Article

Psychosocial effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster

Authors:
  • Independent researcher-retired
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author.

Abstract

The psychological factors surrounding the Chernobyl disaster include the sudden trauma of evacuation, long-term effects of being a refugee, disruption of social networks, illness, separation and its effects on families, children's perception and effects on their development and the threat of a long-term consequence with an endless future. Added to this was the breakdown of the Soviet Union with consequent collapse of health services, increasing poverty and malnutrition. These complexities made necessary new individual and social treatment methods developed in UNESCO Community Centres, within which some positives have resulted, such as the development of individual and group self help and the professions of counselling, social work and community development, practices which did not previously exist in the Soviet Union.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.

... This shows that unsafe environment is a barrier to the enjoyment of the right to property for the evacuated people in Chernobyl. As Chernobyl has affected thousands of or millions of people's living conditions and ecology negatively (Barnett, 2007), the issue in promotion of the environmental justice becomes a subject of academic debate in nuclear energy literature (Fan, 2006: Hoffman, 2001Kyne and Bolin, 2016;Huang et al., 2013). Justice concerns about nuclear accidents include the large potentially exposed populations living under contaminated environment (Kyne and Bolin, 2016). ...
... More urgent issue is that the current generation already live under contaminated environment (Petryna, 2013;Barnett, 2007). Millions of people living in contaminated areas are still exposed to a higher dose of radiation than the limit recommended (Saenko et al., 2011;Kinly III, 2006;Petryna, 2013;Barnett, 2007). ...
... More urgent issue is that the current generation already live under contaminated environment (Petryna, 2013;Barnett, 2007). Millions of people living in contaminated areas are still exposed to a higher dose of radiation than the limit recommended (Saenko et al., 2011;Kinly III, 2006;Petryna, 2013;Barnett, 2007). However, environmental harm of the Chernobyl disaster has not shared equally although the costs of the station such as electricity or environmental benefit of NPPs might be shared fairly. ...
Article
Full-text available
Nuclear energy is one of the most important components of the world electricity supply in today's world. It provides approximately 21% of electricity in OECD countries. However, there has been a growing social and academic debate over the use of nuclear energy because the fact that there have been serious incidents and accidents at nuclear power stations indicates that the security risk associated with NPPs is not low. Particularly major nuclear accidents, Fukushima and Chernobyl, can cause the release of radiation into the environment. However, environmental contamination is not shared equally among people who trigger environmental injustice issues. There has been no comprehensive research that investigates nuclear accidents from the perspective of environmental justice theory so far. The main purpose of this study is to argue whether or not nuclear accidents cause environmental injustice. The results show that the major nuclear accident, the Chernobyl, has caused distributive and intergenerational environmental injustice.
... There were also misconceptions, scarcity of reliable information, apathy, lies, and secrecy shrouding the accident, which is known as the 'secret disaster'. Chernobyl combines the unseen, unheard, unfelt and unsmelt (Barnett, 2007). ...
... Nuclear affairs equaled state secretseverything was classified and only successful accomplishments were announced (Schmidt, 2011). A climate of uncertainty was cultivated to the public and that, in turn, caused the questioning of the ethics of risk management (Jaworowski 1999, in Barnett, 2007;Oughton, 2011). The poor handling of the disaster and the fact that the parties involved downplayed the seriousness of the accident shattered the former Soviet Union's credibility and the 'new' culture of openness and transparency (Perestroika & Glasnost). ...
... • Anxieties about developing cancer ('cancer anxiety') via chronic and acute exposures to invisible radiation, and pollution (Marcon et al. 2015, p. 270), contamination (Mueller 2010), and other multiple health effects, e.g. psychological (Barnett 2007;Mueller 2010), following major accidents, exposure to radioactive waste, nuclear weapons (Pidgeon et al. 2008). 'Cancer anxiety' has been established as a separate form of anxiety due to perceptions of cancer as the deadliest of diseases (Trumbo et al. 2007). ...
