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Testosterone and Prolactin Are Associated with Emotional Responses to Infant Cries in New Fathers
Abstract
To determine the responsiveness of new fathers and non-fathers toward infant cues, we exposed fathers and non-fathers to infant cries and to control stimuli and we measured affective, heart-rate, and endocrine responses, including salivary testosterone and cortisol and plasma prolactin concentrations prior to and after cry presentations. We found that (1) fathers hearing the cry stimuli felt more sympathetic and more alert compared to groups who did not hear the cries or to non-fathers who heard the cries; (2) fathers and non-fathers with lower testosterone levels had higher sympathy and/or need to respond to the infant cries than fathers with higher testosterone levels; (3) fathers with higher, as opposed to lower, prolactin levels were also more alert and more positive in response to the cries; (4) fathers hearing the cry stimuli showed greater percentage increase in testosterone than fathers not hearing the cry stimuli; (5) experienced fathers hearing the cries showed a greater percentage increase in prolactin levels compared to first-time fathers or to any group of fathers hearing control stimuli; finally, (6) partial correlations with parity and experience entered as a covariates indicated that both experience and testosterone contributed to the variance in fathers' affective responses to infant cries. Taken together, these results indicate that, as with a number of other biparental species, human fathers are more responsive to infant cues than are non-fathers and fathers' responses to infant cues are related to both hormones and to caregiving experience.
... The findings show that testosterone level decreases before the childbirth and maintains low levels for several months after the childbirth (Bruno et al., 2020;Wynne-Edwards, 2001. It is suggested that lower testosterone in fathers is linked to more sensitive parenting (Fleming et al., 2002;Rohde et al., 2005;Wynne-Edwards, 2001). While findings suggest that both particularly low and particularly high testosterone are associated with increased depressive symptoms (Saxbe et al., 2017), the literature on the relationship between testosterone and paternal peripartum depression is limited. ...
... The oestrogen level begins to increase before the childbirth until the early postpartum period (Wynne- Edwards, 2001). Research suggests that the increase in oestrogen might enhance more active parenting behaviours and that dysregulation of paternal oestrogen may constitute an important risk factor for the onset of depressed mood in fathers (Bruno et al., 2020;Fleming et al., 2002). ...
... Additionally, increases in other hormones, such as cortisol, vasopressin, and prolactin, might be associated with less depressed mood (Fleming et al., 1999(Fleming et al., , 2002Kozorovitskiy et al., 2006, Scraff, 2019Storey et al., 2000). While there is extensive literature on biological risk factors for maternal depression, the knowledge on biological risk factors that are unique to fathers is still lacking. ...
Introduction
Paternal peripartum depression (P-PPD) is a serious and understudied public health problem associated with impaired family functioning and child development. The lack of recognition of P-PPD may result in limited access to both information and professional help.
Objective
The aim of the study was to review studies on paternal peripartum depression and to identify issues and questions where future research and theory formation are needed.
Methods
A literature search for systematic reviews, meta-analyses and primary studies was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, Medline, PsychInfo and Informit databases. Key results within the retrieved articles were summarised and integrated to address the review objectives.
Results
Based on the literature, the knowledge related to prevalence, screening, risk factorsunique to fathers, management strategies and outcomes of P-PPD is lacking. Currently, there is no consensual understanding of the definition of P-PPD and recommendations for dealing with P-PPD. Limited data were available regarding the barriers preventing fathers from accessing support systems.
Conclusion
Emerging issues that need to be addressed in future research include: P-PPD definition and pathogenetic pathways; prevention strategies and assessment tools; self-help seeking and engagement with interventions; the cost-effectiveness of P-PPD management; needs of health professionals; effect on child development, and public awareness. Future studies and clinical practice should account the complexities that may arise from the father’s perceptions of health care services. Results from this review highlights the critical issues on how to plan, provide and resource health services, to meet the health needs of fathers.
... De plus, les concentrations seraient corrélées dans le couple [16]. La DPP paternelle peut être liée au taux de testostérone qui décroît pendant la grossesse et la période du post-partum [16,17]. En effet, un taux bas de testostérone a été associé à la dépression [18]. ...
... Ce taux diminué de testostérone permettrait une baisse de l'agressivité et ainsi favoriserait l'instauration d'un lien d'attachement plus fort avec son enfant. Les pères et les hommes non-pères ayant un taux de testostérone plus bas éprouveraient un besoin plus fort de répondre aux pleurs des enfants que les pères ayant des taux de testostérone élevés [17]. De même, les pères avec un taux de prolactine élevé répondraient davantage aux pleurs de leurs enfants [17]. ...
... Les pères et les hommes non-pères ayant un taux de testostérone plus bas éprouveraient un besoin plus fort de répondre aux pleurs des enfants que les pères ayant des taux de testostérone élevés [17]. De même, les pères avec un taux de prolactine élevé répondraient davantage aux pleurs de leurs enfants [17]. De plus, les nouveaux pères ont des taux de cortisol plus élevés, quand ils entendent les pleurs des enfants, que les pères expérimentés [17]. ...
Résumé
Les directives anticipées en psychiatrie permettent aux patients d’exprimer par anticipation leurs demandes de soins. Elles ont pour dynamique de favoriser les relations aux soins, et donc, entre autres, de prévenir les rechutes des personnes présentant des troubles sévères et persistants tels que les troubles bipolaires. En période périnatale, les risques de rechutes sont particulièrement importants. Les directives anticipées en psychiatrie pourraient aider à définir le parcours de soins et donc favoriser la stabilité thymique des femmes ayant un trouble bipolaire en période périnatale et les bonnes conditions de développement du bébé.
... Fathers' oxytocin was also shown to increase in response to father-infant play (Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, et al., 2010;. Elsewhere, fathers' testosterone has been observed to increase in response to audio recordings of infant cries (Fleming et al., 2002), particularly in the early post-partum, which has been interpreted as a physiological response that may help increase paternal protectiveness (Storey et al., 2000; see also Roellke et al., 2019;van Anders et al., 2012). ...
