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Identification of Pollution Source of Cadmium in Soil. Application of Material Flow Analysis and A Case Study in Taiwan (11 pp)
Abstract
Since the 1970s, at least 200 hectares (ha) of farm-land has been polluted by the heavy metal cadmium (Cd). Consequently, the Cd pollution has led to contaminate the rice production and caused acute social panic. According to the recent investigation results performed by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (TEPA), it is indicated that most of the Cd pollution incidents in Taiwan resulted from the waste-water discharge of stearate Cd factories. To prevent the Cd pollution incidents from spreading, the TEPA has either forced these factories to close down or assisted them in improving their production processes since the 1980s. Unfortunately, accidental incidents of Cd pollution still emerge in an endless stream, despite the strict governmental controls placed on these questionable factories. Whether this pollution has resulted from undetected or hidden pollution sources stemming from two decades ago or comes from some new source, will be an outstanding issue. Therefore, this study attempts to identify the pollution sources of Cd in soil in Taiwan as well as to find the solution to the above-mentioned, outstanding issue by way of a methodology termed Material Flow Analysis (MFA).
The MFA has proved to be a useful tool on providing quantitative information of the flow of substances through an economic to an environmental system. Based upon the supply-and-demand theory of MFA, researchers have successfully conducted an overview of the use of materials in many industries, the construction industry being one of these. Therefore, this study tries to establish a set of analytical processes by way of MFA for identifying the pollution source of Cd in soil in Taiwan. In addition, the spirit of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technique was also employed to identify the materials, and products should be ignored as a crucial pollution source in this study.
According to the MFA methodology applied in this study and on the basis of related studies performed by Taiwanese governmental authorities, we arrive at the following analysis results: (1) the total amount of Cd from the economic perspective of material and product flow was approximately 441.2 tons; (2) the wastewater directly discharged into irrigation water can be concluded to be the major pollution route of Cd in farmland soil in Taiwan; (3) material plastic stabilizer (cadmium oxide, CdO), Zn-Pd compounds and Cu compounds should be the crucial pollution sources to contaminate environment through the route of wastewater in Cd flow analysis; (4) the crucial pollution sources to contaminate environment through the route of wastewater in Cd flow analysis were five factories, Coin, Jili, Taiwan Dye, Guangzheng and Mingguan, and they were all categorized as stearate Cd industries; (5) the typical source of the Cd pollution in soil in Changhua County through the pollution route of wastewater should be the metal surfacing process industries.
This study proved that MFA can be a good tool for identifying Cd flow as well as for recognizing the crux of the problem concerning incidents of Cd pollution. This study led to the conclusion that the causal relationship between farmland pollution caused by Cd and stearate Cd factories in Taiwan seemed quite close by way of MFA methodology. In addition, this study also found that the wastewater discharged from a single metal surfacing process factory will not cause remarkable farmland pollution. However, the wastewater simultaneously discharged from a group of pollution factories can result in a significant pollution incident.
This case study is only a small contribution to the understanding of the toxic material flow related to Cd in the environment. This study recommends that Taiwanese governmental authorities should not deal with problems on an ad hoc basis, but should instead deal with Cd pollution problems overall employing control measures. Finally, the more accurate information or data we can collect, the more reliable results we can identify. Therefore, the quality and quantity of related data used in this MFA model should be closely scrutinized in order to ensure the most correct and comprehensive investigation on the toxic material flow.
... Cadmium is a widespread urban soil pollutant. In urban areas, much of the Cd contamination is from a variety of industrial activities: plastic manufacturing and incineration, battery manufacture and disposal, dye/pigment production, and processing (mining and smelting) of zinc and copper metal ores (Lu et al. 2007;Franz et al. 2008;Kaji 2012;Chaney and Ryan 1994). Cadmium is a particular concern because it is often more soluble and thus more bioavailable than other potentially toxic metals (Sauve and Hendershot 1997a;Weber and Hrynczuk 2000). ...
... Cadmium causes harm to human health. Ingested Cd replaces Zn (an essential micronutrient) in biological pathways and when consumed leads to chronic kidney disease, osteoporosis, and gastrointestinal issues (Kaji 2012;Lu et al. 2007; World Health Organization 2010). The first welldocumented case of Cd toxicity in humans was the outbreak of a disease called Itai-Itai in zinc mining and smelting regions of Japan, which was later found to be chronic Cd toxicity (Kaji 2012). ...
... MFA is a popular method used in different industries for obtaining quantitative solutions for environmental problem solving and decision-making (Chang et al. 2007). ...
... Muthaa et al. (2006) have done a MFA for plastic in India, and they were able to develop a MFA diagram for plastics. In Taiwan, another MFA study was done to identify pollution sources of cadmium in soil (Chang et al. 2007). Bureecam et al. (2018) also done a MFA to model plastic waste flow in Thailand. ...
Construction and demolition (C&D) activities generate a large amount of waste throughout their life cycle. Demolition of buildings is on the rise owing to rapid urbanization and dynamic demands. Disposal of C&D waste leads to faster depletion of available landfill space. The environmental performance of C&D waste management needs to be analysed from a life cycle perspective to identify better waste management principles. A selective list of research papers from C&D waste literature, which applied life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has been reviewed in this paper. The primary aim of this review article is to identify the commonality among those research papers and understand the environmental impacts of various practices being adopted in C&D waste management. LCA case studies were found to vary widely on several categories, and we inferred that they could be compared by selecting normalized unit processes in the system boundaries, functional unit, inventory data sources and impact categories. The environmental impact generated due to the operation of C&D waste recycling facility was reported to be negligible in most of the papers. Transportation of C&D waste was reported to cause the highest environmental impact in most of the articles. Recycling of C&D waste has been recommended as a sustainable alternative to landfilling, and large benefits emerge from savings in valuable land space. Furthermore, energy savings of up to 50% and emission reduction in the range of 7–10 times occur due to recycling of recovered materials, especially metals.
... MFA is a popular method used in different industries for obtaining quantitative solutions for environmental problem solving and decision-making (Chang et al. 2007). ...
... Muthaa et al. (2006) have done a MFA for plastic in India, and they were able to develop a MFA diagram for plastics. In Taiwan, another MFA study was done to identify pollution sources of cadmium in soil (Chang et al. 2007). Bureecam et al. (2018) also done a MFA to model plastic waste flow in Thailand. ...
The quantitative assessment of material flow dynamics has a great influence on decision-making in waste management planning, which is still not a common practice in developing countries. Thus, the post-consumer plastic waste (PCPW) flow was analysed in order to examine the flow patterns and the components of the PCPW management system in Sri Lanka. PCPW flow of nine local authorities; Kandy Municipal Council (KMC), Akkaraipattu Municipal Council (AMC) and seven local authorities in Western Province (WP) were numerically analysed to view the plastic recovery and recycling processes as a network of flows, stocks and processes. Material flow analysis (MFA) is the tool used in quantitative assessment, where the principle of mass conservation was the underlying concept. All five major processes of MFA, consumption, collection, processing, manufacturing and dumpsite disposal, were identified in well-established KMC and WP, though only three major processes of consumption, collection and dumpsite disposal were available in AMC. Numerical analysis of collected data helped in illustrating Material flow as Sankey diagrams by using software STAN® for each local authority. It was estimated that the total post-consumer plastic waste generation in KMC, WP and AMC were 12.0, 54.4 and 4.8 tonnes/day, and out of that PCPW recycling rates were 33%, 6.6% and 0%, respectively. The direct accumulation of the majority of PCPW in the open dumpsites was estimated as 7.23, 43.13 and 1.35 tonnes/day in KMC, WP and AMC, respectively. Thereby the obtained results illustrated a clear picture on the current situation of the PCPW flow through the waste management system, which emphasized the burden of PCPW accumulation in the environment through open dumping, as well as the inefficient resource recovery practices in Sri Lanka.
... MFA is a popular method used in different industries for obtaining quantitative solutions for environmental problem solving and decision-making (Chang et al. 2007). ...
... Muthaa et al. (2006) have done a MFA for plastic in India, and they were able to develop a MFA diagram for plastics. In Taiwan, another MFA study was done to identify pollution sources of cadmium in soil (Chang et al. 2007). Bureecam et al. (2018) also done a MFA to model plastic waste flow in Thailand. ...
This study investigated the status of air quality at Olushosun, Abule Egba, and Solous dumpsite in Lagos, Nigeria. The parameters examined are total suspended particulates (TSP), CO, NO2, SO2, and odour. The Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) was used to estimate the potential landfill gas emissions from the dumpsites. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) was not detected at Olushosun and Abule Egba dumpsites. At Solous, the measured concentration is about 21-folds of the 1-h limit with 24-h concentration of 0.09 ppm which is about ninefolds of the FMENV’s set limit. The measured concentrations of NO2 are about 1.3-folds of the set limit at all the locations in Olushosun and Abule Egba but between 2.5 and 5.0-folds at Solous. In Olushosun, the measured 1-h CO concentrations range between 8.0 and 40 ppm, at Abule Egba and Solous, the range is 10.0–44.0 ppm and 1.0–179.0 ppm, respectively. At Olushosun, the 1-h TSP concentration is about 2.5-folds of the 1-h limit but 3.2-folds and 2.8-folds of the same limit at both Abule Egba and Solous, respectively. The odour levels from the three dumpsites are significantly high ranging between 4 and 5 on the “intensity by word” scale of 5. The measured air quality parameters concentrations signify a badly impaired airshed and can be classified as having poor air quality which calls for urgent attention. The methane potential using the LandGem tool is estimated to be between 4.04 × 10² and 4.97 × 10⁴ ton/year which is equivalent to about 6.06 × 10⁵ to 7.45 × 10⁷ m³/year. This can be used to generate about 0.4–49 MW of electricity if efficiently captured.