Article
Development projects inevitably pose risks to the health of humans and the planet. Health impact assessment (HIA) practitioners increasingly evaluate the mental health effects of development but have rarely considered those caused by public understanding of risk (‘risk perception’) itself a determinant of health. This paper proposes a new psychosocial model of public understanding of risk in response to the literature on perceived high risk developments. It exemplifies the psychosocial process that occurs when people respond to industrial threats to health. In doing this, it draws upon literature from psychology, social science and public health. The model is foregrounded in the context of psychosocial health in HIA. The paper also reviews the health and well-being effects that may result. Overall, it is argued that the philosophical and moral underpinnings of HIA compel practitioners and developers to understand the formation and ongoing development of public understandings of risk in light of the cultural, demographic, temporal and other contextual factors shaping them in unique development contexts where HIAs are undertaken, and how understandings of risk actually affect community health. We encourage them to propose mitigation measures and solutions that accord with the values of Planetary Health.
... As separation from family members due to the nuclear disaster could influence employees' mental health status [19], it was used as a disaster-related experience variable assessed by the question, "Have you experienced living apart from your family who originally lived with you due to this nuclear disaster?" ...
Article
Full-text available
After the nuclear disaster in Fukushima on 11 March 2011, some businesses were permitted to continue operating even though they were located in the evacuation area designated by the Japanese government. The aim of this study was to examine differences in the mental health status, workplace, living environment, and lifestyle of employees in the evacuation and non-evacuation areas. We also investigated factors related to their mental health status. Data for this cross-sectional study were collected from the questionnaire responses of 647 employees at three medium-sized manufacturing companies in the evacuation and non-evacuation areas. Through a cross-tabulation analysis, employees who worked at companies in the evacuation areas showed an increase in the duration of overtime work, work burden, and commute time, and had experienced separation from family members due to the radiation disaster and perceived radiation risks. The results of a multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that, even in a harsh workplace and living environment, being younger, participating regularly in physical activity, having a social network (Lubben Social Network Scale-6 ≤ 12), laughing frequently, and feeling satisfied with one's workplace and domestic life were significantly associated with maintaining a healthy mental health status after the disaster. These findings are applicable for workers' health management measures after disasters.
... Geen van de werkers die genazen van acute stralingsziekte vond ooit nog werk. Depressies, angstsyndromen, abortus provocatus, echtscheiding, lichamelijke verwaarlozing, alcoholisme en levercirrose, rookverslaving en sterfte aan hart-en vaatziekten kwamen verhoogd voor, zonder directe samenhang met de hoogte van de blootstelling aan straling.7,[16][17][18][19][20] De Oost-Europese overheden spreken van miljoenen slachtoffers met psychologische problemen; het gaat om tienduizenden werkers en omwonenden van Tsjernobyl waarvan enkele honderden meer dan verwacht overleden. ...
... Geen van de werkers die genazen van acute stralingsziekte vond ooit nog werk. Depressies, angstsyndromen, abortus provocatus, echtscheiding, lichamelijke verwaarlozing, alcoholisme en levercirrose, rookverslaving en sterfte aan hart-en vaatziekten kwamen verhoogd voor, zonder directe samenhang met de hoogte van de blootstelling aan straling.7,[16][17][18][19][20] De Oost-Europese overheden spreken van miljoenen slachtoffers met psychologische problemen; het gaat om tienduizenden werkers en omwonenden van Tsjernobyl waarvan enkele honderden meer dan verwacht overleden. ...
Article
Medical risks of radiation exaggerated; psychological risks underestimated. The discussion about atomic energy has become topical again following the nuclear accident in Fukushima. There is some argument about the gravity of medical and biological consequences of prolonged exposure to radiation. The risk of cancer following a low dose of radiation is usually estimated by linear extrapolation of the incidence of cancer among survivors of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The radiobiological linear-quadratic model (LQ-model) gives a more accurate description of observed data, is radiobiologically more plausible and is better supported by experimental and clinical data. On the basis of this model there is less risk of cancer being induced following radiation exposure. The gravest consequence of Chernobyl and Fukushima is not the medical and biological damage, but the psychological and economical impact on rescue workers and former inhabitants.
