70.9%) 1.00 1.00 1521, 2207 33.7% (31.7%–35.7%) 1.00 1.00 2431, 2358
Cohabiting 70.8% (67.0%–74.4%) 1.12 (.90–1.38) 1.01 (.79–1.29) 642, 912 40.4% (37.2%–43.6%) 1.33 (1.14–1.56) 1.33 (1.11–1.59) 984, 972
Previously married
b
83.8% (79.1%–87.6%) 2.37 (1.70–3.30) 2.81 (1.97–4.01) 312, 238 39.2% (35.3%–43.2%) 1.27 (1.05–1.54) 1.50 (1.23–1.84) 677, 398
Single, never married 77.9% (75.6%–80.0%) 1.62 (1.36–1.92) 1.70 (1.29–2.24) 1929, 1918 38.9% (36.4%–41.5%) 1.26 (1.09–1.44) 1.25 (1.04–1.51) 1900, 1399
Any children p < .0001 p = .010 p < .0001 p < .0001
No 77.8% (75.9%–79.5%) 1.00 1.00 2557, 2824 43.4% (41.1%–45.7%) 1.00 1.00 2288, 1978
Yes 67.5% (65.1%–69.7%) .59 (.51–.69) .73 (.59–.93) 1853, 2457 32.7% (31.0%–34.3%) .63 (.56–.71) .66 (.57–.77) 3711, 3154
Social class p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001 ns
I/II 80.0% (77.7%–82.1%) 1.00 1.00 1578,1838 44.5% (41.9%–47.2%) 1.00 1.00 1735, 1393
III (non-manual & manual) 71.6% (69.2%–73.8%) .63 (.52–.75) .73 (.59–.91) 1734, 2142 36.4% (34.3%–38.5%) .71 (.62–.82) .97 (.82–1.14) 2399, 2092
IV/V/unemployed 62.6% (58.7%–66.4%) .42 (.34–.52) .54 (.42–.70) 804, 956 30.7% (27.9%–33.6%) .55 (.47–.65) .89 (.73–1.09) 1212, 1057
Education p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001
Degree 82.2% (79.5%–84.7%) 1.00 1.00 1065, 1182 49.9% (46.7%–53.0%) 1.00 1.00 1216, 935
A-level 77.1% (74.6%–79.4%) .73 (.58–.91) .81 (.63–1.05) 1392, 1690 40.7% (38.0%–43.5%) .69 (.58–.82) .71 (.59–.85) 1567, 1396
GCSE/O-level 69.0% (66.3%–71.5%) .48 (.39–.60) .58 (.45–.76) 1444, 1811 32.6% (30.5%–34.7%) .49 (.41–.57) .53 (.44–.65) 2351, 2088
Foreign qualification 55.7% (36.9%–73.0%) .27 (.12–.59) .31 (.13–.77) 38, 35 37.3% (24.5%–52.1%) .60 (.32–1.11) .61 (.29–1.28) 59, 45
None 55.3% (50.1%–60.4%) .27 (.20–.35) .37 (.27–.52) 464, 555 23.9% (20.8%–27.3%) .32 (.25–.39) .36 (.27–.48) 790, 651
Ethnicity p < .0001 p < .0001 p = .0078 p = .0240
White 74.7% (73.2%–76.2%) 1.00 1.00 3958, 4844 37.4% (36.0%–38.9%) 1.00 1.00 5389, 4734
Black Caribbean 53.6% (41.1%–65.7%) .39 (.24–.65) .38 (.22–.66) 91, 77 32.6% (24.3%–42.2%) .81 (.53–1.22) .76 (.49–1.19) 140, 71
Black African 42.5% (29.5%–56.7%) .25 (.14–.44) .16 (.09–.31) 73, 52 21.1% (12.6%–33.2%) .45 (.24-.83) .40 (.22–.75) 90, 40
Indian 49.5% (37.5%–61.5%) .33 (.20–.54) .35 (.20–.63) 71, 75 32.5% (21.2%–46.3%) .81 (.45–1.44) .65 (.34–1.26) 91, 86
Pakistani 52.7% (33.2%–71.3%) .38 (.17–.85) .58 (.23–1.44) 29, 43 10.0% (3.2%–27.6%) .19 (.05–.64) .37 (.10–1.37) 36, 34
Other 60.1% (51.3%–68.3%) .51 (.35–.74) .50 (.32–.79) 180, 182 33.1% (26.4%–40.7%) .83 (.60–1.15) .88 (.61–1.26) 241, 156
Religiosity
c
p = .003 ns p = .004 p = .007
No 73.7% (72.2%–75.2%) 1.00 1.00 3961, 4786 37.6% (36.1%–39.1%) 1.00 1.00 5132, 4455
Yes 66.1% (61.0%–70.9%) .69 (.55–.88) .79 (.59–1.05) 442, 488 31.7% (28.3%–35.4%) .77 (.65–.92) .76 (.63–.93) 855, 667
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for all variables in Table 2.
b
Separated, divorced or widowed.
c
Religion and/or beliefs very/fairly important and attend religious services/meetings at least once a month.