... However, fathers' testosterone has been shown to acutely increase in response to recorded infant cries and this has been interpreted as a potentially protective response (Fleming et al., 2002;Storey et al., 2000; see also Roellke et al., 2019;van Anders et al., 2012). Fathers' first holding of their newborns following the birthing process, which can be challenging, is likely to be a warm, nurturing experience for TA B L E 4 Robust regression models predicting post-partum father-infant bonding from interactions between their hormone reactivity change scores during newborn holding . ...
... For example, fathers' basal testosterone did not significantly vary based on their number of children in studies in the U.S. and the Philippines(Gettler et al., 2015;Mascaro et al., 2014). However, in research focusing on fathers' hormone reactivity, experienced Canadian fathers showed greater cortisol and prolactin responses to recorded infant cries than first-time fathers(Fleming et al., 2002), while first-time Filipino fathers had larger short-term prolactin responses to father-toddler play(Gettler, McDade, Agustin et al., 2011). Past research specifically testing for links between oxytocin and paternal experience have also produced mixed results. ...
Little is known about human fathers’ physiology near infants’ births. This may represent a period during which paternal psychobiological axes are sensitive to fathers’ new experiences of interacting with their newborns and that can provide insights on how individual differences in fathers’ biology relate to post‐partum parenting. Drawing on a sample of men in South Bend, IN (U.S.), we report results from a longitudinal study of fathers’ oxytocin, cortisol, and testosterone (N = 211) responses to their first holding of their infants on the day of birth and men's reported caregiving and father‐infant bonding at 2–4 months post‐partum (N = 114). First‐time fathers’ oxytocin was higher following first holding of their newborns, compared to their pre‐holding levels. Contrasting with prior results, fathers’ percentage change in oxytocin did not differ based on skin‐to‐skin or standard holding. Drawing on psychobiological frameworks, we modeled the interactions for oxytocin reactivity with testosterone and cortisol reactivity, respectively, in predicting father‐infant outcomes months later. We found significant cross‐over interactions for (oxytocin × testosterone) in predicting fathers’ later post‐partum involvement and bonding. Specifically, we found that fathers whose testosterone declined during holding reported greater post‐partum play if their oxytocin increased, compared to fathers who experienced increases in both hormones. We also observed a similar non‐significant interaction for (oxytocin × cortisol) in predicting fathers’ post‐partum play. Fathers whose testosterone declined during holding also reported less involvement in direct caregiving and lower father‐infant bonding if their oxytocin decreased but greater direct care and bonding if their testosterone increased and oxytocin decreased. The results inform our understanding of the developmental time course of men's physiological responsiveness to father‐infant interaction and its relevance to later fathering behavior and family relationships.
... Hormonal changes have been detected in human fathers at the period surrounding the birth of their infants and during the first weeks of parenting in response to infant cry, physical contact, or father-newborn interactions, as seen in increases in cortisol (Kuo et al., 2018), prolactin (Fleming et al., 2002;Gordon et al., 2010c), and oxytocin (Gordon et al., 2010b). Comparable hormonal changes have been shown in bi-parental mammalian fathers (Bales & Saltzman, 2016) and, similar to other mammals, alterations in the father's neuroendocrine response occur hand-in-hand with the amount and intensity of caregiving and exposure to infant stimuli (Gettler, McDade, Agustin, et al., 2011;Gordon et al., 2010cGordon et al., , 2010aGray et al., 2007;Storey et al., 2011). ...
... Changes associated with childbirth have also been observed in the father's propensity for depression, with studies showing postpartum depression in new fathers (Ansari et al., 2021;Eddy et al., 2019;Paulson & Bazemore, 2010), heightened mental preoccupations regarding infant safety and distress signals, and reorganization of mental life to make room for the infant and the new attachment relationship (Leckman et al., , 2007. Similarly, new fathers show increased sensitivity to infant cry, both their own and general infant cry sounds, as reflected in neural, hormonal, and behavioral response (Fleming et al., 2002;Swain et al., 2004). Studies on the transition to parenthood also highlight the father's increased focus on providing for the family and protecting mother and child and this tendency is observed in cultures of vastly different approaches to family roles and childrearing practices (Feldman et al., 2001). ...
Fathers have been an important source of child endurance and prosperity since the dawn of civilization, promoting adaptation to social rules, defining cultural meaning systems, teaching daily living skills, and providing the material background against which children developed; still, the recent reformulation in the role of the father requires theory-building. Paternal caregiving is rare in mammals, occurring in 3-5% of species, expresses in multiple formats, and involves flexible neurobiological accommodations to ecological conditions and active caregiving. Here, we discuss father contribution to resilience across development. Our model proposes three tenets of resilience - plasticity, sociality, and meaning - and discussion focuses on father-specific contributions to each tenet at different developmental stages; newborn, infant, preschooler, child, and adolescent. Father's style of high arousal, energetic physicality, guided participation in daily skills, joint adventure, and conflict resolution promotes children's flexible approach and social competence within intimate bonds and social groups. By expanding children's interests, sharpening cognitions, tuning affect regulation, encouraging exploration, and accompanying the search for identity, fathers support the sense of meaning, enhancing the human-specific dimension of resilience. We end by highlighting pitfalls to paternal contribution, including absence, abuse, rigidity, expectations, and gender typing, and the need to formulate novel theories to accommodate the "involved dad."
... 2) Den oxytocin-påvirkede testosteron-aendring korrelerer med positiv fader-barn-interaktion, hvor der ses en højere grad af gestikulering, berøring og positiv affekt. Storey et al. (2000) og Fleming, Corter, Stallings & Steiner (2002) finder en signifikant sammenhaeng mellem testosteron-fald og faderlig omsorgsadfaerd, ansvarlighed og opmaerksomhed på barnets signaler. Der ses endda en sammenhaeng mellem maends laengerevarende erfaringer som omsorgspersoner og deres hormonelle forandringer i samvaeret med barnet (Fleming et al., 2002;Gordon, Zagoory-Sharon, Leckman, & Feldman, 2010a). ...