... Perhaps the most crucial limitation is that the early and most horrifying events unleashed by the accident were not directly experienced by the adolescents. However, they have been exposed to rumors and public concerns about their health throughout their lives [2,31]. A related limitation is that all three groups of adolescents and their mothers were exposed to stressors from the Chornobyl accident by virtue of living in Kyiv. ...
Article
Full-text available
Since the Chornobyl accident in 1986, the physical health of exposed children in Ukraine has been monitored, but their perceived health has not been studied. This study examines health perceptions of Ukrainian adolescents exposed to radioactive fallout in utero or as infants, and the epidemiologic and Chornobyl-related influences on self-reported health. We assessed three groups of 19-year olds in Kyiv: 262 evacuees from contaminated areas near the plant; 261 classmate controls; and 325 population-based controls. The evacuees and classmates were previously assessed at age 11. Structured interviews were conducted with the adolescents and their mothers (N = 766), followed by general physical examinations (N = 722) and blood tests (N = 707). Proportional odds logistic regression and multi-group path analysis were the major statistical tests. The examination and blood test results were similar across groups except for a significantly elevated rate of thyroid enlargement found by palpation in evacuees (17.8%) compared former classmates (8.7%) and population-based controls (8.0%). In addition, four evacuees and one population control had had a thyroidectomy. Compared to controls, the evacuees rated their health the least positively and reported more medically diagnosed illnesses during the 5 years preceding the interview, particularly thyroid disease, migraine headache, and vascular dystony. The consistent risk factors (p < 0.001) for these subjective health reports were evacuee status, female gender, multiple hospitalizations, and health risk perception regarding Chornobyl. All three groups of mothers rated their children's health more negatively than the adolescents themselves, and maternal ratings were uniquely associated with the adolescents' health reports in the adjusted models. In the longitudinal evacuee and classmate subsamples, path analysis showed that mothers' health ratings when the children were age 11 predicted their later evaluations which in turn were associated with the adolescent self-reports. The more negative self-evaluations of the evacuees were linked to a number of risk factors, including multiple hospitalizations, health risk perceptions, and epidemiologic risk factors. The increased rate of thyroid cancer and other diagnoses no doubt contributed to the evacuees' less positive subjective health. The strong effect of the mothers' perceptions argues in favor of developing risk communication programs for families rather than for mothers or adolescents as separate target groups.
Chapter
Full-text available
This chapter is an overview of neuropsychiatric and mental health research and consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe in children and adolescents. These effects derive from both biological effects of radiation exposure and psychosocial effects of trauma and displacement. With respect to radiological factors, several scenarios of radiation exposure related to children and adolescents will be discussed: (1) exposure in utero, (2) exposure in childhood and adolescence, and (3) particular overexposure of the thyroid to radiation and the subsequent incidence of thyroid cancer. Prenatal exposure has had more objective studies than other exposure types, but findings remain controversial. Among some of the children, the existing data testify to subtle signs of intellectual impairment that are reflected, for example, in a larger than the usual gap between verbal and nonverbal IQ indices. We then discuss the psychosocial effects of trauma and the research that shows children from contaminated territories have many signs of mental health problems, including anxiety, psychosomatic disturbances, and autonomic dysfunction (dysautonomia). After consideration of the mental health needs of children and adolescents following the radiation emergency of the Chernobyl catastrophe, we discuss possible strategies for improving the mental healthcare and psychiatric rehabilitation for these individuals.