... Cadmium (Cd), one of the major toxic heavy metal contaminants that can accumulate in human bodies and cause softening of bones and kidney failure, generates great threat to both environmental ecology and human health [1]. p-Nitrophenol (PNP) as a priority pollutant is listed by the US Environmental Protection Agency due to its significant environmental and public health risk [2]. ...
... p-Nitrophenol (PNP) as a priority pollutant is listed by the US Environmental Protection Agency due to its significant environmental and public health risk [2]. PNP and Cd contaminants are released to soil as fugitive emissions from organophosphate pesticides and phosphate fertilizers production, respectively [1,3]. In China, there are more than hundreds of abandoned organophosphate pesticide and phosphate fertilizers chemical industrial parks and most of those have large quantities of nitrobenzenes-heavy metal (Cd, Zn, Cu, etc) cocontaminated soils without proper treatment. ...
... Cadmium gets into soil from the use of fertilizers and as a result of zinc-mining processes, in which cadmium is a discarded impurity. In Taiwan, since the 1970s, at least 200 hectares of farm-land have been polluted by the heavy metal cadmium [43]. Consequently, the cadmium pollution has led to contamination the rice production and caused acute social panic. ...
... Unfortunately, accidental incidents of cadmium pollution still emerge in an endless stream, despite the strict governmental controls placed on these questionable factories. [43]Therefore, many of the maintenance hemodialysis patients in Taiwan might also be incadmium overload. ...
This chapter highlights key issues related to accumulation of toxic metals and trace elements in chronic dialysis patients, with special emphasis on lead and cadmium, but excluding aluminum. In a meta-analysis study, it has been demonstrated that blood levels of lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, and vanadium were higher in maintenance hemodialysis patients than control counterparts. Clinical evidences have suggested that elevated blood lead levels were associated with hypertension-related morbidity and mortality, and accelerated age-related renal function impairment in the general population. In earlier studies, we have showed that environmental exposure to lead was related to progressive renal insufficiency in patients with and without diabetes, and that chelation therapy may retard the progression of renal insufficiency in these patients. In a large-scale, cross-sectional, prospective study, we have showed that blood lead levels were associated with inflammation, malnutrition, and 1-year mortality in 211 diabetic patients treated with maintenance hemodialysis. In another 18-month study, we have revealed that high blood lead level was associated with increased hazard ratios for allcause, cardiovascular-cause, and infection-cause 18-month mortality in 927 maintenance hemodialysis patients. In a peritoneal dialysis population, we also revealed that blood lead levels were associated with residual renal function and hyperparathyroidism, and were related to increased hazard ratio for all-cause 18-month mortality. Cadmium can cause kidney damage even at very low levels of exposure. In patients with end-stage renal disease, cadmium may accumulate in bone tissue, increasing the bone cadmium content in these patients. In a study, we have demonstrated that environmental cadmium exposure was significantly associated with inflammation and malnutrition in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Following adjustment for potential confounders, blood cadmium levels were negatively correlated with serum albumin levels, but were positively correlated with high sensitivity-C reactive protein. Overall, a 10-fold increase in blood cadmium levels was associated with a 0.06 g/dL decrease in serum albumin levels. This is of particular importance in diabetics, because there may exist a positive association between cadmium exposure and the severity of diabetes, as well as diabetes-related organ damage. In another study, we have confirmed that elevated blood cadmium levels were associated with increased hazard ratio for 18-month all-cause mortality in diabetic patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis.
... Higher values in the wet season suggest anthropogenic influence (Kortatsi, 2006). Several authors including Leung and Jiao (2005), Lu et al. (2004) and Dorleku et al. (2018) reported that more chemicals are leached out during wet season (possibly from fertilizers and other agrochemicals), due to usually higher water table, and also the potential of more chemicals being washed out directly from the vadose zone contributes to higher wet season values. Sulphate ion is abundant in the earth's crust and can contribute to high concentrations as a result of the leaching of gypsum, sodium sulphate and shale (United Nations Environment Programme-(UNEP), 2006). ...
The Oti Basin is located at northeastern part of Ghana. Two major geological formations of Voltaian sedimentary supergroup exist: Kwahu-Morago and Oti-Pendjari groups. A total of 133 groundwater samples and 7 surface water samples were collected for two major seasons, viz. dry season (February, 2020) and wet season (November, 2020), and analysed for cations and anions. This is to determine the sources of ions, including pollutants and the reactions that promote them for sustainable groundwater management. Results of major ions revealed groundwater is potable base on the WHO permissible limits. Wet season nitrate and sulphate were higher than that of dry season, suggesting anthropogenic influence. Pearson’s correlation shows major contributors of total dissolved solids were Mg, Na and HCO3 with a correlation (r = 0.439, 0.874 and 0. 945) respectively. In the wet season, major contributors were TH, Mg, Na, SO4 and HCO3 with correlation (r = 0.548, 0.537, 0.856, 0.530 and 0.936) respectively. Gibbs plot suggests chemical weathering and precipitation to be the main contributors to the water chemistry. The dominant hydrochemical facies within the basin for both seasons was Na–K-HCO3 water type. The plot of Ca2+ + Mg2+ vs. HCO3− + SO42− suggests both silicate weathering and ion exchange processes are taking place within the basin. Mineral stability diagrams signify kaolinite as the most stable mineral phase in the groundwater. Chloro-alkaline indices were negative for both seasons leading to base-exchanged softened water production. Consequently, majority of ions evolved from natural geochemical processes whilst nitrate and sulphate presence might be due to anthropogenic sources.
... Absorbing Cd can induce symptoms including salivation, breathing difficulties, nausea, vomiting, pain, anemia, renal failure, and diarrhea in people who have been exposed to it (Jarup 2003). Headaches, coughing, increased uneasiness, chest discomfort, dryness of the throat, and bronchial difficulties may occur after inhaling Cd dust or smoke (Lu et al. 2007). Cu poisoning can result in liver and kidney damage and in worst cases death. ...
The spatiotemporal variations of five heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Zn) in the beach sediments along the Tamil Nadu coast sourced from various anthropogenic activities were assessed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Various pollution monitoring indices were computed to clearly understand the metal pollution status along the Tamil Nadu coastline. The metal concentrations in sediments were typically higher in the summer season than in the monsoon season. In the monsoon season, metal concentration followed a decreasing order of Zn > Cr > Cu > Pb > Cd, and in the summer season, the order was Cr > Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd. During the monsoon season, freshwater runoff from the rainfall dilutes the sediments and their trace element load. However, due to a lack of freshwater influx during the summer season, the heavy metals in the sediments get concentrated and showed elevated levels. Geo-accumulation index, ecological risk index, pollution load index, and contamination degree clearly depict that Cd and Pb have higher accumulation and pose greater hazard when compared with other metals. The rivers flowing in the region also transport the heavy metals from the mainland to the estuaries and coastal environments. Metal levels along the Tamil Nadu coast are influenced by various anthropogenic activities persistent along the coastline. Some of the activities that cause metal contamination are mining, milling, electroplating, furnishing, pharmaceutical industries, fishing, harbor activities, urban runoff, and agricultural runoff, which release a variety of toxic metals into the coastal environment.
... It is a key enzyme in the photosynthesis of C3 plants. Many studies have shown that RuBisCO content and its carboxylation activity are closely related to photosynthetic rate and that the initial activity of RuBisCO is the most direct internal factor contributing to photosynthetic decline (Lu et al. 2007;Spurgeon et al. 2008). In the present study, when SW and MW concentrations ranged from 5 to 40 mg L −1 and 10 to 40 mg L −1 , Cd caused a significant decrease in RuBisCO content in wheat seedlings compared with that of the same concentration of Cd alone. ...
A detailed study of nanomaterials has revealed their broad application prospects. However, the presence of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in the environment has been increasing and has aroused concerns regarding their toxicity to crops when combined with heavy metals. In the present study, the effects of Cd on the photosynthetic capacity and antioxidant activity of wheat seedlings in the presence of single-walled CNTs (SW) and multi-walled CNTs (MW) were investigated. Our results indicated that SW (5–40 mg L⁻¹) and MW (10–40 mg L⁻¹) significantly increased the oxidative stress response of wheat seedlings to Cd. Compared with Cd alone, CNTs combined with Cd decreased net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, primary maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II, actual quantum yield, photosynthetic electron transport rate, root canal protein, and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase content. Moreover, combined treatments increased the content of superoxide anion, superoxide dismutase, guaiacol peroxidase, cytochrome, and malondialdehyde in wheat seedlings. Moreover, membrane lipid peroxidation was aggravated, causing serious damage to the wheat membrane system. In addition, the toxicity of the SW treatment and the combined treatment with SW and Cd was higher than that of the MW treatment.
... Therefore, they are easily mobile in soil and have a higher tendency to bioaccumulate. Some of the basic sources that produce cadmium into the environment include solid waste, sewage irrigation, plastics, application of fertilizer, mining, plating on steel, etc. [49]. If the human body is exposed to cadmium for a long time it may result in severe diseases such as bone damage, kidney and lung cancer [50]. ...