... Storey et al. (2000) og Fleming, Corter, Stallings & Steiner (2002) finder en signifikant sammenhaeng mellem testosteron-fald og faderlig omsorgsadfaerd, ansvarlighed og opmaerksomhed på barnets signaler. Der ses endda en sammenhaeng mellem maends laengerevarende erfaringer som omsorgspersoner og deres hormonelle forandringer i samvaeret med barnet (Fleming et al., 2002;Gordon, Zagoory-Sharon, Leckman, & Feldman, 2010a). ...
Denne artikel undersøger og diskuterer, hvordan Bowlbys tilknytningsteorikan revideres og udvikles ved at inkludere faderbarn-tilknytning. Hvad angår tilknytningsfigurer kritiseres teorienfor dens hierarkiske opfattelse af moder-barn-tilknytningen,hvor moderen anses for den vigtigste tilknytningsfigur.Som alternativ argumenteres der for, at multiple tilknytningertil mødre, faedre og andre omsorgspersoner er det typiske mønsterfor nutidens barn. Eksempelvis struktureret uafhaengigt afhinanden og/eller integreret i barnets sind. Nye post-Bowlbyepigenetiskeog -hormonelle forklaringsmodeller og empiripraesenteres, og banebrydende konsekvenser for teorien drages.I stedet for at tilknytningsfigurernes omsorgstrang påvirkesvia den klassiske evolutionaere påvirkningsvej, som Bowlbymente, peger nyere forskning på, at magtfulde epigenetiske herog nu-mekanismer er i spil.
... Moreover, the time spent on care-taking was negatively correlated with testosterone levels. In a laboratory study [30], new fathers with low serum testosterone levels showed empathic responses more strongly to the sounds of the infant's cry. These studies indicate a suppressive effect of circulating testosterone on paternal investment. ...
... During the late follicular to ovulatory phase, females seek to find sexual partner with "good genes" to bear offspring with the greatest chance of survival, which makes them prefer masculine features. Testosterone levels are often linked to poor parental investment in fathers [29,30]. Thus, it is a good strategy for females to mate with males with feminine morphology, from whom they can expect greater effort in parenting during the luteal phase. ...
Literature on psychological function of testosterone in humans has emphasized its association with such traits as aggressiveness and impulsivity. In addition, increasing number of studies have shown the linkage between testosterone level and individual difference in the strength of preference for other’s sexually dimorphic traits. According to theorists in the field of evolutionary psychology, the preference pattern for sexual dimorphisms had evolved as an adaptive mechanism to increase the odds of reproductive success. But, so far, there are few systematic syntheses of literatures to validate such evolutionary explanation from the perspective of androgenic function. This chapter aims to give an overview of the existing findings on the association between testosterone and preference pattern in humans and discuss their implications for evolutionary explanation of human attractiveness perception.
... Postnatally, both fathers and mothers have lower testosterone levels in general than nonparents (Barrett et al., 2013;Fleming et al., 2002;Grebe et al., 2019;Meijer et al., 2019) and lower testosterone levels are associated with better relationship quality in both men and women (Edelstein et al., 2017). In line with the Challenge hypothesis, Weisman et al. (2014) found that higher baseline testosterone is associated with lower paternal sensitivity (gaze, touch, infant-directed speech). ...
... In line with the Challenge hypothesis, Weisman et al. (2014) found that higher baseline testosterone is associated with lower paternal sensitivity (gaze, touch, infant-directed speech). Similarly, Fleming et al. (2002) observed that both fathers and nonfathers with lower testosterone levels expressed a higher need to respond to infant cries than men with higher testosterone levels. In women, higher salivary testosterone levels have been associated with their motivation to view cute infant faces (Hahn et al., 2015). ...
We investigated the impact of maternal status on hormonal reactivity and behavioral responses to an infant simulator in 117 women (54 primiparous, 63 nulliparous). The amount of affectionate touch and motherese were analyzed as behavioral measures of caregiving. Saliva was collected before and 10 min after interaction with the infant simulator to analyze oxytocin, testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol levels. Nulliparous women also provided information about their fertility motivation. Linear mixed models indicated that greater use of affectionate touch was associated with lower overall testosterone levels. Cortisol decreased in response to the interaction in both groups. In the primiparous group, the amount of affectionate touch associated inversely with cortisol levels, whereas in the nulliparous group such association was not found. Oxytocin or estradiol reactivity to the simulator did not differ between the groups, nor were these hormones associated with behavior. Higher fertility motivation in nulliparous women was related to more motherese, and lower testosterone levels. Our results indicate that the simulator elicits hormonal reactivity both in mothers and nonmothers, but the patterns of associations between caregiving behavior and hormonal levels may be partially different. These results encourage using the infant simulator to explore hormonal processes related to the transition to parenthood.
... Giving intranasal oxytocin to the father appears to increase his willingness to play [26]. 3. Higher prolactin levels (which increases when the infant cries or is more vulnerable and in need of care) [27,28]. 4. Increase of vasopressin (which in animals favors the territoriality and protection of the partner). ...
... Levels can be related to the interaction between father and child [25]. Experimentally administering vasopressin to the father promotes attention to virtual baby-related avatars and influences the neural and behavioral response to the baby's crying [29]. 5. Increase in the level of cortisol, a classic stress hormone (which increases in response to the baby's cry by intensifying attention to the newborn but which decreases in skin-to-skin contact) [23,27,30]. A higher prenatal level of cortisol, however, is predictive of a lower quality of postnatal parenting of the father [31]. ...