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Arch Sex Behav
were significantly more likely to report masturbation than
those in other ethnic groups (crude OR for reporting mas-
turbation by white participants relative to non-white par-
ticipants: 2.49 (95% CI 1.97–3.16, p < .0001) and 1.42
(95% CI 1.13–1.79, p = .003) for men and women, re-
spectively). For both men and women, reported religious
denomination was not significantly associated with report-
ing masturbation after controlling for the other sociodemo-
graphic factors listed in Table 2 (data not shown). However,
those who reported their religion and/or religious beliefs
as “very” or “fairly important” and who attended religious
services/meetings at least once a month were less likely to
report masturbation. After controlling for other sociodemo-
graphic factors, this association was only significant among
women.
Factors relating to first/early sexual experience
Participants who said that they found it difficult to talk to
one or both of their parents about sex when they were grow-
ing up (see footnote to Table 3 for question wording) were
more likely to report masturbation. After adjustment, this
association remained significant only for women. A signifi-
cantly larger proportion of women who reported first inter-
course before age 16 reported masturbation in the last four
weeks (adjusted OR 1.19, Table 3). This association was not
observed for men. Among those participants who reported
ever having had homosexual sex (defined as genital contact
with someone of the same sex), 93.1% of men and 69.1%
of women reported masturbation, in contrast to 71.8% and
35.1%, respectively, among those who did not report such
experience (p < .0001 for both men and women).
Factors relating to current/recent health and sexual behavior
Prevalence of masturbation declined with worse self-
perceived general health but this association remained sig-
nificant only among women after adjustment. There was no
significant association with smoking but masturbation was
more likely to be reported with reporting greater alcohol
consumption (Table 4).
The prevalence of masturbation was associated with fre-
quency of partnered sexual activity in the last four weeks
but the direction of the association was reversed for men and
women (Table 5). For women, prevalence increased from
33.8% among those reporting sex less than four times in the
last four weeks (corresponding to the median number of oc-
casions (Johnson et al., 2001)) to 47.2% among those women
reporting at least 16 occasions. In contrast, the prevalence
of masturbation was most frequent among men reporting
less than four occasions of sex in the last four weeks. These
associations remained significant in multivariate analysis.
Gender differences were also evident in terms of the rela-
tionship between masturbation and the occurrence of other
sexual activities. For women, reporting vaginal, oral, anal, or
other genital contact not leading to intercourse in the last four
weeks was significantly associated with also reporting mas-
turbation in this time frame. However, no such association
was evident for men. Indeed, men who reported vaginal sex
were significantly less likely to report masturbation (70.5%
vs. 80.8%, adjusted OR .59).
In terms of sexual risk for STI/HIV, after adjusting for
potential confounding factors, there was no significant as-
sociation between reporting masturbation and unsafe sex,
defined here as reporting at least two partners in the last year
and inconsistent condom use in the last four weeks (Johnson
et al., 2001). Increasing partner numbers was associated with
reporting masturbation for women, with prevalence doubling
from 27.8% among women reporting no partners in the last
year to 58.5% of women reporting at least five partners in this
time frame, an association that remained significant after ad-
justment. An association was also observed among men but
there was no evidence of any linear trend and this association
was not significant after adjustment.
The duration of the participant’s most recent partnership
was associated to some extent with masturbation. In uni-
variate analysis, with increasing length of partnership, men
were significantly less likely to report masturbation, while
for women, there was some evidence of increasing likeli-
hood to report masturbation. These associations were not
significant after adjustment.
Men and women reporting at least one sexual function
“problem(s)” lasting at least one month in the last year were
significantly more likely to report masturbation. Consider-
ing specific “problems,” participants reporting lacking inter-
est in sex (men only), anxiety about performance, inability
to experience orgasm, and/or premature orgasm, problems
achieving and/or maintaining an erection (men only, not sig-
nificant after adjustment) and trouble lubricating (women
only) were significantly more likely to report masturbation.
Reporting “persistent problems,” defined as sexual func-
tion “problems” lasting at least six months in the last year
(Mercer et al., 2003), was also associated with masturbation
(data not shown in Table 6), although only for men (adjusted
OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.11–2.40, p = .013).