The production of large quantities of agro/food wastes from food processing industries and the release of pollutants in the form of heavy metals from various metallurgical industries are the grave problems of the society as well as serious threats to the environment. It is estimated that approximately one-third of all food that is produced goes to waste, meaning thereby that nearly 1.3 billion tonnes of agro/food wastes are generated per year. This readily available and large amount waste can be utilized for the removal of toxic metals obtained from metallurgical industries by converting it into the adsorbents. For example, mango peel showed adsorption capacity of 68.92 mg/g in removing cadmium II ions. Similarly, coconut waste showed a higher adsorption capacity of 285 and 263 mg/g in removing cadmium and lead ion, respectively. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are recommended as novel, efficient, eco-friendly, and less costly alternative technologies over the conventional methods such as ion exchange, chemical precipitation, and membrane filtration, etc. for the removal of toxic metal ions. Because of the presence of metal-binding functional groups, the industrial by-products, agro-wastes and microbial biomass are considered as the potential biosorbents. Thus they can be used for the removal of toxic metal ions. This chapter highlights the available information and methods on utilizing the agro/food waste for the eradication of toxic and heavy metal ions. Furthermore, this chapter also focuses on the sorption mechanisms of different adsorbents as well as their adsorbing capacities.
... In this study, a material flow analysis (MFA) was used to determine BOD loads from major point and nonpoint sources in the CPRB. This procedure has been widely used to quantify flows of resources, materials, nutrients, pollutants/waste, etc. in the systems of interest (e.g., Huang and Hsu 2003;Lu et al. 2007;Qiao et al. 2011;Schaffner et al. 2011;Yin et al. 2015;Sun et al. 2017). Other than its ability to quantify flows of materials from the major processes in the system of interest, the MFA can neatly delineate all relevant flows in the form of a quantitative diagram. ...
The loads of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the Chao Phraya River Basin (CPRB), Thailand were analyzed in terms of how they were generated (BODgen), stocked in the environment (BODen-stock), and discharged into the Chao Phraya River (BODCPR) using material flow analysis. BODgen from the industrial sector was the highest; however, BODen-stock and BODCPR from this point source were not significantly higher than those from the domestic sector. BODgen, BODen-stock, and BODCPR from swine farming and aquaculture across the river basin were lower than those from the domestic and industrial sectors. Of the total 251,884 tons per year (t/year) BODCPR, 49,614 t/year were in the upper river section, 35,976 t/year in the middle river section, and 166,294 t/year in the lower river section. These amounts were more than the carrying capacities of the relevant river sections (i.e., 7230 t/year, 18,380 t/year, and 37,851 t/year of the BOD loads for the upper, middle, and lower river sections, respectively). The first priority in BOD reduction in the CPRB should emphasize domestic wastewater by increasing wastewater treatment efficiency and onsite installations of wastewater treatment systems, while the second should be on paddy fields and other nonpoint sources. Specific best management practices may be considered, e.g., creating constructed wetlands or preserving riverbank vegetation as natural swales to alleviate BOD discharge from agricultural activities into water sources.
... In the past 2 decades, pollution sources such as accidental or deliberate industrial wastewater discharge, or certain cases of heavy metal pollution, eg, cadmium (Cd) or chromium (Cr) pollution on farmland or in certain rivers in Southern Taiwan, have been identified and reported. [10][11][12][13] However, the status of trace element identification and quantification in the aquatic environment around the world's second largest CFPP and its CCR dumping sites in Central Taiwan remains unexplored. It is notable that organic chemicals, trace metals, or metalloids, such as As, Cr, Cd, Ni, and Pb, would cause more environmental contamination. ...
Background
A limited number of potentially hazardous trace elements were quantified in the aquatic environment near the world’s second largest coal-fired power plant (CFPP) and the coal combustion residual (CCR) disposition sites in Central Taiwan. We postulated that contamination from specific trace elements would be present in the abovementioned aquatic environments.
Methods
Cross-sectional sampling of trace elements was first performed between September 24, 2017 and October 3, 2017 outside the CFPP, in the effluent sampled from Changhua, a county south of metropolitan Taichung, and at the historical CCR disposal sites, using the intertidal zone surface seawater and the seawater in an oyster farm as controls. Aqueous samples were collected from 12 locations for analysis of 13 trace elements (Al, As, B, Cd, total Cr, Co, Fe, Pb, Mn, Se, Sr, Tl, and V). We used inductively coupled plasma (ICP) optical emission spectrometry to determine B and Fe levels, and ICP mass spectrometry for all other trace elements. The Spearman rank correlation coefficient (Rho) was calculated to examine the pairwise relation among the trace elements.
Results
Al (50% of all samples), B (66.7%), Fe (25%), Mn (50%), Sr (8.3%), and V (25%) were identified as being above the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulation limit. The oyster farm seawater had no concerns. Mn (96.4 μg/L) in the CFPP drainage effluent was 1.9-fold above the regulation limit. Fe, Mn, and V were detected from the cooling channel at 4379, 625, and 11.3 μg/L, respectively. The effluent and water from the areas surrounding the 2 CCR dump sites revealed similar magnitudes of trace element contamination. B is highly correlated with Sr (Rho = 0.94, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80-0.98). Meanwhile, Fe is highly correlated with Al (Rho = 0.77), Pb (Rho = 0.71), Co (Rho = 0.75), and V (Rho = 0.84).
Conclusions
The EPA must set an explicit regulation limit for aluminum, boron, iron, and strontium in the aquatic environment. This exploratory research will inform policymaking regarding certain trace elements that could potentially have an adverse impact on public health and wildlife.
... Absorbed cadmium after acute exposure can cause symptoms such as salivation, difficulty in breathing, nausea, vomiting, pain, anaemia, kidney failure and diarrhoea. Inhalation of cadmium dust or smoke may cause dryness of the throat, headache, chest pain, coughing, increased uneasiness and bronchial complications (Lu et al. 2007). There were significant differences between the dry and wet season values (p < 0.05) indicating possible anthropogenic influence in the boreholes. ...
The effects of small-scale gold mining activities on heavy metal levels in groundwater were determined for the Lower Pra Basin of Ghana. Sixty five boreholes in 45 communities were analysed between January 2012 and April 2012 for the dry season and June and October 2012 for the wet season. The test for significance and the use of cluster analysis, a multivariate approach, clearly delineate Cu, Zn, Cd and Hg as possible anthropogenic contributors, whilst As, Se and Pb could be both anthropogenic and natural geochemical process contributors of metal level concentrations in the groundwater. The analysis shows generally low pH values in the basin with more than 95% of dry season and almost all wet season values being acidic or slightly acidic. Approximately 35% of boreholes in the wet season recorded values for cadmium above WHO guideline value of 3.0 µg/l with almost all dry season values falling below 3.0 µg/l except for two boreholes. Generally, high values were recorded for iron, manganese, lead, Al and Hg. In general, lead, copper, cadmium and manganese showed higher wet season values than dry season suggesting anthropogenic influence.
... Station 1 and 2 were the harbor area with a high activity, making it one of the sources of heavy metal contamination. The oil and gas coming out from the marine transportation are a major source of cadmium in station 1 and station 2. Lu et al. (2007); Storelli and Marcotrigiano (2001) explains that the oil and gas from transportation activities are a source of heavy metal contamination in the water. Although the activity of sea transportation was high at station 1 and station 2, cadmium also could spread to other areas away from the main source of contamination. ...
Cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) are known to have high toxic effects and have been found polluting marine environment. Regular monitor the concentration of heavy metals in marine waters is necessary by combining chemical and biological analysis. This research was conducted to analyze the levels of heavy metals in sediment, water column, cardinal fish Apogon beauforti, and to measure the concentration of MTF-1 protein in A. beauforti. This research was conducted at four sampling stations at Ambon bay for 2 years. The levels of Cd and Pb metals were analyzed using AAS instruments (Atomic Absorbsion Spectrophotometer), while the concentration of MTF-1 protein in the body of A. beauforti was analyzed using indirect ELISA. The results showed that the seasonal and spatial distribution of heavy metals Cd and Pb at Ambon bay did not show any variation. The results of the ANOVA proved that the concentrations of heavy metals Cd and Pb in the four research stations were not significantly different in the year 2013 and in the year 2014 in the samples of sediment, the water column, and the body of A. beauforti. In addition, it was revealed that the concentration of MTF-1 protein of A. beauforti in 2014 was higher than that in 2013, with an average of the concentration of MTF-1 protein of A.beauforti was higher at station 2, which was at Ferry Galala Harbor.
Keywords: distribution, spatial, seasonal, cadmium, lead, MTF-1, Apogon beauforti
... Cd is a toxic, nonbiodegradable metal with a long biological half-life and is non-beneficial to plants, animals, and humans (Järup et al. 2000). The extensive application of Cd inevitably exposes populations to this heavy metal (Lu et al. 2007;Morrison et al. 2008). The major exposure sources are residues from food and water, tobacco smoking, and occupational means. ...
This study aimed to assess the toxic effect of chronic exposure to cadmium through a metabolomic approach based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS). Forty male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly assigned to the following groups: control, low-dose cadmium chloride (CdCl2) (0.13 mg/kg body weight (bw)), middle-dose CdCl2 (0.8/kg bw), and high-dose CdCl2 (4.9 mg/kg bw). The rats continuously received CdCl2 via drinking water for 24 weeks. Rat urine samples were then collected at different time points to establish the metabolomic profiles. Multiple statistical analyses with principal component analysis and partial least squares–discriminant analysis were used to investigate the metabolomic profile changes in the urine samples and screen for potential biomarkers. Thirteen metabolites were identified from the metabolomic profiles of rat urine after treatment. Compared with the control group, the treated groups showed significantly increased intensities of phenylacetylglycine, guanidinosuccinic acid, 4-pyridoxic acid, 4-aminohippuric acid, 4-guanidinobutanoic acid, allantoic acid, dopamine, LysoPC(18:2(9Z,12Z)), and L-urobilinogen. By contrast, the intensities of creatinine, L-carnitine, taurine, and pantothenic acid in the treated groups were significantly decreased. These results indicated that Cd disrupts energy and lipid metabolism. Meanwhile, Cd causes liver and kidney damage via induction of oxidative stress; serum biochemical indices (e.g., creatinine and urea nitrogen) also support the aforementioned results.