Nowadays, the functions and roles of the father are the consequence of a gradual transition from a "patriarchal" family to a contemporary family organization. New fathers today, are increasingly the point of reference of the mother, particularly during the perinatal period, and are ever more involved in the care of their offspring. The significant adjustments in the paternal functions are also accompanied by hormonal, neurobiological and psychological changes. Considering a gender-based approach, this chapter discussed the underlying mechanisms and the characteristics of perinatal affective disorders in fathers, by integrating empirical evidence from neurobiological and behavioral studies with anthropological and clinical observations. Perinatal psychological distress in men can be displayed, not only with traditional depressive-like symptoms, but rather through a wide array of other clinical manifestations (anxiety disorders, somatic complains, behavioral problems, and addictions) which can overlap or mask depressive symptoms, generating complex clinical pictures. Therefore, the definition of Paternal Perinatal Affective Disorders (PPAD) has been proposed to replace the term Paternal Perinatal Depression (PPND). Following this perspective, the chapter includes indications to implement effective prevention, screening and early diagnosis considering male expression of paternal perinatal distress. Implications for treatment are also discussed.
... Infant distress cries are an adaptation that elicit care from their caregivers (Soltis, 2004). In a study that examined the differences in response between fathers and non-fathers to infant cries, fathers who listened to infant cries felt more sympathetic towards the infant than non-fathers and had increased testosterone and prolactin whereas non-fathers did not (Fleming et al., 2002). Fathers show heightened testosterone responses towards infant crying compared to control sounds (Fleming et al., 2002). ...
... In a study that examined the differences in response between fathers and non-fathers to infant cries, fathers who listened to infant cries felt more sympathetic towards the infant than non-fathers and had increased testosterone and prolactin whereas non-fathers did not (Fleming et al., 2002). Fathers show heightened testosterone responses towards infant crying compared to control sounds (Fleming et al., 2002). After listening to an infant cry video, fathers who had increased testosterone had greater activation in the left caudate area of the brain (Kuo et al., 2012). ...
Common marmoset fathers are highly involved in care of their infants. However, variability exists in their response to infant behavior even in paternally experienced fathers. Using infant distress cries as a motivation test, we investigated: 1. the differences in paternally experienced fathers' motivation to search for the infant vocalization stimuli; 2. the relationship between a father's motivation to search for the source of the infant cries and testosterone levels; and 3. if there is a rapid steroidogenesis pathway leading to increased testosterone and estradiol in the peripheral circulation. Only 44% of the paternally experienced fathers showed a high frequency of searching for the source of the infant distress cries. Through the use of multisteroid analysis, we found high responsive fathers had significantly higher levels of progesterone and testosterone in response to infant distress cries compared to a control stimulus with progesterone and androstenedione correlating with testosterone, while no differences were seen in low responders. The frequency to search for the infant stimuli was positively correlated with higher testosterone compared to control vocal levels. These results suggest that searching for the source of infant cries represents a motivation behavior for fathers that is activated by testosterone and reflects rapid circulating testosterone.
... Giving intranasal oxytocin to the father appears to increase his willingness to play [26]. 3. Higher prolactin levels (which increases when the infant cries or is more vulnerable and in need of care) [27,28]. 4. Increase of vasopressin (which in animals favors the territoriality and protection of the partner). ...
... Levels can be related to the interaction between father and child [25]. Experimentally administering vasopressin to the father promotes attention to virtual baby-related avatars and influences the neural and behavioral response to the baby's crying [29]. 5. Increase in the level of cortisol, a classic stress hormone (which increases in response to the baby's cry by intensifying attention to the newborn but which decreases in skin-to-skin contact) [23,27,30]. A higher prenatal level of cortisol, however, is predictive of a lower quality of postnatal parenting of the father [31]. ...
Nowadays, the functions and roles of the father are the consequence of a gradual transition from a patriarchal family to a contemporary family organization. New fathers today are increasingly the point of reference of the mother, particularly during the perinatal period, and are ever more involved in the care of their offspring. The significant adjustments in the paternal functions are also accompanied by hormonal, neurobiological, and psychological changes. Considering a gender-based approach, this chapter discussed the underlying mechanisms and the characteristics of perinatal affective disorders in fathers, by integrating empirical evidence from neurobiological and behavioral studies with anthropological and clinical observations. Perinatal psychological distress in men can be displayed not only with traditional depressive-like symptoms, but rather through a wide array of other clinical manifestations (anxiety disorders, somatic complaints, behavioral problems, and addictions) which can overlap or mask depressive symptoms, generating complex clinical pictures. Therefore, the definition of paternal perinatal affective disorders (PPAD) has been proposed to replace the term paternal perinatal depression (PPND). Following this perspective, the chapter includes indications to implement effective prevention, screening, and early diagnosis considering male expression of paternal perinatal distress. Implications for treatment are also discussed.
... Additionally, lower T levels in fathers predicted greater child involvement (Kuo et al., 2018). Fathers with lower T levels are also more sympathetic to the sound of an infant crying (Fleming et al., 2002), and in fact, concentrations of T have actually been reported to decrease in response to infant crying, particularly when fathers are able to behaviorally respond to infant distress (Fleming et al., 2002;van Anders et al., 2012). In response to infant distress, the reduction in T concentrations is correlated with paternal sensitivity in assays of father-young infant interaction (Kuo et al., 2016). ...
... Additionally, lower T levels in fathers predicted greater child involvement (Kuo et al., 2018). Fathers with lower T levels are also more sympathetic to the sound of an infant crying (Fleming et al., 2002), and in fact, concentrations of T have actually been reported to decrease in response to infant crying, particularly when fathers are able to behaviorally respond to infant distress (Fleming et al., 2002;van Anders et al., 2012). In response to infant distress, the reduction in T concentrations is correlated with paternal sensitivity in assays of father-young infant interaction (Kuo et al., 2016). ...
Major life transitions often co-occur with significant fluctuations in hormones that modulate the central nervous system. These hormones enact neuroplastic mechanisms that prepare an organism to respond to novel environmental conditions and/or previously unencountered cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral demands. In this review, we will explore several examples of how hormones mediate neuroplastic changes in order to produce adaptive responses, particularly during transitions in life stages. First, we will explore hormonal influences on social recognition in both males and females as they transition to sexual maturity. Next, we will probe the role of hormones in mediating the transitions to motherhood and fatherhood, respectively. Finally, we will survey the long-term impact of reproductive experience on neuroplasticity in females, including potential protective effects and risk factors associated with reproductive experience in mid-life and beyond. Ultimately, a more complete understanding of how hormones influence neuroplasticity throughout the lifespan, beyond development, is necessary for understanding how individuals respond to life changes in adaptive ways.