Thesis
Full-text available
"Spaces of Chernobyl: Emptiness and Fullness, Absence and Presence" is a research project situated at the intersection of two discourses: the historically specific and the architectural. Underpinning and weaving its way through the report is a dialectic of spatial fullness and emptiness, of presence and absence, a theoretical framework that facilitates the development of a novel and layered perspective on the spaces and architectures of Chernobyl. Methodologically, these spaces are investigated through multi media representations available to an outside, Western European audience, including maps, photographic imagery, websites, written accounts and sound recordings. Representations are acknowledged as a valuable source of (mediated) knowledge and experience, and the report elucidates as much, if not more, about the representations themselves than the actual spaces they represent. In Section I, radiation, an immaterial danger that fills space but exists beyond our sensory capabilities, is discussed in terms of how it was geographically mapped after Chernobyl to make it (phenomenally and conceptually) present. Section 2 is an exploration of emptied architectures, spaces of former habitation evacuated of their inhabitants: the focus is on representations of the permanently abandoned city of Pripyat, mythologized as a dystopic space. Section 3 describes the phenomena of the empty space's new, resilient inhabitants: the reclaiming of space by nature the contaminated space reveals itself to be ecologically full. In Section 4, the Sarcophagus, the concrete and steel container that houses the ruined nuclear reactor, is discussed as a significant presence in the landscape, in terms of human activity and as a symbolic reminder of the Chernobyl disaster. In conclusion, general ramifications for architectural history and further questions are proposed, situating the research within wider debates on wasteland spaces, phenomenology and ocularcentnsm.
Article
Full-text available
The effect of a large scale oil spill disaster on the academic achievement and classroom behavior of children and adolescents who lived on the Galician coast (Spain) is studied from an ecological perspective. 430 participants divided into three age groups of 5, 10, and 15 years of age, were studied. The participants came from three areas differently affected by the disaster. Dependent variables were academic achievement and classroom behavior of the participants after the Prestige disaster. Degree of exposure and other protective or risk factors were investigated as well. Repeated measures ANOVA to assess the main effects of the oil spill and hierarchical regression analyses to assess the contribution of the protective/vulnerability factors were performed. The results indicate that the effects of the disaster were relatively scarce. Some protective factors accounted for a certain degree of variance of different schoolroom behaviors. These results point to the intervention of protective factors in the adaptation to the disaster.
Article
The Chernobyl Forum Report from the 20th anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster concluded that mental health effects were the most significant public health consequence of the accident. This paper provides an updated review of research on the psychological impact of the accident during the 25 year period since the catastrophe began. First responders and clean-up workers had the greatest exposure to radiation. Recent studies show that their rates of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder remain elevated two decades later. Very young children and those in utero who lived near the plant when it exploded or in severely contaminated areas have been the subject of considerable research, but the findings are inconsistent. Recent studies of prenatally exposed children conducted in Kiev, Norway and Finland point to specific neuropsychological and psychological impairments associated with radiation exposure, whereas other studies found no significant cognitive or mental health effects in exposed children grown up. General population studies report increased rates of poor self-rated health as well as clinical and subclinical depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Mothers of young children exposed to the disaster remain a high-risk group for these conditions, primarily due to lingering worries about the adverse health effects on their families. Thus, long-term mental health consequences continue to be a concern. The unmet need for mental health care in affected regions remains an important public health challenge 25 years later. Future research is needed that combines physical and mental health outcome measures to complete the clinical picture.
Article
Full-text available
Prenatally irradiated children (n = 544), who were born between 26 April 1986 and 26 February 1987, in regions of the Ukraine which were radioactively contaminated as a result of the Chernobyl disaster, their mothers and teachers have been examined with psychometric tests. The control group of relevant children (n = 759), their mothers and teachers, were living at the radioecological 'clear' regions (Kharkov and Kharkov Region). Further, we randomly selected 50 prenatally irradiated children whose mothers were evacuated from the Chernobyl exclusion zone and 50 age-and-gender-matched non-exposed children. At this phase clinical examinations, psychometric tests, computerized EEG, thyroid function assessment and dosimetric reconstruction were used. We found a significant increase in mental retardation (IQ < 70) and of borderline and low range IQ, as well as emotional and behavioral disorders and a decrease in high IQ (IQ > 110) in children irradiated in utero as a result of the Chernobyl disaster, in comparison with the controls. One important biological mechanism in the genesis of mental disorders in prenatally irradiated children is the radiation-induced malfunction of the thyroid-pituitary system with the effect threshold of 0.30 Sv of thyroid exposure dose. We hypothesize that the cerebral basis of mental disorders in the prenatally irradiated children is the malfunction of the left hemisphere limbic-reticular structures, particularly in those exposed at the most critical period of cerebrogenesis (8-25 weeks of gestation). The data obtained reveal mental disorders in prenatally irradiated children and obviously reflect developmental abnormalities of brain structure and function as a result of the interaction of prenatal and post-natal factors where it is possible to assume radiation effects on the developing brain. A follow-up study of the children irradiated in utero, who may be at risk for schizophrenia, is proposed because of its particular importance to clinical medicine and neuroscience.