It is worth noting that among women who did not report
orgasm “problems,” there was a significant increase in re-
porting masturbation with increasing numbers of occasions
of sex in the last four weeks, while no such significant asso-
ciation was observed for women who did report an inability
to experience orgasm. There was no such interaction “effect”
for men.
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Arch Sex Behav
Table 3 Selected factors relating to first/early sexual experience and their association with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
Was difficult to talk about
sex with one or both
parent(s) when growing
up
b
p = .005 ns p = .003 p = .035
No 72.3% (70.7%–73.8%) 1.00 1.00 3871, 4675 35.9% (34.4%–37.4%) 1.00 1.00 4961, 4288
Yes 79.8% (75.0%–84.0%) 1.52 (1.14–2.03) 1.24 (.91–1.70) 364, 420 42.0% (38.3%–45.9%) 1.30 (1.09–1.53) 1.22 (1.01–1.46) 821, 691
Had first sex before age 16
c
ns ns p = .006 p = .042
No 73.5% (71.7%–75.2%) 1.00 1.00 3141, 3739 35.8% (34.3%–37.3%) 1.00 1.00 4749, 4038
Yes 71.8% (68.9%–74.5%) .92 (.78–1.09) 1.04 (.86–1.26) 1269, 1542 40.4% (37.4%–43.5%) 1.22 (1.06–1.40) 1.19 (1.01–1.40) 1250, 1094
Ever had homosexual sex
(with genital contact)
p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001
No 71.8% (70.2%–73.3%) 1.00 1.00 4097, 4986 35.1% (33.8%–36.6%) 1.00 1.00 5674, 4885
Yes 93.1% (89.3%–95.6%) 5.28 (3.25–8.58) 4.19 (2.55–6.88) 313, 295 69.1% (62.9%–74.7%) 4.12 (3.10–5.48) 3.32 (2.44–4.52) 325, 247
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for age, marital status, any children, ethnicity (coded white vs. other), social class, ever had homosexual sex, partner numbers in the last year.
b
The corresponding question was worded “Now I’d like to ask you some questions about when you were growing up and learning about sex. When you were about 14, did you find it easy or
difficult to talk to your parent(s) about sexual matters, or didn’t you discuss sexual matters with him/her/them at that age?”
c
Heterosexual/homosexual.
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Table 4 Selected factors relating to current health and their association with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
Self-perceived general
health
p = .0145 ns p = .0010 p = .0254
Very good 73.6% (71.4%–75.8%) 1.00 1.00 1970, 2375 39.2% (37.2%–41.3%) 1.00 1.00 2588, 2214
Good 73.3% (71.0%–75.5%) .98 (.83–1.16) .97 (.81–1.16) 1862, 2239 35.9% (33.8%–38.0%) .87 (.76–.98) .88 (.76–1.01) 2513, 2198
Fair 72.4% (67.5%–76.8%) .94 (.72–1.22) .94 (.70–1.26) 475, 551 33.5% (29.8%–37.3%) .78 (.64–.94) .85 (.69–1.06) 759, 616
Bad/very bad 56.4% (45.2%–67.1%) .46 (.29–.74) .78 (.43–1.40) 102, 115 24.5% (17.6%–33.2%) .50 (.33–.78) .46 (.25–.83) 139, 103
Smoking status ns ns p = .0074 ns
Never 74.1% (71.9%–76.2%) 1.00 1.00 1989, 2399 34.7% (32.7%–36.7%) 1.00 1.00 2681, 2317
Ex-smoker 74.5% (72.0%–79.1%) 1.09 (.87–1.37) 1.11 (.87–1.40) 678, 831 39.5% (36.2%–42.9%) 1.23 (1.04–1.46) 1.15 (.96–1.39) 988, 861
Light smoker 70.9% (64.5%–74.1%) .85 (.70–1.04) .91 (.73–1.13) 900, 1010 40.0% (37.1%–43.1%) 1.26 (1.08–1.47) 1.19 (1.00–1.41) 1315, 1110
Heavy smoker 70.3% (66.6%–73.7%) .83 (.67–1.01) .90 (.72–1.13) 835, 1031 35.5% (32.2%–38.9%) 1.04 (.87–1.23) 1.02 (.84–1.24) 1015, 844
Alcohol consumption
b
p < .0001 p = .0010 p < .0001 p < .0001
None 56.5% (51.2%–61.6%) 1.00 1.00 449, 516 25.2% (22.5%–28.2%) 1.00 1.00 1164, 963
Not more than
recommended limit
73.9% (72.3%–75.5%) 2.18 (1.73–2.74) 1.45 (1.11–1.88) 3464, 4179 38.6% (37.0%–40.2%) 1.86 (1.58–2.20) 1.54 (1.27–1.86) 4236, 3665
More than recommended
limit
80.9% (76.6%–84.6%) 3.26 (2.33–4.57) 2.00 (1.39–2.89) 491, 780 45.8% (41.2%–50.5%) 2.51 (1.97–3.19) 1.74 (1.32–2.28) 596, 502
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for age, marital status, any children, ethnicity (coded white vs. other), social class, ever had homosexual sex, partner numbers in the last year.
b
Recommended limit is defined as less than 15 units of alcohol per week for women and less than 22 units of alcohol per week for men.