... In the last decade, research has demonstrated that the male is on a natural biological evolution when caring for children, which is evidenced by hormonal and neurobiological changes that occur when fathers care for newborns (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7). These biological changes are related to increased levels of oxytocin (which favors empathic abilities, social activities, and willingness to play) (8,9), the decrease in testosterone and estradiol (which makes fathers more sensitive, less aggressive and better disposed toward newborn and mother) (10)(11)(12)(13), higher levels of prolactin (which increases when the baby cries or is more vulnerable and in need of care) (14,15), vasopressin (which in animals favors the territoriality and protection of the partner) and cortisol, a classic stress hormone (which intensifies attention toward the newborn, but which decreases during the "Skin to skin" contact) (8,14). A higher prenatal level of cortisol, however, is predictive of a lower quality of postnatal parenting of fathers (16). ...
... In the last decade, research has demonstrated that the male is on a natural biological evolution when caring for children, which is evidenced by hormonal and neurobiological changes that occur when fathers care for newborns (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7). These biological changes are related to increased levels of oxytocin (which favors empathic abilities, social activities, and willingness to play) (8,9), the decrease in testosterone and estradiol (which makes fathers more sensitive, less aggressive and better disposed toward newborn and mother) (10)(11)(12)(13), higher levels of prolactin (which increases when the baby cries or is more vulnerable and in need of care) (14,15), vasopressin (which in animals favors the territoriality and protection of the partner) and cortisol, a classic stress hormone (which intensifies attention toward the newborn, but which decreases during the "Skin to skin" contact) (8,14). A higher prenatal level of cortisol, however, is predictive of a lower quality of postnatal parenting of fathers (16). ...
Background: Most studies on parental reactions to a preterm birth and to hospitalization of the newborn in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) have involved mothers. However, emotional responses and behaviors of fathers are equally important. Usually, the father is the first to meet the preterm newborn, to find out information about baby's condition and to communicate to the mother and other family members. In this context he is often left alone and can show psychological difficulties including affective disorders such as depression or anxiety. This paper describes the role of fathers in the NICU, the best practices to support fathers, and to explain the role of a psychologist in the NICU staff. Considerations and suggestions are provided on the difficulties encountered to support parents, with a focus on the role of fathers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods and Discussion: Considering contemporary research data and following an attachment perspective, we analyze the role of the father of a preterm-born child in the relation with the partner and in newborn caring. Research has shown that involving fathers in newborn care in NICU and at home is essential not only because it promotes the father/son attachment relationship and has positive effects on the psychological and somatic development of the newborn, but also for the health of the mother and whole family.
Conclusion: Recommendations are provided to enhance the functions of fathers in the NICU, promote their involvement in the care of their infant, and interventions to prevent the manifestation of psychological suffering and/or perinatal affective disorders. The commitments of a psychologist in a NICU team are presented and require not only clinical skills, but also the ability to manage the emotional and relational difficulties of fathers, family and NICU staff. Considerations and suggestions are provided on the difficulties encountered by parents in the NICU during the COVID-19 pandemic.
... However, whether the role of testosterone in paternal care is that universal and straightforward is still debated (e.g., Marler, Bester-Meredith, & Trainor, 2003;Van Anders, 2013). For example, studies exploring men's testosterone reactivity to infant cries point to a variable and context-dependent role of testosterone (Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner, 2002;Roellke, Raiss, King, Lytel-Sternberg, & Zeifman, 2019;Van Anders, Tolman, & Volling, 2012; for a review see (Zilioli and Bird, 2017). In several studies, passively listening to infant cries lead to an increase in men's testosterone levels (e.g., Fleming et al., 2002;Van Anders et al., 2012). ...
... For example, studies exploring men's testosterone reactivity to infant cries point to a variable and context-dependent role of testosterone (Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner, 2002;Roellke, Raiss, King, Lytel-Sternberg, & Zeifman, 2019;Van Anders, Tolman, & Volling, 2012; for a review see (Zilioli and Bird, 2017). In several studies, passively listening to infant cries lead to an increase in men's testosterone levels (e.g., Fleming et al., 2002;Van Anders et al., 2012). By contrast, given the opportunity to sooth the crying infant in an infant doll paradigm, listening to baby cries was generally associated with decreases in testosterone levels (Van Anders et al., 2012). ...
The baby schema elicits care from potential caregivers. However, much of the research on the baby-schema is based on self-report only. To address this issue, we explored the effects of baby schema and child age on facial expressions (EMG), and eye-blink startle, in addition to self-reported liking and caring for 43 men and 48 women (39 parents). Further, basal testosterone was assessed. All groups responded with liking and caring to high baby schema, but only women also responded with more positive facial expressions. Caring and smiling towards infants compared to first graders depended on parenthood and testosterone levels. Basal testosterone levels were associated with overall reduced responsiveness to children in women and fathers, but positively in non-fathers. Whereas the baby schema overall lead to positive affect and caring, the scope of these responses and the processes underlying them, depended on gender, parenthood and hormonal status.
... Hormones In species in which male parenting is facultative, higher levels of testos terone are associated with a focus on mating effort, and lower levels of testosterone and higher levels of prolactin with a focus on parenting (e.g., Reed et al., 2006). Trade offs in men's focus on mating or parenting also appear to be reciprocally related to testosterone and prolactin (Delahunty, McKay, Noseworthy, & Storey, 2007;Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner, 2002;Gray, Parkin, & Samms-Vaughan, 2007). In North American samples, men in long-term committed relationships have lower testosterone levels than other men (Mazur & Michalek, 1998), consistent with the prediction that these men are allocating less effort to competing for mates (Gray, Kahlenberg, Barrett, Lipson, & Ellison, 2002). ...