... The major sources of cadmium pollution are smelting and refining of zinc, lead and copper ores, manufacture of cadmium alloys, pigments and plastic stabilizers, production of nickel-cadmium batteries and also welding [50]. Thus, discharges of wastewater from Cd factories contribute to the pollution of cadmium [51]. The use of Cd in plating, stabilizers, pigments and batteries ensure the continuing demand for Cd in the market and become one of the possible sources for environmental pollution [52]. ...
This study defined the concentration of health risk towards human. Results revealed that most of the Zn, Co, Ni, As, Cr and Pb compared to permissible limit of Malaysia standard below than Malaysian standard permissib component analysis (PCA) revealed that both responsible to possible metals metals were within the safe limits, except for As in the Kerteh River for both adult and child well as to Paka River for both gender defined the concentration of metals in Kerteh and Paka River water and their potential health risk towards human. 54 water samples were collected and analyzed using ICP esults revealed that most of the stations in Kerteh River gave the higher concentration Pb compared to Paka River. However As, Cr and Malaysia standard for all stations in both rivers. Cd, Cu, Zn, Co and Ni were standard permissible levels during the sampling component analysis (PCA) revealed that both geogenic and anthropogenic sources were metals contamination in both rivers. Moreover, risk assessments for all safe limits, except for As in the Kerteh River for both adult and child for both genders.
... This metal signifies chemical and petrochemical discharge (Cechinel et al., 2016). Cadmium is well known to be used in material plastic stabilizers (cadmium oxide) (Lu et al., 2007). In this study, the sampling sites near Dashe and Renwu Industrial Parks, home to a variety of mid-stream plastic industries, were found to be seriously contaminated with cadmium. ...
Houjing River, located in Kaohsiung City, is one of the most seriously contaminated rivers in Taiwan. This study analyzed the concentrations of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn and Hg) in sediments and water samples collected from this river. Analysis of contamination factor ( ) and potential ecological risk factor ( ) of heavy metals in water showed that there were low grades of contamination and potential ecological risk for all heavy metals, suggesting that heavy metals in water were less likely to pose risks to the ecosystem. However, sentiment samples were found to have severe contamination levels based on ranges found in sediment quality guidelines (SQG). The average Cu concentration was almost twice as high as the upper standard values in all the guidelines. Multi-element indices were used to evaluate the synergistic effects of different metals at the sampling sites. The calculated results of different indices, the modified degree of contamination (mCd), Nemerow pollution index (PN) and potential ecological risk index (RI), were in good accordance. ‘Heavy’ contamination and ‘severe’ ecological risk were found at three sites, Demin, Zhuwai and Renwu. Cadmium and copper contributed the highest to the ecological risk there. Results of positive matrix factorization modeling identified four sources of heavy metal pollution in both sediments and water. Heavy metal contamination in the Houjing River is attributed to companies carrying out various industrial processes along the riverbank, including traditional metal-plating, plastic manufacture and semi-conductor packaging. Therefore, future pollution control and management plans should emphasize the strict regulation of discharge from these industrial activities.
... It also causes for flu-like symptoms, renal tubular dysfunction and bone degeneration in human being [11]. During late 1960s, the world-shaking itai-itai epidemic of bone disease was occurred in Toyama Prefecture, Japan [12,13] and later, it was reported in Taiwan as well [14]. The cadmium was classified as carcinogenic chemical towards humans as classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [15]. ...
The aim of this communication is to develop a robust electro-analytical tool for low level detection of total arsenic from aqueous solutions at neutral pH conditions. Hybrid materials were obtained using the natural clay. Further, the carbon paste electrode (CPE) was modified with the hybrid materials and employed in the low level detection of total arsenic(V). The arsenic(V) was detected prior to chemically reduced to As(III). pH dependence electrochemical behavior of reduced arsenic(V) was obtained at a wide range of pH 2.0 to 10.0. A characteristic reduction peak for arsenic was obtained using the hybrid materials-modified CPE at an applied potential of around 0.8 V. Concentration dependence studies were conducted for the arsenic(V) by increasing the arsenic(V) concentration from 5.0 to 40.0 μg/L. A significant increase in the reductive current was measured around potential 0.80 V using the modified CPEs. Regression line was obtained between the studied concentration of arsenic(V) and cathodic peak current values. Further, the detection limit (DL) and quantification limit (QL) was obtained for the arsenic(V) using hybrid materials modified CPEs. The DL values were found to be 2.214, 1.502 and 1.408 μg/L for the materials BCH (HDTMA-loaded bentonite), LCH (HDTMA-loaded local clay) and LCAH (aluminium pillared-HDTMA-loaded local clay)-modified CPEs, respectively. The ten-fold excess of several interfering ions (Cd(II), Pb(II), Cu(II), Mn(II), Fe(III), EDTA, glycine and PO43 −) were studied in the detection of As(V). Similarly, the tap water was spiked with the arsenic(V) and separately studied for the detection of arsenic(V) from aqueous solutions.
... Most of the Cd pollution incidents, which occur particularly in eastern countries, result from the waste-water discharge of Cd batteries [5]. Cd induces hypertension in both humans and animals; however, its mechanism has not been clearly elucidated. ...
It is estimated that contamination of drinking water with heavy metals has considerable impact on the health of the world population. The supply of high quality drinking water of is, therefore, necessary to develop and apply suitable processes which allow the reduction of hazardous metals - arsenic, cadmium, lead - below the international standards set for drinking water. Due to the discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated industrial waste waters or waste disposal, many water resources exhibit increased concentrations of heavy metals. The contamination of drinking water with metals represents a serious problem in human health that results in direct toxic effects causing nephropathies, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary emphysema, osteoporosis, hormone alterations, exacerbation of autoimmune disease, and its well-known carcinogenic effect. The adverse consequences of exposure to water contamination on reproductive organs have been widely considered; some of them can be the long-term impairment of neurobehavioral status, and alteration in complex behaviors, such as learning. Particular attention has to be paid to the fact that the treatment of drinking water - due the large volumes needed - must be selective when eliminating heavy metals, and must not eliminate other components which should remain in the water.
... The adverse health effects of Cd include respiratory, renal and cardiovascular diseases, pains, diarrhea, coughing, increased uneasiness and bronchial complications (Lu et al. 2007;Martin and Griswold 2009). The illeffects of Pb are brain and kidney damage, gonad toxicity, teratogenesis, anemia, neurological disorder, nephropathy, colic-like abdominal pains and deaths (Martin and Griswold 2009;Taiwo et al. 2010aTaiwo et al. , 2010benHealth 2012). ...
The present study assessed the health risks associated with road dusts in major traffic hotspots and unpaved road sites in Abeokuta metropolis, Ogun State, southwestern Nigeria. Dust samples were collected from forty-seven sites (unpaved and paved roads) between February and March 2015. Three soil samples were also collected from the farmland of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, as control. A total of 50 road dust and control soil samples were collected and subjected to laboratory assays using standard procedures. The physical and chemical parameters analyzed were pH, electrical conductivity and metal content (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, V, Ba, Na and K). The health risk indices of non-carcinogenic effects [hazard quotient and hazard index (HI)] and cancer risk of toxic metals in soil/dust samples were assessed. Data were evaluated for descriptive and inferential statistics using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows package. Results indicated higher significant (p < 0.05) values of Zn at the roadsides (paved = 94.1 ± 52.1 mg kg−1, unpaved = 101.5 ± 69 mg kg−1) than control (27.6 ± 16.5 mg kg−1). Pb concentrations of road dusts (paved = 31.8 ± 33.6 mg kg−1, unpaved = 50.8 ± 48.9 mg kg−1) were also statistically higher (p < 0.05) than those of control samples (6.33 ± 3.36 mg kg−1). However, Mn was measured at significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentration in control soil than road dust samples. The varimax rotated Principal Component Analysis revealed four major emission sources of metals in both paved and unpaved dust samples. The health risk assessment of metals showed HI values less than 1.0 in adults and greater than 1.0 in children. The health assessment results showed children to be at higher risk of metal exposure in road dust than the adults. The order of CR values for metals in road dusts and control soil follows Cr > Cd > Ni > Pb for adults and children. The CR values of Cr, Cd and Ni in road dusts were higher than the acceptable safe limit of 1.0 × 10−4 indicating probable carcinogenic adverse effects.
... 2 Basic principles of the circular economy of papermaking enterprises and the value flow analysis At present, the material flow analysis is the main method used to evaluate the performance of circular economy at home and abroad and it is widely used in national, regional and zone level (Chen, Shi, & Qian, 2008;Gao & Zhang, 2010;Geng & Song, 2014;Hu, Hu, & Chen, 2008;Huang, Bi, Li, Zhang, & Yang, 2008;Chang, Hsiao, Yu, & Ma, 2007;Moriguchi, 2007;Onishi, Kokubu, & Nakajima, 2008;Zhou & Xiao, 2013). However, the material flow analysis only provides real information, not for making unified accounting for material with different units of measurement. ...
... It also causes for flu-like symptoms, renal tubular dysfunction and bone degeneration in human being [11]. During late 1960s, the world-shaking itai-itai epidemic of bone disease was occurred in Toyama Prefecture, Japan [12,13] and later, it was reported in Taiwan as well [14]. The cadmium was classified as carcinogenic chemical towards humans as classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [15]. ...