Article
Full-text available
Results for 160 samples of disaster victims were coded as to sample type, disaster type, disaster location, outcomes and risk factors observed, and overall severity of impairment. In order of frequency, outcomes included specific psychological problems, nonspecific distress, health problems, chronic problems in living, resource loss, and problems specific to youth. Regression analyses showed that samples were more likely to be impaired if they were composed of youth rather than adults, were from developing rather than developed countries, or experienced mass violence (e.g., terrorism, shooting sprees) rather than natural or technological disasters. Most samples of rescue and recovery workers showed remarkable resilience. Within adult samples, more severe exposure, female gender, middle age, ethnic minority status, secondary stressors, prior psychiatric problems, and weak or deteriorating psychosocial resources most consistently increased the likelihood of adverse outcomes. Among youth, family factors were primary. Implications of the research for clinical practice and community intervention are discussed in a companion article (Norris, Friedman, and Watson, this volume).
Article
Full-text available
Experiencing life-threatening events often contributes to the onset of such psychiatric conditions as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children can develop PTSD; however, there is controversy over whether PTSD symptoms decrease or persist over time. To examine the long-term effects of surviving the 1966 Aberfan disaster in childhood. Survivors (n=41) were compared with controls (n=72) matched for age and background. All were interviewed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, measures of current health and social satisfaction, and the General Health Questionnaire. The survivor group also completed the Impact of Event Scale to assess current levels of PTSD. Nineteen (46%; 95% CI 31-61) survivors had had PTSD at some point since the disaster, compared with 12 (20%; 95% CI 10-30) controls (OR=3.38 (95% CI 1.40-8.47)). Of the survivors,12 (29%; 95% CI 15-43) met diagnostic criteria for current PTSD. Survivors were not at a significantly increased risk of anxiety, depression or substance misuse. Trauma in childhood can lead to PTSD, and PTSD symptoms can persist for as long as 33 years into adult life. Rates of other psychopathological disorders are not necessarily raised after life-threatening childhood trauma.
Article
This longitudinal study has followed seventy-six individuals from birth to age 30 using films of the mother-child interaction, psychoanalytically informed interviews of parents and children, and psycho diagnostic testing to assess how the quality of mothering a child receives in the first year of life contributes to his/her subsequent emotional well-being. The thirty-year follow-up of the now adult participants found that those who had received more effective care in infancy in terms of maternal empathy, consistency, control, thoughtfulness, affection and management of aggression had higher-level psychological defence mechanisms as adults than children receiving less effective nurturing-suggesting a process in which the children internalised their mothers' own defence mechanisms. Other measures at 30 years (Global Functioning, Erikson psychosocial attainment, mental representation of security of attachment to parents and presence or absence of a psychiatric diagnosis) did not achieve statistical significance. On the other hand, trauma after infancy and before age 18 provided the strongest correlation with adult outcome: consistent with the theory of the effect of cumulative trauma on psychic functioning, children experiencing two or more adverse circumstances had significantly lower levels of global functioning as adults than those spared multiple traumas. With case examples, the findings illustrate how the effect of pre-verbal experience attenuates over time, and how later influences overlie early life in the course of psychological structuralisation.