... Cause and effect are not certain, however. Lower testosterone levels are associated with greater sensitivity to infant cries among men who are not fathers, suggesting that hormone levels may influence the tendency toward paternal investment (Fleming et al., 2002). It is also possible that the lower testosterone associated with a committed relationship bias men toward parenting, that men prone to parental investment are preferred as long-term partners, or some combination. ...
... Nell'ultimo decennio, ad esempio, la ricerca ha evidenziato anche nel maschio una naturale predisposizione biologica su base evoluzionistica a prendersi cura dei bambini, testimoniata da modificazioni ormonali e neurobiologiche che si manifestano quando il padre si occupa di un neonato (Abraham et al., 2014;Swain et al. 2014;Fisher et al., 2018;Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). Queste riguardano i livelli aumentati di ossitocina (che favoriscono le attività empatiche e sociali) (Cong et al., 2015;Abraham et al., 2016), la diminuzione di testosterone (che rende i padri più sensibili, meno aggressivi e meglio disposti nei confronti del neonato e della madre) (Weisman et al., 2014;Gettler et al., 2015;Saxbe et al., 2017), livelli più elevati di prolattina (che aumentano quando il neonato piange o è più vulnerabile e bisognoso di cure) (Fleming et al. 2002;Gettler, 2014) e di cortisolo (che intensificano l'attenzione verso il neonato, ma che diminuiscono nel contatto "pelle a pelle") (Fleming et al. 2002;Cong et al. 2015). Le aree e i circuiti cerebrali attivati quando ci si prende cura di un neonato sono gli stessi nell'uomo e nella donna e riguardano le funzioni cerebrali emozionali-empatiche e quelle socio-cognitive (Abraham et al., 2014;Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). ...
... Nell'ultimo decennio, ad esempio, la ricerca ha evidenziato anche nel maschio una naturale predisposizione biologica su base evoluzionistica a prendersi cura dei bambini, testimoniata da modificazioni ormonali e neurobiologiche che si manifestano quando il padre si occupa di un neonato (Abraham et al., 2014;Swain et al. 2014;Fisher et al., 2018;Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). Queste riguardano i livelli aumentati di ossitocina (che favoriscono le attività empatiche e sociali) (Cong et al., 2015;Abraham et al., 2016), la diminuzione di testosterone (che rende i padri più sensibili, meno aggressivi e meglio disposti nei confronti del neonato e della madre) (Weisman et al., 2014;Gettler et al., 2015;Saxbe et al., 2017), livelli più elevati di prolattina (che aumentano quando il neonato piange o è più vulnerabile e bisognoso di cure) (Fleming et al. 2002;Gettler, 2014) e di cortisolo (che intensificano l'attenzione verso il neonato, ma che diminuiscono nel contatto "pelle a pelle") (Fleming et al. 2002;Cong et al. 2015). Le aree e i circuiti cerebrali attivati quando ci si prende cura di un neonato sono gli stessi nell'uomo e nella donna e riguardano le funzioni cerebrali emozionali-empatiche e quelle socio-cognitive (Abraham et al., 2014;Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). ...
Psichiatria e Psicoterapia, 2020, 39 (1), 225-238. 1. Attaccamento familiare e funzione del padre nel periodo perinatale Negli ultimi anni la ricerca scientifica ha fornito prove molto convincenti sull'importanza del padre fin dai primi momenti della gravidanza e riguardo la sua influenza sul rapporto madre-bambino, sulla salute mentale della madre e sullo sviluppo psicofisico dei figli. L'attaccamento tra padre e figlio è risultato molto più importante di quanto non si pensasse, anche se a lungo sottovalutato, forse in conseguenza dell'atteggiamento tenuto dallo stesso Bowlby che ha concentrato la sua attenzione sulla funzione della madre come figura di attaccamento (Baldoni, 2016). Nell'ultimo decennio, ad esempio, la ricerca ha evidenziato anche nel maschio una naturale predisposizione biologica su base evoluzionistica a prendersi cura dei bambini, testimoniata da modificazioni ormonali e neurobiologiche che si manifestano quando il padre si occupa di un neonato (Abraham et al., 2014; Swain et al. 2014; Fisher et al., 2018; Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). Queste riguardano i livelli aumentati di ossitocina (che favoriscono le attività empatiche e sociali) (Cong et al., 2015; Abraham et al., 2016), la diminuzione di testosterone (che rende i padri più sensibili, meno aggressivi e meglio disposti nei confronti del neonato e della madre) (Weisman et al., 2014; Gettler et al., 2015; Saxbe et al., 2017), livelli più elevati di prolattina (che aumentano quando il neonato piange o è più vulnerabile e bisognoso di cure) (Fleming et al. 2002; Gettler, 2014) e di cortisolo (che intensificano l'attenzione verso il neonato, ma che diminuiscono nel contatto "pelle a pelle") (Fleming et al. 2002; Cong et al. 2015). Le aree e i circuiti cerebrali attivati quando ci si prende cura di un neonato sono gli stessi nell'uomo e nella donna e riguardano le funzioni cerebrali emozionali-empatiche e quelle socio-cognitive (Abraham et al., 2014; Feldman, Braun e Champagne, 2019). In modo simile alla madre, quindi, anche il padre è predisposto biologicamente a una relazione precoce di attaccamento e questa relazione svolge una funzione nello sviluppo psicofisico del figlio, come ormai testimoniato da molte ricerche. Nel corso del tempo, quando il bambino cresce, l'influenza dell'attaccamento tra padre-figlio è legata non solo alla capacità di parlargli e di rivolgersi a lui mettendosi nei suoi panni in termini di pensieri, emozioni, aspettative e bisogni (cioè di mentalizzarlo), ma anche al coinvolgerlo in attività fisiche, in azzuffate e in giochi competitivi (come quelli sportivi). Queste esperienze si riveleranno determinanti per lo sviluppo nei figli di una valida regolazione degli impulsi, particolarmente quelli aggressivi, e di capacità a propria volta mentalizzanti (riflessive). Li incoraggeranno, inoltre, nell'esplorazione dell'ambiente interno ed esterno alla famiglia (Grossmann et al., 2002, 2008; Di Folco e Zavattini, 2014). Le attività cerebrali emotive-empatiche del padre a un anno di vita del bambino, ad esempio, favoriscono lo sviluppo di una migliore regolazione emotiva del figlio a quattro anni, mentre quelle socio-cognitive favoriscono le capacità sociali (Abraham et al., 2016). Questo si rivelerà molto utile nella gestione dei rapporti extra-familiari (tra coetanei, con la scuola, con i primi partner sentimentali), in particolare durante l'adolescenza e il periodo di autonomizzazione dei figli. Sarebbe riduttivo, però, considerare il padre solo nel rapporto diretto con il figlio (lo stesso vale per la madre). Un suo compito fondamentale durante la gravidanza e l'infanzia della prole, infatti, è garantire le condizioni perché la relazione tra madre e bambino si sviluppi e si mantenga in modo
... Indeed, on the one hand, PPB has also been described as a marker of affective vulnerability and psychological readjustment in the immediate postpartum period [24,25], thus possibly also affecting fathers [22]. On the other hand, there is some evidence that paternal depression symptoms in the postpartum might be related to hormonal changes, including a decrease in testosterone, cortisol, estrogen, and prolactine levels [26][27][28][29][30]. These physiological changes could engender hypersensitivity towards the newborn in fathers [31]. ...