A sensitive and efficient electroanalytical method for trace determination of cadmium(II) was developed using hybrid material-modified carbon paste electrodes. The hybrid materials were obtained by modifying the commercial bentonite (BC) and locally collected clay (LC) using the hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HDTMA) as to obtain the organo-modified clay samples (BH and LCH). Moreover, the local clay was pillared with aluminium and modified with the HDTMA (LCAH). The carbon paste electrode was modified with the BC/BCH/LC/LCH/LCAH hybrid materials. Cyclic voltammetric analytical data showed that the modified electrodes were possessed a characteristic reversible behaviour of Cd(II) in aqueous media. Moreover, a significant increase in cathodic or anodic current was obtained using the modified electrodes, BCH, LCH and LCAH. The electroactive surface area of modified electrodes was increased significantly compared to the pristine clay-modified carbon paste electrodes. The response of the modified electrode was not affected significantly varying the pH within the pH region 2.0–10.0. Fairly, a good linearity between the anodic current and concentration of Cd(II) (5.0–40 μg/L) was achieved using the modified electrodes (BCH, LCH and LCAH). The presence of different cations and anions as coexisting ions were studied in order to simulate the real water matrix measurements. Additionally, the real matrix analysis was simulated using the Cd(II) spiked tap water, which showed a good linearity between the concentration of Cd(II) and anodic current.
... For example, high lead (Pb) levels in the soil can be a result of lead paints, pipes and automobile emissions (USEPA 1996). Cadmium (Cd) can originate from commercial fertilizers, batteries and automobile emissions (Lu et al. 2007). The presence of arsenic (As) in soil can be attributed to pesticide use, burning coal and smelting processes (Garelick et al. 2008). ...
Soil pollution is a major environmental problem and many contaminated sites are tainted with a mixture of organic and heavy metal contaminants. Compared to other remedial strategies, phytoremediation is a low cost, environmentally-friendly, sustainable means of remediating the contamination. This review first provides an overview of phytoremediation studies where the soil is contaminated with just one type of pollutant (heavy metals or organics) and then critically evaluates the applicability of phytotechnologies for the remediation of contaminated sites where the soil is polluted by a mixture of organic and heavy metal contaminants. In most of the earlier research studies, mixed contamination was held to be detrimental to plant growth, yet there were instances where plant growth was more successful in soil with mixed contamination than in the soil with only individual contaminants. New effective phytoremediation strategies can be designed for remediation of co-contaminated sites using: (a) plants species especially adapted to grow in the contaminated site (hyperacumulators, local plants, transgenic plants); (b) endophytic bacteria to enhance the degradation in the rizhosphere; (c) soil amendments to increase the contaminants bioavailability [chelating agents and (bio)surfactants]; (d) soil fertilization to enhance the plant growth and microbial activity in the soil; and (e) coupling phytoremediation with other remediation technologies such as electrokinetic remediation or enhanced biodegradation in the rhizosphere.
... Environmental efficiency, environmental load, environmental pressure, pollutant emission ratio, recovery ratio of waste, disposal ratio of dangerous waste, annual scrap generation, pollutant emission and waste generation, CO2 emission, etc. (2007), Kapur et al. (2003), Kapur et al. (2008), Kawamura et al. (2000), Kuczenski and Geyer (2010), Kwonpongsagoon et al. (2007), Lassen and Hansen (2000), Ma and Huang (2008), Ma et al. (2007), Månsson (2009), Mao et al. (2008, Matsuno et al. (2012), Mathieux and Brissaud (2010), Michael and Reston (1999), Michaelis and Jackson (2000), Miyatake et al. (2004), Mutha et al. (2006) (2010). b1 Chang (2010), Chen (2004), He (2008), Hung (2007), and Lu et al. (2007). b2 Chen et al. (2010), Dong et al. (2010), and Guo and Song (2008). ...
The essence of sustainable development (SD) is to deliver social and economic development without compromising environmental quality. Material Flow Analysis or Substance Flow Analysis (M/SFA) is a well-established method to assess the sustainability of socioeconomic development and environmental change, particularly from the perspective of improving material/substance flow efficiency. A material/substance flow chart or accounting table makes SD assessment results comprehensive, comparable and verifiable by (1) providing systematic information and indicators for SD assessment, (2) identifying critical pathways, links and key substances in the anthroposphere, and (3) allowing the dynamic interaction between material flow and social, economic and/or environmental processes to be analyzed. However, the role of M/SFA in SD assessment could be expanded by strengthening simultaneous analysis of various features of material/substance flows, integrating M/SFA with other assessment methods, improving sustainability indicators, and further developing standardized methods for material classification, data acquisition and processing, and measuring indirect flows and unused flows. It is anticipated that future improvements in monitoring material/substance flows in the anthroposphere will provide more systematic information, allowing M/SFA to play an even greater role in SD assessment.
... It can be used for designing and testing different materials management systems in order to compare the flows to the environment, or against some acceptance criteria for environmental loading. So, any strategy of materials management can be discussed through the results of an MFA system (Lu et al. [4]). This paper recommends MFA as a tool for decision making that allows comparing different sanitation technology options. ...
Like many other cities in Sub Saharan Africa, Pouytenga in Burkina Faso has
sanitation problems characterized by poor public health. Pouytenga is located
upstream of the dam of Yitenga, and the pollution of this city is drained into this
dam, which is used to supply drinking water. The city has no strategic sanitation
plan. So, the objective of the study is to assess the dynamics of material flows
and pollutant (nitrogen) through different technological sanitation options of
Pouytenga. The method of material flow analysis (MFA) is used to assess the
matter and nutrients fluxes. The methodology includes literature review,
household surveys and chemical analyses of wastewater and fecal sludge.
Several scenarios of sanitation options have been assessed. The results show that
Pouytenga currently discharges about 61,824 tons of material, including 36 tons
of nitrogen per year in surface water and 373 098 tons of materials, including
282.6 tons of nitrogen on groundwater per year. The promotion of diverted urine
toilets in the city and solid waste composting is expected to recover 194 tons of
nitrogen for agriculture.
Keywords: poor public health, pollution, nitrogen, material flow analysis.
... As a highly toxic and dangerous environmental pollutant, cadmium has caused several major pollution incidents [6,7]. In the late 1960s, the amount of environmental cadmium caused an epidemic of bone disease (itai-itai disease) in Japan [8,9] and later in Taiwan [10]. Furthermore, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) proposed 12 types of priority hazardous substances that pose a global threat, with cadmium ranked first due to its high toxicity [11,12]. ...
... Smelting and metal products manufacturing also should play important roles in the sources of Cd, Pb, and Zn, since there are several large factories related to metallurgical industry in the study area. In addition, Ju country is the main base of plastics manufacturing in Eastern China (Rizhao Municipal Bureau of Statistics 2012), and Cd and Pb are commonly used as stabilizers and pigments for plastics production (Alloway 1995; Lu et al. 2007), thus the production process of plastics should be an important source of Cd and Pb in the study area. On the other hand, agricultural practices also contribute to the accumulation of Cd, Pb, and Zn in topsoils. ...
Purpose: Identifying the sources of heavy metals in soils is a crucial issue for soil remediation and management. Most regions in China have been undergoing a rapid industrialization and urbanization since the last three decades. However, there is little information available on the spatial distribution of heavy metals in soils experiencing a rapid transition from agricultural-based to industrial-based economy. To resolve this problem and to provide references on similar regions, we carried out an investigation on heavy metals in soils in Ju country to identify potential sources and to map their spatial distributions.
... Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metals, and is widely used in industry and agriculture in applications such as metal alloys, batteries, and phosphate fertilizers [1]. Cadmium is easily absorbed and accumulated by plants and organisms, subsequently going through the soil-plant-animal-human food chain [2]. Chronic cadmium exposure causes renal dysfunction, calcium metabolism disorders, and several serious diseases such as lung, prostate, and renal cancers [3][4][5]. ...
... To identify the source of the cadmium pollution in the soil, Lu et al (2007) applied a method of Material Flow Analysis (MFA) in Taiwan. MFA has proved to be a useful tool for providing quantitative information of the flow of substances into an environment. ...
... In particular, cadmium is very toxic and probably carcinogenic at low concentrations. Cadmium is released into the environment through various industrial discharges of metal plating, Ni-Cd batteries, pigments and plastics, cigarette smoking, smelting operations, incineration of municipal waste, sewage sludge, chemical fertilizers and polluted groundwater [22,29]. Cd 2? , a designated human carcinogen, is one of well-known toxic heavy metal ions, and its toxicity has been extensively studied [1,8,28,32,37]. ...
Environmental contamination caused by heavy metals, such as cadmium (Cd), is a serious and growing concern. Cd is a highly toxic and carcinogenic metal for humans, animals and plants and is a widespread pollutant with a long biological life. The presence and persistence of growth promoting metal-resistant microbial community in the soil system facilitates remediation of Cd. This study deals with proteomic characterization of cadmium-resistant diversified isolates of Pseudomonas spp., i.e., psychrotolerant P. putida (isolate SB32) and alkalophilic P. monteilli (isolate SB35). Further, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) revealed 24 proteins in SB32 and 21 proteins in SB35, differentially expressed after Cd exposure. On the basis of their increased expression, two protein spots in SB32 and one in SB35 were selected for further analysis. With MS/MS spectra produced by LC–MS analysis, spots were identified through NCBI EST database searching with Mascot MS/MS Ion Search Engines (Matrix Sciences). Spots from cadmium-treated P. putida SB32 appear to be ATP-dependent Clp protease subunit and 20S proteasome, A and B subunits, while spot from cadmium-treated P. monteilli SB35 appears to be nitroreductase. Protein identification supports that interplay between protein folding and hydrolysis may be a central mechanism for proper cell function survival in the presence of cadmium.