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Table 5 Selected factors relating to current/recent sexual behavior and their association with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
Number of occasions of sex, last
4 weeks
b
p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001 p = .0003
< 4 77.5% (75.5%–79.5%) 1.00 1.00 2124, 2396 33.8% (31.9%–35.9%) 1.00 1.00 2773, 2210
4–7 68.4% (64.9%–71.7%) .63 (.52–.76) .66 (.52–.82) 881, 1143 36.1% (33.3%–39.0%) 1.10 (.95–1.29) 1.10 (.93–1.31) 1345, 1222
8–11 67.6% (63.3%–71.5%) .60 (.48–.75) .59 (.46–.76) 584, 774 36.4% (33.0%–40.0%) 1.12 (.94–1.34) 1.10 (.90–1.34) 858, 779
12–15 67.3% (61.4%–72.7%) .60 (.45–.79) .55 (.40–.76) 342, 414 43.4% (38.6%–48.4%) 1.50 (1.21–1.87) 1.53 (1.19–1.96) 466, 437
16 + 70.0% (64.4%–75.1%) .68 (.51–.90) .58 (.42–.79) 328, 402 47.2% (41.6%–52.8%) 1.75 (1.37–2.23) 1.67 (1.27–2.19) 383, 349
Vaginal sex, last 4 weeks p < .0001 p < .0001 p = .030 ns
No 80.8% (78.1%–83.2%) 1.00 1.00 1221, 1247 34.2% (31.4%–37.0%) 1.00 1.00 1415, 1053
Yes 70.5% (68.8%–72.2%) .57 (.47–.68) .59 (.46–.76) 3119, 3959 37.8% (36.2%–39.3%) 1.17 (1.01–1.35) 1.14 (.94–1.38) 4486, 4006
Oral sex, last 4 weeks
b
ns ns p < .0001 p < .0001
No 71.5% (69.1%–73.8%) 1.00 1.00 1882, 2115 27.4% (25.6%–29.2%) 1.00 1.00 2808, 2269
Yes 74.0% (72.0%–75.8%) 1.13 (.97–1.32) 1.04 (.87–1.24) 2528, 3166 44.3% (42.4%–46.2%) 2.11 (1.87–2.38) 1.92 (1.67–2.21) 3191, 2863
Anal sex, last 4 weeks
b
ns ns p < .0001 p < .0001
No 72.7% (71.2%–74.2%) 1.00 1.00 4162, 5006 36.0% (34.6%–37.4%) 1.00 1.00 5651, 4849
Yes 77.4% (70.9%–83.3%) 1.31 (.91–1.89) 1.17 (.75–1.82) 248, 275 57.9% (50.9%–64.5%) 2.44 (1.84–3.26) 2.33 (1.68–3.23) 261, 222
Other genital contact, last 4 weeks
b
ns ns p < .0001 p < .0001
No 71.6% (69.3%–73.8%) 1.00 1.00 1965, 2222 28.9% (27.1%–30.7%) 1.00 1.00 2865, 2281
Yes 74.0% (72.0%–75.8%) 1.13 (.97–1.31) 1.11 (.94–1.33) 2443, 3057 43.1% (41.2%–45.0%) 1.87 (1.66–2.10) 1.77 (1.55–2.03) 3134, 2851
“Unsafe sex,” last 4 weeks
b,c
p < .0001 ns p < .0001 ns
No 70.0% (68.1%–71.8%) 1.00 1.00 2765, 3556 36.7% (35.1%–38.3%) 1.00 1.00 4168, 3780
Yes 79.2% (75.2%–82.7%) 1.63 (1.28–2.08) 1.40 (.93–2.09) 592, 653 49.9% (45.1%–54.7%) 1.72 (1.40–2.11) .91 (.59–1.41) 554, 429
Numbers of partners, last year
b
p = .0001 ns p < .0001 p < .0001
0 75.2% (69.3%–80.2%) 1.00 1.00 359, 331 27.8% (23.7%–32.3%) 1.00 1.00 485, 327
1 71.0% (69.1%–72.8%) .81 (.60–1.10) .89 (.61–1.29) 2723, 3537 35.5% (33.9%–37.1%) 1.43 (1.14–1.79) 1.55 (1.19–2.03) 4453, 3971
2 78.3% (73.8%–82.3%) 1.20 (.81–1.75) 1.05 (.68–1.63) 488, 544 46.6% (41.8%–51.5%) 2.27 (1.70–3.03) 1.99 (1.46–2.71) 544, 412
3–4 76.4% (71.1%–81.0%) 1.07 (.72–1.59) .99 (.63–1.56) 405, 426 54.2% (46.7%–61.5%) 3.07 (2.11–4.47) 3.21 (2.14–4.81) 245, 195
5+ 82.7% (77.5%–86.9%) 1.58 (1.02–2.47) 1.28 (.79–2.07) 305, 298 58.5% (48.4%–67.9%) 3.66 (2.30–5.82) 3.03 (1.81–5.06) 127, 106
Duration of most recent partnership
b
p = .0003 ns p < .0001 ns
Most recent occasion was also
first occasion
76.9% (73.2%–80.3%) 1.00 1.00 755, 817 33.9% (29.7%–38.5%) 1.00 1.00 589, 490
Less than 6 months 79.2% (74.2%–83.4%) 1.14 (.81–1.61) .81 (.55–1.18) 364, 358 45.7% (40.1%–51.4%) 1.64 (1.22–2.20) 1.31 (.93–1.84) 406, 313
At least 6 months but less than
12 months