In this study we explored, in men, one of the most common postpartum syndromes in women: the postpartum blues. The aims of the study were (a) to evaluate the prevalence of postpartum blues in fathers, (b) to explore the sociodemographic and perinatal factors that may be associated with its intensity, and (c) to investigate the relationship between the intensity of blues symptoms and the quality of father-to-infant bonding. Three hundred and three French-speaking fathers living in France completed a sociodemographic and obstetrical questionnaire, the Maternity Blues Questionnaire, and the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire. The fathers were recruited from two maternity hospitals and a Child and Maternal Health Centre within 10 days of their infant's birth, or from online forums devoted to parenting. At least 17.5% of fathers experienced postpartum blues. A high level of education was associated with a higher level of postpartum blues symptoms. Dissatisfaction with the maternity care and significant father involvement during pregnancy and delivery predicted more severe postpartum blues symptoms. Symptoms of postpartum blues were positively correlated with impairment in the father-to-infant bond. This study lends support to the existence of postpartum blues among fathers and highlights its possible consequences on early father-infant relationships.
... These changes can help coordinate paternal behavior (Storey and Ziegler, 2015), initiating or maintaining parent-infant interactions. In humans and a range of other mammal species, changes in androgens, oxytocin, and prolactin are also associated with acute interactions such as playing, touching, and carrying infants (e.g., humans: Dixson and George, 1982;Feldman et al., 2010;Fleming et al., 2002;Gettler et al., 2011a;Gordon et al., 2017;Morris et al., 2021; common and Wied's marmosets: Mota and Sousa, 2000;Mota et al., 2006;Nunes et al., 2001). These hormone-behavior relationships suggest that paternal hormonal profiles in these species do not merely reflect their status as fathers, but also their performance and effectiveness as parents (Storey and Ziegler, 2015). ...
Fathers contribute substantially to infant care, yet the mechanisms facilitating paternal bonding and interactions with infants are not as well understood as they are in mothers. Several hormonal changes occur as males transition into parenthood, first in response to a partner's pregnancy, and next in response to interacting with the newborn. These changes may prepare fathers for parenting and help facilitate and maintain paternal care. Experimental studies with monkeys and rodents suggest that paternal care requires elevated estradiol levels, which increase when a male's partner is pregnant and are higher in fathers than non-fathers, but its role in the expression of paternal behaviors throughout infant development is unknown. To assess estradiol's role in paternal care, we analyzed the relationship between paternal estradiol metabolites and 1) offspring age, and 2) paternal care behavior (holding, carrying, huddling, playing, grooming), in wild, red-bellied lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer). We collected 146 fecal samples and 1597 h of behavioral data on 10 adult males who had newborn infants during the study. Estradiol metabolites increased four-fold in expectant males, and in new fathers they fluctuated and gradually decreased with time. Infant age, not paternal behavior, best predicted hormone levels in new fathers. These results suggest that hormonal changes occur in expectant males with facultative paternal care, but they do not support the hypothesis that estradiol is directly associated with the day-to-day expression of paternal care. Future research should explore estradiol's role in facilitating behaviors, including infant-directed attention and responsiveness, or preparing fathers for infant care generally.
... Masculine men are also more likely to commit infidelity, are more likely to get a divorce, and have more lifetime partners than do relatively feminine men (e.g., Pollet, van der Meij, Cobey, & Buunk, 2011). There is also evidence that these same individuals are poorer fathers; Fleming, Corter, Stallings, and Steiner (2002) found that men with higher testosterone levels were less emotionally responsive to the sound of infant cries, indicating that testosterone levels may impede parenting quality to a degree (see also Kuo et al., 2012Kuo et al., , 2016. ...
The circumstances under which infidelity occurs are numerous and several characteristics predict prior and future infidelity (e.g., religiosity, number of lifetime sexual partners, sociosexuality). Evolutionary perspectives inform why steroid hormones that vary across the ovulatory cycle have been associated with both women’s interest in extrapair partners and shifting expressions of men’s anti-infidelity behavior across their partner’s ovulatory cycle. This chapter provides an overview of the ovulatory cycle to establish the physiological basis of the hormonal changes that occur across it. It then provides requisite background on evolutionary theories of human mating, which provide a framework to predict when women should express the most interest in extrapair partnerships, how current partner qualities are associated with desire for extrapair mating opportunities, and the types of qualities women may be seeking in extrapair partners. Evidence that supports and contradicts these accounts of ovulatory phase-dependent changes in extrapair partnerships, as well as research on male anti-infidelity strategies, is then considered. Finally, the chapter reviews evidence that hormonal contraceptives may alter partner preference patterns established in naturally cycling women and their opposite-sex partners. It concludes by identifying current gaps in hormone-linked shifts in women’s infidelity desires and behavior, and makes recommendations for future research.