Contamination of groundwater by trace elements causes unacceptable human health problems both in short- and long-term. In order to examine the concentration of nine trace elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Hg, As, Cr, Cd, and Se), shallow groundwater samples were collected from twenty wells along Guenniche plain, which is one of the most important regions of farming at Bizerte governorate (Northern Tunisia). The analysis’ results show that the Mercury and Cadmium concentrations ranging between 0.04 and 1.91 µg L⁻¹ and 0.06 and 5.43 µg L⁻¹, respectively, exceed the national and/or international standards in some wells. All the Mercury samples’ results respect the international standard (WHO) set at 6 µg L⁻¹, and seven samples exceed the national standard (NT) set at 1 µg L⁻¹. For the Cadmium, two samples exceed the NT standard (5 µg L⁻¹), and five samples exceed the WHO standard (3 µg L⁻¹). The intense chemical pesticides used in agriculture and the uncontrolled disposal of domestic wastes are probably the cause behind the pollution in some wells. This region’s inhabitants are the most vulnerable population to carcinogenic risk because the results are higher than the acceptable risk level (between 10–6 and 10–4 set by the USEPA). The Arsenic, Chromium, and Cadmium risk level ranges from 2.5 × 10–6 to 4.3 × 10–4, 1.7 × 10–8 to 1.10 × 10–4, and 3.1 × 10–5 to 2.7 × 10–3, respectively. The findings in this research will inspire the decision makers to be more vigilant about the human health risk and to move forward with taking urgent and effective solutions to protect the Guenniche plain humans from trace elements contamination.
Cadmium (Cd) is a non-essential heavy metal naturally occurring in the earth’s crust or due to anthropogenic activity. The presence of this metal in cacao farm soils represents a significant issue as levels are now regulated in products derived from cacao beans (Theobroma cacao L.). Several strategies have been proposed to measure cadmium levels; however, little is known regarding in situ non-destructive and time efficient techniques to analyze Cd contents in both cacao topsoils and subsoils, particularly nearby the root system. Therefore, this research aims to integrate the physical property of soil resistivity to Cd content in cacao soils. Cd hot spots are estimated from resistivity measurements using a two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography (2D-ERT) technique and correlated to Cd determination using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). To assess the dynamics of soil Cd content the correlation is discussed with other physical chemical parameters of soils (pH, organic matter, Ca, Fe, and P). The study was performed in 27 cacao farms in Colombia. A farm in Santander district proved to have the highest level of Cd using the correlated techniques (2.76 mg·kg−1 Cd and 1815 Ohm·m) followed by farms in Boyacá and Arauca districts (2.6 and 0.66 mg·kg−1 Cd, related to 1616 and 743 Ohm·m, respectively). A high correlation between 2D-ERT and Cd determination (R2 = 0.87) was found. The discussion regarding the soil parameters analyzed suggests that the 2D-ERT technique could be used as a preliminary approach to explore Cd distribution in cacao soils.
This study evaluates the EU MWD Pre-selection Protocol (Stanley et al., 2011) by applying it to real-life cases and adopting it to country-specific conditions (Abdaal et al., 2013). Altogether 145 ore mine waste sites in Hungary were selected for scientific testing and evaluation using the EU MWD Pre-selection Protocol. Key parameters, formulated as questions in the EU MWD Pre-selection Protocol, are linked to a GIS system and key parameters such as the topographic slope and distance to the nearest surface and groundwater bodies, to settlements and the Natura 2000 protected areas were calculated and statistically evaluated in order to adjust the RA models to country-specific conditions in Hungary. In order to assess the sensitivity of mine waste site risk assessment in response to various methods the EU MWD Pre-selection Protocol was compared to the European Environmental Agency (EEA) Preliminary Risk Assessment Model for Soil contamination in Europe (PRAMS). As the second component of the research project, the heavy metal contamination risk assessment (RA) based on actual laboratory analysis of collected samples was performed for selected 30 min-quarry waste sites in order to study the inert characteristics of the potentially generated mine wastes, in accordance with the EU MWD legislation. In addition to detailed geochemical study, spatial analysis using ArcGIS was performed to derive a geochemically sound contamination RA of these mine waste sites. As the third component of this research, the relationship between selected water quality variables (e.g. Ni, Mn, Cr, Zn and conductivity) in streams nearby the studied 33 mining waste sites and the landscape metrics of watersheds of these mining sites was investigated and analysed. It is concluded that the Mean Shape Index (MSI) and the Main Fractal Dimension Index (MFRACT) are the most important “key” landscape indcies in years 2000 and 2006 respectively, from the stream water quality heavy metal contamination point of view.
The present study is a first of its kind on the sediment contamination in Deepor Beel, which makes use of source apportionment receptor modelling technique {positive matrix factorization (PMF)} for determining and quantifying the sources’ contribution to the pollution of the sediment column of Deepor Beel, Assam. Sediment samples were collected and analysed for seven different heavy metals from 23 sampling locations for a period from October 2017 to February 2019. Polling the entire dataset to a single matrix and carrying out multiple iterations revealed that four factors were optimum and thus, was applied for the simulation of the model. It was observed that the factors 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponded to the soil parent material, leaching from the Boragaon landfill, discharge of agricultural and domestic wastes, and effluents from the industries and traffic emissions respectively. The sediment samples were further subjected to elemental analysis; X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) followed by Scanning electron microscope - Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM – EDS), to determine the elemental composition and forms of heavy metals present in the sediment columns from various parts of the wetland. Sediment sample collected from the proximity of the landfill site was observed to be affected the most, probably due to leaching effects, especially during the monsoon. The central zone, however, was found to be devoid of any anthropogenic contaminations, while the sediment column near the industrial complex was found to be contaminated to a moderate extent. The study indicates the quantum of sediment contamination in the wetland and the causative parameters responsible, thus proving to be of immense help to the various governmental bodies in the planning and management of resources for sediment remediation of Deepor Beel.
Purpose
The carbon intensity that accompanies concrete manufacturing has been widely investigated. However, depending on the intended use, concrete’s embedded materials’ quantities can change significantly, affecting its environmental performance. Seldom investigated, sprayed concrete’s impact differs from that of typical ready mixed concrete, which justifies a differentiated inspection. Our goals are (i) to prove that sprayed concrete’s environmental impacts are under-investigated and (ii) to provide an overview on how concrete’s components’ production cycles are typically modelled in LCAs.
Methods
We performed a systematic literature review (SLR) to gather the widest possible sample of papers in a replicable and transparent manner, aiming to answer two research questions: ‘What is the life cycle performance of sprayed concrete?’ and ‘What are the most frequent methodological choices made to perform an LCA of concrete’s constituents?’. We used eight different keyword strings for each of concrete’s most used components and searched for documents in databases Springer and ScienceDirect. After 3 conservative filtering rounds, 282 papers were thoroughly and collectively assessed to feed the outcome herein documented.
Results and discussion
The investigated literature not only showed a gap in sprayed concrete’s environmental impacts documentation but also allowed us to build a literary dossier to ground researches aiming to calculate typical concrete mixes’ impact through LCA, assuring comparability with the ecological status quo for that construction material. Practitioners’ most frequent methodological choices were documented, along with common standard breaches and limitations in investigated studies.
Conclusions
By systematically structuring our research protocol, we covered enough papers to provide a sound overview and to make collective conclusions regarding available literature. We make two main recommendations for LCA practitioners: non-carbon correlated impact categories ought to be investigated—especially as we move towards more carbon-friendly technologies in concrete/cement manufacturing. Second, practitioners should always comply with the transparency requirements of an LCA. Our outcome pointed to an alarming number of published papers that failed to declare basic methodological choices such as data sources, assessment methods used and impact distribution strategies in multifunctional processes’ modelling.
China is one of the largest producers, consumers, and emitters of cadmium (Cd). This study applies the methods of material flow analysis and inventory analysis to investigate the flows and stocks of Cd in the industry-environment system in mainland China from 1990 to 2015. Special attention is paid to the identification of emissions and corresponding sources. It was found that: (1) more than 63% of Cd input in mainland China comprised unintentional processes that were driven by domestic mining and refining of nonferrous ores, which exceeded the input driven by intentional processes; (2) China became a net importer of Cd in 2000 because of the increasing import of nonferrous ores, which then led to Cd accumulation in domestic solid wastes; (3) Cd resources were mainly consumed in Ni–Cd batteries and plastics, and the in-use stock of Ni–Cd batteries reached a peak in 2008; (4) Cd emissions started to rise in 1990 and remained steady after 2013 due to the relatively stable production of nonferrous ores. The tendency of Cd emissions, use of Cd resources, and development of Cd-relevant industries were also discussed. The results indicated that the utilization of traditional products and the production of new energy materials may become the most important application of Cd resources in China.
A simple hydrothermal method was used to prepareyttrium oxide (YO) nanorods and Ch-YO nanocomposite based nanorods. The obtained nanorods were investigated using various analytical techniques such as x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). An XRD investigation confirms the well confined crystallinity without agglomeration after the coating with chitosan. The presence of functional groups was analysed using FTIR and self aligned nanorods was found using SEM. The developed nanorods were subjected for the detection of Cd (II) ions using cyclic voltammetry and square wave voltammetry revealing nanorods with enhanced sensing and electrocatalytic behavior towards Cd (II) ions. The presence of amine and carboxyl groups on nanorods helped in reducing the agglomeration and crystallite size, these size dependent properties supported the nanorods to achieve LOD (0.00118 μM) and sensitivity of 27.84 μA μM⁻¹which in turn applied for real-time analysis.