75.0% (68.3%–80.6%) .90 (.61–1.31) .66 (.42–1.02) 257, 286 42.3% (36.1%–48.8%) 1.43 (1.02–1.99) 1.36 (.93–1.99) 320, 256
At least 1 year but less than
3 years
76.0% (71.8%–79.8%) .95 (.71–1.28) .77 (.55–1.09) 582, 646 44.2% (40.2%–48.3%) 1.54 (1.20–1.99) 1.52 (1.13–2.04) 808, 675
At least 3 years but less than
5 years
73.3% (67.9%-78.2%) .82 (.59-1.15) .80 (.54-1.18) 353, 456 42.7% (38.1%-47.4%) 1.45 (1.10–1.91) 1.38 (1.01–1.90) 529, 442
At least 5 years but less than
10 years
74.5% (70.1%–78.4%) .87 (.65–1.17) .96 (.65–1.40) 504, 652 36.9% (33.6%–40.3%) 1.14 (.87–1.45) 1.13 (.84–1.52) 897, 775
At least 10 years 66.3% (62.4%–70.0%) .59 (.45–.77) .76 (.51–1.12) 628, 891 33.9% (31.2%–36.8%) 1.00 (.79–1.26) 1.13 (.84–1.52) 1262, 1161
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for age, marital status, any children, ethnicity (coded white vs. other), social class, ever had homosexual sex, partner numbers in the last year.
b
Heterosexual/homosexual.
c
Defined as reporting two or more heterosexual and/or homosexual partners in the last year and inconsistent condom use in the last 4 weeks.
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Table 6 Sexual function “problems” experienced for at least one month in the last year and their association with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
At least one sexual function
“problem(s)”
b
p < .0001 p < .0001 p = .001 p = .004
No 69.1% (67.1%–71.0%) 1.00 1.00 2483, 3105 35.2% (33.2%–37.3%) 1.00 1.00 2890, 2462
Yes 80.2% (77.7%–82.5%) 1.81 (1.52–2.16) 1.65 (1.37–1.99) 1436, 1699 40.0% (38.0%–42.0%) 1.22 (1.09–1.38) 1.21 (1.06–1.38) 3106, 2668
Lack of interest in sex
b
p < .0001 p < .0001 ns ns
No 71.5% (69.7%–73.2%) 1.00 1.00 3205, 3959 37.7% (35.9%–39.6%) 1.00 1.00 3190, 2771
Yes 80.4% (76.9%–83.5%) 1.64 (1.31–2.05) 1.62 (1.28–2.05) 711, 841 37.8% (35.6%–40.1%) 1.01 (.89–1.14) 1.03 (.90–1.17) 2170, 1906
Anxiety about
performance
b
p < .0001 p = .001 p < .0001 p = .018
No 71.7% (70.1%–73.3%) 1.00 1.00 3520, 4352 37.0% (35.5%–38.5%) 1.00 1.00 5005, 4364
Yes 85.8% (81.3%–89.3%) 2.37 (1.70–3.32) 1.77 (1.25–2.53) 396, 448 47.8% (41.9%–53.7%) 1.56 (1.22–1.99) 1.38 (1.06–1.81) 355, 312
Unable to experience
orgasm
b
p < .0001 p = .025 p < .0001 p < .0001
No 72.3% (70.7%–73.9%) 1.00 1.00 3670, 4539 36.1% (34.6%–37.6%) 1.00 1.00 4565, 4007
Yes 85.5% (80.0%–89.8%) 2.26 (1.52–3.38) 1.61 (1.06–2.44) 246, 223 47.6% (43.8%–51.6%) 1.61 (1.36–1.91) 1.47 (1.22–1.76) 795, 669
Premature orgasm
b
p = .009 p = .006 ns ns
No 72.3% (70.6%–73.9%) 1.00 1.00 3470, 4234 37.6% (36.2%–39.1%) 1.00 1.00 5292, 4617
Yes 78.8% (74.3%–82.7%) 1.43 (1.09–1.86) 1.50 (1.13–2.00) 446, 566 45.8% (32.7%–59.6%) 1.40 (.80–2.45) 1.24 (.70–2.20) 68, 60
Painful intercourse
b
ns ns ns ns
No 72.9% (71.4%–74.4%) 1.00 1.00 3839, 4711 37.4% (35.9%–38.9%) 1.00 1.00 4754, 4120
Yes 79.0% (67.5%–87.2%) 1.40 (0.77–2.54) 1.15 (0.59–2.23) 77, 88 40.4% (36.1%–44.9%) 1.14 (.93–1.38) 1.02 (.83–1.26) 606, 556
Unable to achieve or
maintain erection
b
p = .002 ns na na na na
No 72.4% (70.8%–74.0%) 1.00 1.00 3648, 4510
Yes 83.1% (76.9%–87.9%) 1.88 (1.26–2.80) 1.49 (0.98–2.28) 268, 290
Trouble lubricating
b
na na na na p < .0001 p < .0001
No 36.3% (34.8%–37.8%) 1.00 1.00 4861, 4243