Article
This article discusses some dilemmas facing mental health and social service workers studying and providing services for children affected by political repression in South Africa. We argue that it is almost inevitable that progressive care providers are affected by an image of childhood as one of passive innocence and vulnerability, an image which is both outmoded in terms of modern developmental psychology and potentially destructive if the aim of intervention is empowerment. Practical experience with children affected by repression has led us to question commonly held views on the nature of psychological damage, and to recognise that our views on stress tend to be class-bound. Questions of partiality and credibility affect both practical work and the way that social service workers conceive of their role. Without an approach to the understanding of repression which takes account of underlying ideological factors, the social construction of illness and symptoms, and the historical antecedents of current abuses of children in South Africa, we are unable adequately to situate and evaluate critically the work we are doing. Even the focus on children as particular victims of apartheid needs to be thoroughly examined.
Article
This longitudinal study has followed seventy-six individuals from birth to age 30 using films of the mother-child interaction, psychoanalytically informed interviews of parents and children, and psychodiagnostic testing to assess how the quality of mothering a child receives in the first year of life contributes to his/her subsequent emotional well-being. The thirty-year follow-up of the now adult participants found that those who had received more effective care in infancy in terms of maternal empathy, consistency, control, thoughtfulness, affection and management of aggression had higher-level psychological defence mechanisms as adults than children receiving less effective nurturing--suggesting a process in which the children internalised their mothers' own defence mechanisms. Other measures at 30 years (Global Functioning, Erikson psychosocial attainment, mental representation of security of attachment to parents and presence or absence of a psychiatric diagnosis) did not achieve statistical significance. On the other hand, trauma after infancy and before age 18 provided the strongest correlation with adult outcome: consistent with the theory of the effect of cumulative trauma on psychic functioning, children experiencing two or more adverse circumstances had significantly lower levels of global functioning as adults than those spared multiple traumas. With case examples, the findings illustrate how the effect of pre-verbal experience attenuates over time, and how later influences overlie early life in the course of psychological structuralisation.
Article
Following the 1991 Gulf War a group of 94 children in Iraq were interviewed at 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years after the war. The group was exposed to the bombing of a shelter where more than 750 were killed. Selected items from different inventories, including the Impact of Event Scale (IES) assessed children's reactions. Results reveal that children continue to experience sadness and remain afraid of losing their family. Although there was no significant decline in intrusive and avoidance reactions as measured by the IES from 6 months to 1 year following the war, reactions were reduced 2 years after the war. However, the scores were still high, indicating that symptoms persist, with somewhat diminished intensity over time.
Article
Twenty years ago, the nuclear accident at Chernobyl exposed hundreds of thousands of people to radioactive fallout. We still have much to learn about its consequences, argue Dillwyn Williams and Keith Baverstock.
Article
Twenty years after the worst nuclear accident in history, arguments over the death toll of Chernobyl are as politically charged as ever, reports Mark Peplow.
Article
The mental health impact of Chernobyl is regarded by many experts as the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date. This paper reviews findings reported during the 20-y period after the accident regarding stress-related symptoms, effects on the developing brain, and cognitive and psychological impairments among highly exposed cleanup workers. With respect to stress-related symptoms, the rates of depressive, anxiety (especially post-traumatic stress symptoms), and medically unexplained physical symptoms are two to four times higher in Chernobyl-exposed populations compared to controls, although rates of diagnosable psychiatric disorders do not appear to be elevated. The symptom elevations were found as late as 11 y after the accident. Severity of symptomatology is significantly related to risk perceptions and being diagnosed with a Chernobyl-related health problem. In general, the morbidity patterns are consistent with the psychological impairments documented after other toxic events, such as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Three Mile Island accident, and Bhopal. With respect to the developing brain of exposed children who were in utero or very young when the accident occurred, the World Health Organization as well as American and Israeli researchers have found no significant associations of radiation exposure with cognitive impairments. Cognitive impairments in highly exposed cleanup workers have been reported by Ukrainian researchers, but these findings have not been independently confirmed. A seminal study found a significant excess death rate from suicide in cleanup workers, suggesting a sizable emotional toll. Given the magnitude and persistence of the adverse mental health effects on the general population, long-term educational and psychosocial interventions should be initiated that target primary care physicians, local researchers, and high risk populations, including participants in ongoing cohort studies.