A novel fluorescent probe was synthesized and explored to detect cadmium ions (Cd²⁺) based on an imine functionalized metal–organic framework (MOF). The nanoscale MOF probe (∼100 nm) displayed a turn-on fluorescence in aqueous environments with the addition of Cd²⁺ which could be ascribed to the interaction between the CN group and specific metal ions, presenting a low-toxicity, highly selective and sensitive detection method for Cd²⁺ with a detection limit of 0.336 μM (37.8 ppb) and a broad linear range of 0–500 μM, which is promising for application in intracellular sensing and imaging of Cd²⁺. The probing mechanism was studied and discussed in detail.
To utilize the maximum activity of nanomaterials, it was specifically synthesized by appropriate physicochemical properties. In that aspect, we have described the synthesis of porous MnCo2O4 by simple chemical route and applied for the selective detection of cadmium (Cd (II)). The as-prepared porous MnCo2O4 was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) adsorption isotherm, X-ray diffraction pattern analysis (XRD), Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and electrochemical techniques. The porous MnCo2O4 exhibited an excellent electrochemical behaviour and good analytical response towards the determination of Cd (II). Those analytical factors such as pH, deposition potential and deposition time are optimized by using differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV). A wide linear concentration range from 2.3 to 120 µg L−1, limit of detection (LOD) of 0.72 µg L−1 and the limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.91 µg L−1 were achieved for determination of Cd (II). The selectivity of the developed sensor was explored in the presence of co-interfering ions. Also our sensor exhibits a good stability, reproducibility and repeatability. In addition, the practicability of proposed sensor was evaluated for the detection of Cd (II) in real water samples.
In order to develop a facile, cost-effective and quick-testing light-up biosensor with excellent specificity for cadmium ions (Cd(II)) detection, a modified selection method based on target-induced release of strands was used to isolate aptamers of Cd (II) with high specificity. Circular Dichroism (CD) data confirmed that one of the selected aptamers underwent a distinct conformational change on addition of Cd (II). A biosensor for Cd(II) was developed based on the Cd(II)-induced release of fluorescence-labeled aptamer from complex with a quencher-labeled short complementary sequence. The sensing platform displayed a Cd(II) concentration-dependent increase of fluorescence intensity in the low micromolar range and had an excellent selectivity in the presence of various interfering metal ions. Such biosensor could potentially be used for the detection of Cd(II) in environmental samples.
This chapter highlights key issues related to accumulation of toxic metals and trace elements in chronic dialysis patients, with special emphasis on lead and cadmium, but excluding aluminum. In a meta-analysis study, it has been demonstrated that blood levels of lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, and vanadium were higher in maintenance hemodialysis patients than control counterparts. Clinical evidences have suggested that elevated blood lead levels were associated with hypertension-related morbidity and mortality, and accelerated age-related renal function impairment in the general population. In earlier studies, we have showed that environmental exposure to lead was related to progressive renal insufficiency in patients with and without diabetes, and that chelation therapy may retard the progression of renal insufficiency in these patients. In a large-scale, cross-sectional, prospective study, we have showed that blood lead levels were associated with inflammation, malnutrition, and 1-year mortality in 211 diabetic patients treated with maintenance hemodialysis. In another 18-month study, we have revealed that high blood lead level was associated with increased hazard ratios for all-cause, cardiovascular-cause, and infection-cause 18-month mortality in 927 maintenance hemodialysis patients. In a peritoneal dialysis population, we also revealed that blood lead levels were associated with residual renal function and hyperparathyroidism, and were related to increased hazard ratio for all-cause 18-month mortality. Cadmium can cause kidney damage even at very low levels of exposure. In patients with end-stage renal disease, cadmium may accumulate in bone tissue, increasing the bone cadmium content in these patients. In a study, we have demonstrated that environmental cadmium exposure was significantly associated with inflammation and malnutrition in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Following adjustment for potential confounders, blood cadmium levels were negatively correlated with serum albumin levels, but were positively correlated with high sensitivity-C reactive protein. Overall, a 10-fold increase in blood cadmium levels was associated with a 0.06 g/dL decrease in serum albumin levels. This is of particular importance in diabetics, because there may exist a positive association between cadmium exposure and the severity of diabetes, as well as diabetes-related organ damage. In another study, we have confirmed that elevated blood cadmium levels were associated with increased hazard ratio for 18-month all-cause mortality in diabetic patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis.
A complex [Cd-2(tbb)Cl-4]-4DMF center dot 3H(2)O, where tbb is 1,2,3,4-tetra(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)butane, was synthesized and characterized by X-ray single-crystal structure analyses. For this complex: C44H49Cd2C14N12O7, M-r= 1224.55, monoclinic system, space group C2/c, a = 29.563(3), b = 14.2580(17), c = 26.355(3) angstrom, = 97.036(2)degrees, V= 11025(2) angstrom(3), Z = 8, D-c= 1.475 g/cm(3), lambda = 0.71073 angstrom, mu(MoK alpha) = 1.021 mm(-1), F(000) = 4936, S = 1.047, R = 0.0680 and wR = 0.1832 for 11812 observed reflections with I > 2 sigma(I) It is a neutral dinuclear complex. One 1,2,3,4-tetra(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)butane coordinates to two cadmium ions. Each cadmium ion is coordinated by two nitrogen atoms of tbb and two chloride ions. The complex emits blue luminescence in DMF solution as well as in solid powder state.
Industrialization, urbanization and various anthropogenic activities such as mining and agriculture have increased releases of toxic heavy metals into the natural environment such as soils, lakes, rivers, groundwaters and oceans. The release of heavy metals in biologically available forms alter both natural and man–made ecosystems. Although some heavy metal ions are essential micronutrients for plant metabolism, they become highly toxic when they occur at high concentrations in soils, groundwaters and waste streams. Moreover, heavy metals are not biodegradable and persist in the environment. Conventional methods for the removal of the heavy metals ions from contaminated wasters and wastewaters include chemical precipitation, electroflotation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis and adsorption onto activated carbon. Recently, pioneering research on biosorption of heavy metals has led to the identification of microbes that are extremely effective in bioconcentrating metals. Biosorption is the binding and concentration of an element from aqueous solutions by organic materials such as microbial biomass. The major advantages of biosorption over conventional treatment methods include low cost, high efficiency, minimization of chemical or biological sludge, regeneration of biosorbents and possible metal recovery. Due to their humic acid content, vermicomposts are a novel and effective variety of biosorbent for removing metallic ions such as Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd and V from wastewaters. The types of biosorbents surveyed in this chapter are fungal biomass, biomass of nonliving, dried brown marine algae, agricultural wastes and residues, composite chitosan biosorbent prepared by coating chitosan, cellulose based sorbents, and bacterial strains.
This paper discussed the heavy metal pollution levels and the clean-up activities to improve the Gombak and Penchala River water quality in Kuala Lumpur. The Gombak River is a tributary of the Klang River passing through Kuala Lumpur. The Penchala River passes through the city of Petaling Jaya. Metal concentration levels as reported by the Department of Environment of Malaysia were used to assess the state of metal contamination of the rivers. The effectiveness of government efforts through engineering and river works and public awareness campaigns to strive for a healthier Gombak River and Penchala River was observed over a period from 1997 to 2009. Results showed that the concentrations of metals in the Gombak River were generally slightly better than those of the Penchala River. The Penchala River showed a better rate of quality improvement than the Gombak River but the absolute concentration values were generally higher.
A new BODIPY derivative with 2,2'-(ethane-1,2-diylbis(oxy))bis(N,N-bis(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)aniline unit as the metal receptor has been designed and synthesized. The dye selectively detects either Cd(2+) or Hg(2+) ions in the presence of hosts of other biologically important and environmentally relevant metal ions in aqueous medium at physiological pH. Binding of metal ions causes a change in the emission behavior of the dye from weakly fluorescent to highly fluorescent. Confocal microscopic experiments validate that the dye can be used to identify changes in either Hg(2+) or Cd(2+) levels in living cells.
A total of 59 samples consisting of 45 topsoils samples and 14 subsoils samples were collected from urban soils of Donggang and were analyzed for soil properties and 12 trace elements. The mean contents of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, V, and Zn in topsoils were 5.76, 0.20, 9.88, 44.82, 17.69, 0.05, 578.96, 19.98, 28.38, 0.21, 58.88, and 58.32 mg kg(-1), respectively. The mean enrichment factor results suggested that Hg, Cd, Pb, Cu, Se, and Zn were enriched in topsoils compared with subsoils. Spatial distribution maps of trace elements indicated that Hg, Cd, Pb, Cu, Se, and Zn had similar patterns, with the highest values in the industrial region. There were no significant associations displayed between spatial distributions of As, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, and V and the industrial region. Through correlation analysis, stepwise regression analysis, and redundancy analysis, three main sources of 12 trace elements were identified. Cd, Hg, and Se originated from industrial emissions and coal combustion, and As, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, and V had a lithogenic origin. The combination of human activities and natural sources contributed to the contents of Cu, Pb, and Zn, and the human activities included industrial and traffic emissions.
Cadmium (Cd) pollution in the suburbs of Tianjin, China, was monitored over a period of several years. During this period, 193 soil, 120 vegetable, and 71 rice samples from four suburban districts were analyzed. The Cd content of the soil samples was considerably higher than the background level. Some soil samples from the Dongli and Xiqing districts were even in the S5 (Heavy) and S6 (Severe) pollution levels, with a maximum concentration of 5.20 mg kg. The Cd contents of vegetable and rice samples were found to be in the F3 (Intermediate) and F4 (Heavy) pollution levels. Vegetables showed differing abilities to accumulate Cd and can be ranked in the following order: leaf vegetables > rootstalk vegetables > fruit vegetables. The average Cd level in different vegetables ranged from 0.0064 to 0.132 mg kg, and a positive relationship (p < 0.05) was found between soil and plant Cd contents. Chinese cabbage and celery were more likely to pose risks to human health, as shown by their higher hazardous quotient (HQ) values. The soil Cd pollution in Tianjin seemed primarily to be caused by wastewater irrigation and the application of sewage sludge to farmlands. Other possible sources include the use of phosphate fertilizer and atmospheric deposition.