Yes 52.1% (47.1%–57.0%) 1.91 (1.55–2.35) 1.61 (1.29–2.02) 499, 433
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for age, marital status, any children, ethnicity (coded white vs. other), social class, ever had homosexual sex, partner numbers in the last year.
b
Among those reporting at least one heterosexual and/or homosexual partner in the last year.
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Factors relating to current/recent sexual attitudes
A larger proportion of participants who were considered as
having relatively liberal attitudes about sex and sexual rela-
tions (see Table 7 for definition) reported masturbation (AOR
of 1.66 for both men and women). Participants who said that
they found it difficult to talk to their sexual partner(s) about
sex were significantly less likely to report masturbation than
those who did not report this difficulty. Regarding satisfac-
tion with their current level of sexual activity, among those
who reported sex in the last year, men and women who said
that the amount of sex they were having was “about right”
or that they would like sex “less often” were significantly
less likely to report masturbation, even after adjustment than
those who would like sex “much” or “a bit” more often. In
terms of enjoyment of sex, men who said that they “always
enjoy it” were significantly less likely to report masturbation
than men who said “I enjoy it most of the time,” “I don’t
often enjoy it” or “I never enjoy it.” No such association was
observed for women.
Discussion
In this large, nationally representative sample of adults in
Britain, masturbation was relatively common but the gender
difference in prevalence was striking, with 28.8% of women,
but only 5.4% of men reporting that they had never mastur-
bated. Although reported rates of masturbation in different
studies vary widely, our findings with regard to factors asso-
ciated with masturbation were broadly consonant with those
from other studies.
Reporting masturbation was most common among those
aged 25-34 years, the better educated, and those who re-
ported a “white” ethnicity. These findings were consis-
tent with previous national surveys in the U.S. and France
(Laumann et al., 1994; Spira et al., 1994). The positive as-
sociations between reporting masturbation and any previous
homosexual experiences, as well as between reporting mas-
turbation and an earlier age at first sex (among women only)
confirmed findings reported on a Finnish sample (Kontula
& Haavio-Mannila, 2002). The significant increase in re-
ported masturbation among both men and women as level
of education and social class increased supports associations
reported in other national surveys. These associations have
been attributed to greater access to public debate, to infor-
mation, and to sex education, which may help reduce fears
and guilt (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002), and increased
willingness to report masturbation.
The inverse association among women between report-
ing masturbation and stronger religious beliefs mirrors find-
ings from the French national survey (Spira et al., 1994).
Kinsey et al. (1953) also noted that “devoutness” rather than
religious affiliation was related to a reduced likelihood of
masturbation, particularly for women.