Normative life events as risk factors in childhood Studies of psychosocial risk: the power of longitudinal data
  • J Dunn
Dunn J. Normative life events as risk factors in childhood. In: Rutter M, editor. Studies of psychosocial risk: the power of longitudinal data. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1988, p 227–34.
Psychological and perceived health effects of the Chernobyl disaster: a 20 year review. Paper presented at meetings of Available from FOCCUS, 5818 Anchorage Avenue
  • Bromet Ej
  • Jm Havenaar
  • Arlington
  • Va
  • Madison
Bromet EJ, Havenaar JM. Psychological and perceived health effects of the Chernobyl disaster: a 20 year review. Paper presented at meetings of NCRP & FOCCUS Arlington, VA and Madison: April 2006. Available from FOCCUS, 5818 Anchorage Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA.
Mental health in children irradiated at different stages of inter-uterine development as a result of Chernobyl disaster. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • L Yermolina
Yermolina LA, et al. Mental health in children irradiated at different stages of inter-uterine development as a result of Chernobyl disaster. In: Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians, 2nd International Conference, Chernobyl. Kiev: International Forum; 1998, p 231.
Video) 1989 ''Everything's going berserk Available from the author or Concord video and film Council
  • London
London: Pluto; 1989. 20. Barnett LE. (Video) 1989 ''Everything's going berserk''. Available from the author or Concord video and film Council, Rosehill Centre, 22 Hines Rd, Ipswich, IP39BG. 56 L. Barnett Downloaded by [University of Glasgow] at 11:35 18 December 2014
Chernobyl children's suffering. Guardian
  • L Walker
Walker L. Chernobyl children's suffering. Guardian 1995 September 31.
Quoted in: Peplow M. Counting the dead
  • L Vinton
Vinton L. Quoted in: Peplow M. Counting the dead. Nature 2006; 440: 982–3.
Development and adaptation patterns among populations affected by the Chernobyl disaster
  • Y Shvalb
Shvalb Y. Development and adaptation patterns among populations affected by the Chernobyl disaster. In: Berkovitz L, Patrick M, Berkovitz N, editors. Chernobyl: the event and the aftermath. Madison WI: Goblin Fern Press; 2001.
Current problems of ecological psychiatry. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • A Napreyenko
  • K Loganovsky
Napreyenko AK, Loganovsky KN. Current problems of ecological psychiatry. In: Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians, 2nd International Conference, Chernobyl. Kiev: International Forum; 1998;
The nuclear mentality: a psychosocial analysis of the arms race
  • Barnett Le Lee
Barnett LE, Lee I, editors. The nuclear mentality: a psychosocial analysis of the arms race.
Biological age assessment and Chernobyl disaster: cross sectional and longitudinal studies. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • M Akhaladze
Akhaladze MG. Biological age assessment and Chernobyl disaster: cross sectional and longitudinal studies. In: Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians, 2nd International Conference, Chernobyl. Kiev: International Forum; 1998, p 231.
Psychological support in family disorders caused by Chernobyl catastrophe. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. World Health Organization and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • S Krysenko
Krysenko S. Psychological support in family disorders caused by Chernobyl catastrophe.
Mental and behavioural disorders among children with thyroid cancer exposed following the Chernobyl accident: clinical and dosimetry analysis. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. WHO and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • S A Igumnov
  • V Drozdovitch
  • V Minenko
Review of: Klingman A, Cohen E. School-based multisystemic interventions for mass trauma
  • W Yule
Sociostress disorders in Chernobyl NPP accident victims. Long-term health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. World Health Organization and Association of Chernobyl Physicians
  • Y Alexandrovski
Psychological and perceived health effects of the Chernobyl disaster: a 20 year review. Paper presented at meetings of NCRP & FOCCUS. April2006, Arlington, VA and Madison. Available from FOCCUS, 5818 Anchorage Avenue
  • E Bromet
  • J M Havenaar