Material flows of concrete from construction and demolition (C&D) waste in Taiwan have grown considerably over the last two decades, Hsiao et al. (2001). This increased flow puts pressure on limited national disposal capacity and has indirectly caused ecological damage to domestic riparian zones used as sources of natural aggregate. Using existing statistics and literature sources for C&D waste generation in Taiwan we have developed a dynamic model of domestic material flows of concrete waste and employ statistical analyses to obtain projections of future material flows. Our major findings are: (1) Taiwan’s rate of waste concrete generation in 2001 for the residential and commercial construction industry was approximately 2.4 Million Metric Tons (MMT) per year, averaging 0.11 metric tons of waste concrete generated annually by each Taiwanese; (2) Around the year 2009, the national rate will more than triple to exceed the spike in C&D concrete waste generation that occurred after the Chi Chi earthquake 9/21/99, 8.5 MMT. (3) Aside from pilot-scale development of waste concrete utilization technology, nationwide recycling rates remain negligible. Without resource recovery, the volume of C&D waste generation by 2009 is projected to occupy nearly 7% of all existing and planned domestic landfill capacity. A target is established to raise resource recovery rates for waste concrete to 50% by 2005 and a 100% nationwide recycling rate by 2009.
Material Flow Analysis (MFA) has become an important instrument in environmental science and pollution research. In this paper, we look at the MFA problem as a particularly structured system identification problem. Special emphasis is given to the linear, static case, where we describe a procedure for reconciliating the flow measurements and for estimating the unmeasured flows and the transfer coefficients by taking into account a priori restrictions such as balance equations.
The topic treated in this book is the dynamics of material fluxes in the immediate human environment - the anthroposphere. A comprehensive understanding of man's activities in connection with, for example, nutrition, hygiene, habitation and transport is essential for early recognition of limitations of resources and environmental impact. The methodology of flux analysis is introduced, with examples on how to qualify and quantify the metabolism of complex biological and cultural systems. This is an entirely new approach to describing geogenic and anthropogenic systems. The perceptions gained by material flux analysis complement those obtained in life sciences (e.g. human toxicology), environmental sciences (e.g. ecotoxicology) and social sciences (e.g. economics, sociology). Their application enables a control on regional material fluxes (resource and waste management, environmental impact studies) and the devlopment of kybernetic strategies for the metabolic evolution of the anthroposphere.
The concept of a company, city, or region functioning as an anthrosphere, a living organism with metabolic processes, is now widely accepted among professionals within scientific, engineering, and materials management fields. While the traits of an anthroposphere are described throughout academia, until now there was no widely accepted methodology for applying these concepts.
Practical Handbook of Material Flow Analysis establishes a rigid, transparent and useful methodology for investigating the material metabolism of anthropogenic systems. Using Material Flow Analysis (MFA), engineers and planners can determine the main sources, flows, stocks, and emissions of man-made and natural materials. By demonstrating the application of MFA, this book reveals how resources can be conserved and the environment protected within complex systems. The fourteen case studies presented exemplify the potential for MFA to contribute to sustainable materials management. Exercises throughout the book deepen comprehension and expertise.
The authors have had success in applying MFA to various fields, and now promote the use of MFA in a uniform way so that future environmental engineers, resource managers, and urban planners have a common method in their toolboxes for solving resource-oriented problems.
The economic production and use of cadmium leads to environmental problems within the European Community (EC). The use of cadmium is still increasing significantly, mainly in batteries. This article presents an analysis of cadmium flows in the economy and the environment of the EC, using the 'Substance Flow Analysis' method, a variant of the materials balance approach. Several cadmium abatement packages are evaluated for their effectiveness in terms of sustainability. Proposed EC policy on cadmium, embodying (1) end-of-the-pipe measures, (2) a phase-out of certain applications, and (3) recycling of batteries and certain other products, does not appear to offer a sustainable solution to the cadmium problem, primarily because of the inelastic nature of cadmium supply: mainly as a by-product of zinc production. On the inflow side, measures should focus not on cadmium but on the main products, zinc and phosphate. Otherwise, recycling will only lead to increased availability of cadmium and thus to larger future losses to the environment. On the outflow side, collection of cadmium-containing waste and products and subsequent safe storage in a concentrated form seems to offer the best solution. The ineffectiveness of cadmium recycling is the result of its complicated economic behaviour: inelastic inflow in the world economy, a wide variety of intentional applications, and occurrence as a contaminant in zinc and phosphate products. All ore by-products show this behaviour and are equally difficult to manage in an environmental policy. In general, a policy on an individual pollutant derives its goals from the environmental characteristics of the substance. In order to be effective, the measures it encompasses should be based on the economic characteristics of the substance: characteristics related to supply and demand.
This review (47 references) shows the acute lack of conclusive data on the effects of low levels of dietary Cd in animals. The possibility that Cd is a causative agent in human hypertension has been proposed, and rats indeed develop hypertension with low levels of dietary Cd. However, epidemiologic studies of people industrially exposed to Cd give no support to this conception. In addition it has been shown that although 5 μg Cd/ml drinking water produces hypertension in rats in 6 mth, and 1 μg Cd/ml produces this condition in 12 mth, 50 μg Cd/ml has no such effect. Still, cadmium-induced hypertension may well be produced in man at specific levels. Recent evidence indicates that the level of Zn is important. Apparently, when normal levels of dietary Zn are fed with low levels of Cd, Cd-induced hypertension is nonexistent. It has been reported that 1.5 μg Cd/g diet will decrease the plasma Cu and ceruloplasmin activity in rats to low levels. A significant number of lambs fed low levels of dietary Cd had markedly depressed blood and liver Cu concentrations and ceruloplasmin levels indicating a significant derangement of Cu metabolism. Significant derangements of Fe, Zn, and Mn metabolism in various parts of the body were found as well. What effects the redistribution of trace metals has on human or animal health is not fully known. However, low Cu and Fe levels in the liver are associated with anemia, whereas decreased Mn concentrations in body tissues are associated with skeletal defects. The effect of 1 μg Cd/ml drinking water on some liver enzymes in rats are also of deep concern. The interference with carbohydrate metabolism in rats has direct application to man and requires further study. The same is true for humans eating large quantities of liver and kidney from normal domestic animals; and in addition, any subtle effects on the general health of these animals needs to be determined. There appears to be a critical need for more definitive research into the long term effects of feeding nutritionally adequate diets containing low levels of Cd (0.05-0.20 μg/g food) to animals. This level of Cd is commonly found in human foods. Effects studied would include blood pressure, Na retention, liver enzymes, serum cholesterol, and trace element relation in tissues. The Cd/Cu and Cd/Se relations seem especially important. In addition, the effects of supplementary levels of Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Ca, Se, protein, and vitamin D on the above parameters should be studied, as is also the case of the genetic variations in susceptibility to Cd.
Cadmium containing stabilizers are used only in certain polyvinylchloride (PVC) products for special weather, light or temperature resistance. The total consumption of cadmium used as a chemical stabilizer in Sweden is expected to be about 1.5 tonnes/year in 1991-1992, while the amount in pigments is approximated to be 6 tonnes/year. It is determined that most of the cadmium that enters into the combustible fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) comes from plastics and pigments in various products. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene copolymers (ABS) products are the main source of plastics contained cadmium pigments. These products are usually consumer electronics such as television and telephone sets, computer, radios, etc. In practice, it is very difficult for a country like Sweden to act alone and implement regulations for cadmium due to international trade and heavy import/export of products. There is no doubt that the transition period to adopt other alternatives, as requested by the Swedish Cadmium Ordinance, takes time and a flow of cadmium from plastic wastes into landfills and incinerators is expected during the coming years. This is also due to the long lifetime of some plastic products which contain cadmium. Continuous and consistent monitoring of cadmium in landfills and incineration plants is required in order to be able to evaluate the effect of the Ordinance on cadmium.
The forest and the creatures it shelters exemplify nature, and logging exemplifies the impacts of humans. In the 1990s Americans annually removed 70% more timber from the forest than in 1900. Since I900 population rose more than three times and gross domestic product (GDP) per person almost five. Despite more people, affluence, and logging, U.S. forest area remained constant. Since mid-century, standing timber volume me nearly 30%. Consumers, millers, and foresters, responding to changes in style, ethics, and technology, have contributed to these outcomes. We examine the role of each actor in the industrial ecology of forests for their leverage for sparing forests. Consumers lessened their use of wood products per GDP (Intensity of Use) during the century by 2.5% annually to offset expanding population and GDP per person, a trend that will level or lower timber consumption if population and affluence grow as expected. Millers became highly efficient at utilizing wood and recycled fiber for their material or energy, a success that limits their fcrture leverage. Foresters have leverage to grow trees faster and thus use less forest land to grow and harvest timber. Steady or declining demand for trees coupled to productive forests could spare more US. forest land for sequestering carbon, ecosystem services, and habit for nature.
The paper consists of two main parts. The first part is concerned with different aspects of mathematical modeling of material flow systems for the linear static case. The problems considered are the description of the model class, data reconciliation, identification of subsystems and the analysis of system properties relevant e.g. for simulation. In the second part an application of the modeling tools proposed in the first part to a study on the metabolism of phosphorus in an Austrian region is given.
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