There were some limitations to our study. We asked only
one question–about the last occasion of masturbation–in the
Natsal 2000 survey. We have no information on the frequency
of masturbation or on attitudes towards masturbation. Fur-
ther, despite the use of a computer assisted technique of
interviewing found to be more reliable for reporting sensi-
tive behaviors than face-to-face data collection techniques
or pen and paper methods (Johnson et al., 2001; Johnson,
Wadsworth, Wellings, Bradshaw, & Field, 1992; Johnson,
Wadsworth, Wellings, & Field, 1994), sensitive sexual be-
haviors, such as masturbation, may still be under-reported in
sexual health surveys (Copas et al., 2002). Despite the rel-
atively high reported prevalence of masturbation in Natsal
2000, it is a solitary sex act that remains somewhat stigma-
tized, is not discussed as openly as other sexual activities, and
is associated with guilt and myths (Cardamakis et al., 1993;
Coleman, 2002; Kitamura, 1990). It is, therefore, possible
that social acceptability bias led to some under-reporting in
Natsal 2000. Female under-reporting was clearly identified
in the 1993 French sexual behavior survey (B
´
ejin, 1996),
which may explain some of the gender gap observed in the
Natsal 2000 data, but is unlikely to account for such a large
and consistent difference.
The differential reporting between men and women was
entirely consistent with findings from large-scale national
surveys carried out in other countries (Kontula & Haavio-
Mannila, 2002; Laumann et al., 1994; Oliver & Hyde, 1993;
Spira et al., 1994). While gender differences in other sexual
behaviors have diminished, with respect to masturbation they
remain substantial (Hyde, 2005). Various explanations have
been put forward for this, including differences in anatomy
and in sexual development (B
´
ejin, 1996). Furthermore, boys
may be more socialized to masturbate by their peers than girls
(Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2002; Laumann et al., 1994).
Some have argued that differential rates of masturbation may
reflect a gender difference in sex drive and sexual fantasizing,
with women having a lower sex drive than men (Baumeister,
Catanese, & Vohs, 2001), and men more likely to report
sexual fantasies (Leitenberg & Henning, 1995). Men are
also more likely to report becoming aroused by their fantasies
(Ellis & Symons, 1990) and to fantasize during masturbation
(Leitenberg & Henning, 1995).
During the developmental qualitative study for the first
Natsal survey, Spencer et al. (1988) found that people as-
sociated masturbation with males, particularly adolescent
boys, and that it was viewed as a substitute for intercourse
with a partner. Interviewers suspected these views led to
some under-reporting of masturbation. The data presented
here do not support the idea that masturbation was a substi-
tute for partnered sex, at least for women. On the contrary,
among women, reporting masturbation was associated with
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Table 7 Selected factors relating to current/recent sexual attitudes and their association with reporting masturbation in the last 4 weeks, by gender
Denominator Denominator
Men (unweighted/ Women (unweighted/
Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted) Prevalence% (95% CI) Crude OR Adjusted OR
a
weighted)
All 73.0% (71.5%–74.4%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 4410, 5281 36.8% (35.4%–38.2%) (95% CI) (95% CI) 5999, 5132
Liberal attitudes towards
sex/sexual relations
b
p < .0001 p = .001 p < .0001 p < .0001
No 71.3% (69.6%–72.8%) 1.00 1.00 3802, 4601 35.3% (33.9%–36.7%) 1.00 1.00 5432, 4679
Yes 84.6% (81.0%–87.6%) 2.21 (1.70–2.87) 1.66 (1.25–2.22) 608, 680 52.2% (47.5%–56.9%) 2.00 (1.64–2.44) 1.66 (1.33–2.06) 567, 453
Find it difficult to talk about
sexwithpartner(s)
c
p = .002 ns p < .0001 p < .0001
No 76.2% (73.8%–78.4%) 1.00 1.00 1656, 1885 45.5% (42.3%–48.9%) 1.00 1.00 1141, 941
Yes 71.2% (69.3%–73.0%) .77 (.66–.91) .84 (.70–1.00) 2754, 3396 34.8% (33.4%–36.3%) .64 (.55–.74) .72 (.61–.85) 4858, 4191
Satisfaction with amount of
sex
d
p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001 p < .0001
Would like sex “much/a
bit more often”
81.9% (80.0%–83.7%) 1.00 1.00 2035, 2452 45.5% (43.2%–47.9%) 1.00 1.00 2207, 1833
“About right” 64.2% (61.8%–66.6%) .40 (.34–.47) .40 (.33–.48) 1831, 2296 33.1% (31.2%–35.0%) .59 (.52–.67) .63 (.55–.72) 2986, 2701
Would like sex “less
often”
45.9% (30.9%–61.7%) .19 (.10–.36) .21 (.10–.45) 50, 50 28.2% (21.0%–36.6%) .47 (.32–.70) .58 (.37–.91) 165, 142
Enjoyment of sex
d
p < .0001 p = .013 ns ns
“When I have sex these
days I always enjoy it”
70.2% (68.1%–72.3%) 1.00 1.00 2228, 2821 38.0% (35.7%–40.4%) 1.00 1.00 2007, 1753
“When I have sex these
days I enjoy it most of
the time/I don’t often
enjoy it/I never enjoy it”
76.8% (74.4%–78.9%) 1.40 (1.19–1.64) 1.25 (1.05–1.48) 1623, 1913 37.5% (35.6%–39.4%) .98 (.86–1.11) 1.00 (.87–1.14) 3159, 2784
a
Odds ratio (OR) adjusted for age, marital status, any children, ethnicity (coded white vs. other), social class, ever had homosexual sex, partner numbers in the last year.
b
Defined as reporting that pre-marital sex, one-night stands, sexual relations between two adult men, and sexual relations between two adult women are all “not wrong at all.”
c
The corresponding question was worded “Some people who have sex together find it easy to talk openly about it, others find it difficult to talk openly about it – for example to tell each other
what they like and dislike in sex. What about you, how easy or difficult would it be for you?” Those who reported: “Easy with a husband, wife or regular partner, but difficult with a new partner,”
“Easy with a new partner, but difficult with a husband, wife or regular partner,” or “Difficult with any partner” were coded as Yes for this dichotomous variable.
d
Among those reporting at least one heterosexual and/or homosexual partner in the last year.
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reporting more frequent sexual activity as well as more sex-
ual partners. Furthermore, women reporting a wide range
of sexual practices and/or reporting being comfortable dis-
cussing sex with their partners were also more likely to report
masturbating in the last four weeks. In contrast, among men,
those reporting vaginal sex in the last four weeks were less
likely to report masturbation than those who reported no
vaginal sex. Also, for men only, the likelihood of mastur-
bation decreased with increasing frequency of partnered sex
and increased among those who reported less enjoyment in
sex with a current partner.
As a broad generalization, it is difficult to avoid the con-
clusion that masturbation for many predominantly hetero-
sexual men may represent a substitute for vaginal sex, while
for women the practice appears to be part of the wider reper-
toire of sexual fulfilment, supplementing, rather than com-
pensating for, partnered sex among women. Some women
may be more sexually adventurous and more interested in
sex, and this phenomenon may be reappearing in the context
of masturbation. It is not clear what factors might be driv-
ing these gender differences. Baumeister’s (2000) hypothesis
that women have greater “erotic plasticity” may be relevant
here. If women’s sex drive is more malleable than men’s, it
may be more dependent on their current sexual situation and
level of stimulation. Thus, when a woman is more sexually
active, her sex drive (including her desire for masturbation)
may be higher as a result. Although other studies have de-
scribed associations between masturbation and other sexual
activities, there have been few reports of gender differences
in this respect. Laumann et al. (1994), for example,found that
both women and men with higher levels of “autoeroticism”
(a composite variable comprised of masturbation, sexual fan-
tasy, and use of erotica materials) were more likely to engage
in oral and/or anal sex and to have multiple partners.
Kinsey’s view of masturbation as one of several “outlets”
resulting in orgasm may prove more relevant for women than
men. Women who are more sexualand comfortable with their
sexuality may masturbate more because they are more likely
to climax during masturbation than during intercourse. A
study that asked men and women in steady relationships to
describe their last intercourse and last masturbation found
that, although more men and women reported reaching or-
gasm through masturbation than through intercourse, the dif-
ference was small among men but substantial among women
(Dekker & Schmidt, 2002). Although the Natsal 2000 study
did not ask participants about frequency or context of or-
gasm, those reporting inability to experience orgasm were
more likely to report masturbation, but we did not find any
significant gender differences in this respect.
This study provided an initial exploration of the factors
associated with reporting masturbation in a large national
probability sample of the British population, which we hope
will encourage further investigation into a common sexual
act that provides pleasure without the risks that place sexual
health on the public health agenda. Proponents of masturba-
tion as a means of enhancing sexual health have called for
research on masturbation that goes beyond asking whether,
and how often, people masturbate, and to what extent guilt is
experienced (Coleman, 2002). Understanding gendered pat-
terns with regard to the possible function sexual practices
may serve is important in the context of attempts to harness
such sexual activities to public health and preventive goals.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank the study participants
and the team of interviewers, operations, and computing staff from
the National Centre for Social Research. The 2000 National Survey of
Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal 2000) was supported by a grant
from the Medical Research Council with funds from the Department of
Health, the Scottish Executive and the National Assembly for Wales.
The views expressed in this paper are the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the funding bodies.
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