... For instance, people who have lower testosterone reported more nurturant caregiving behavior and parental involvement Kuo et al., 2018). People with lower testosterone are also more understanding and responsive caregivers: Fathers who have lower testosterone reported greater sympathy upon hearing infant cries and experience a greater need to respond to those cries (Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner, 2002). ...
Testosterone is a steroid hormone that is important for close relationship processes (Edelstein & Chin, 2018). For instance, people who are single tend to have higher levels of testosterone compared to people who are in committed relationships (Mazur & Michalek, 1998), suggesting that testosterone lowers once one is in a relationship. Furthermore, lower testosterone might be functional for maintaining relationships: Both men and women who have lower testosterone report higher relationship quality (e.g., Edelstein, van Anders, Chopik, Goldey, & Wardecker, 2014). However, only a few studies have examined associations between testosterone and relationship quality in individuals, let alone in a sample of couples, and studies that include couples tend to have relatively small, homogeneous samples. Thus it is not yet clear whether similar testosterone-relationship quality links and any dyadic associations between partners would be found in other samples. The first goal of this study was to examine whether people reported higher relationship quality when they or their partners have lower testosterone. I also examined how people with lower testosterone behaved towards their partners. Given that lower testosterone is thought to be associated with nurturance and caregiving (van Anders, Goldey, & Kuo, 2011), the second goal of this study was to examine whether people with lower testosterone would be more likely to behave in more nurturant (i.e., prosocial) ways towards their partner. Finally, the third goal was to test prosocial behavior as a potential mechanism underlying testosterone-relationship quality links. To address these questions, I analyzed data from 595 heterosexual couples drawn from three samples (college-aged couples, couples with children, and newlywed couples) that included baseline measures of salivary testosterone, self-reports of relationship quality, and partner interactions that were coded for prosocial behavior. I found that, in the college-aged couples and couples with children, women who had lower testosterone indeed reported higher relationship quality and showed more prosocial behavior. In contrast to expectations, men in the newlywed sample who had lower testosterone reported lower relationship quality and engaged in less prosocial behavior. I also found dyadic associations: In the college-aged couples and couples with children, women who had lower testosterone had partners who reported higher relationship quality; in the newlywed sample, women who had lower testosterone had partners who reported lower relationship quality. I did not find that prosocial behavior accounted for any testosterone-relationship quality links, suggesting that people with lower testosterone felt better about their relationships, but not necessarily because they or their partners were more behaving in more prosocial ways. I discuss potential explanations for discrepant findings across samples: The newlywed couples knew prior to their lab session that they would be discussing a disagreement, which could have caused anticipatory increases in testosterone. This study advances social neuroendocrinology work by assessing the extent to which previous testosterone-relationship quality findings replicate in larger samples of couples and contributes important new information about the associations between testosterone and prosocial behavior.
... During labour, both fathers and mothers show substantial increases in Cort [24], perhaps best illustrating the stress accompanying the birth of an infant, also for fathers. Similarly, Cort levels have been found to increase when fathers, particularly first-time fathers, were exposed to infant crying [32], but to decrease when they held their newborn [33] or interacted with their toddler [34]. High basal Cort levels in fathers during pregnancy were related to lower quality of parenting six weeks postnatally [35]. ...
How do hormonal levels in men change from pregnancy to after the birth of their firstborn child, and what is the role of oxytocin, alone or in interplay with other hormones, in explaining variance in their parenting quality? We explored in 73 first-time fathers the development of five hormones that have been suggested to play a role in parenting: oxytocin (OT), vasopressin (AVP), testosterone (T), oestradiol (E2) and cortisol (Cort). In an extended group of fathers ( N = 152) we examined associations with fathers’ behaviour with their 2-month-old infants. OT and E2 showed stability from the prenatal to the postnatal assessments, whereas AVP and T decreased significantly, and Cort decreased marginally. OT on its own or in interplay with other hormones was not related to paternal sensitivity. Using an exploratory approach, the interaction between T and E2 emerged as relevant for fathers’ sensitive parenting. Among fathers with high E2, high T was associated with lower sensitivity. Although we did not find evidence for the importance of OT as stand-alone hormone or in interplay with other hormones in this important phase in men's lives, the interaction between T and E2 in explaining variation in paternal behaviour is a promising hypothesis for further research.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.
... Giving birth is associated with a hormonal cascade in mothers resulting in high levels of OXT, AVP, catecholamines and also CORT (Bos, 2017). Furthermore, it is known that CORT increases in response to infant crying and predicts alertness to such crying (Fleming et al., 2002). Also, CORT administration upregulates hippocampal responses to infant cry sounds (Bos et al., 2014), while activation of the hippocampus has been related to maternal bonding (Musser et al., 2012). ...
Given that parental caregiving quality affects child development from birth onwards, it is important to detect parents who are at risk for low-quality caregiving as early as possible, preferably before or soon after birth. This study investigated whether cortisol (CORT) and testosterone (T) measured during the last trimester of pregnancy and six weeks postpartum were associated with observed caregiving quality at child age 3 in mothers (N = 63) and fathers (N = 45). CORT and T were measured during an interaction with a simulator infant (pregnancy) and their own infant (postpartum). In mothers, no associations were found with CORT and T during pregnancy, but higher postpartum CORT during a mother-infant interaction was related to higher caregiving quality during toddlerhood. In fathers, the association between T during pregnancy and caregiving quality in toddlerhood was more negative for fathers with low CORT. In contrast to mothers, higher postpartum CORT in fathers was associated with lower caregiving quality in toddlerhood. These findings proved robust after applying the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure to control for false discovery rate. Our findings indicate that CORT and T during the perinatal period can forecast caregiving quality in both mothers and fathers. Moreover, our results provided evidence for the dual-hormone hypothesis, but only in fathers. These findings contribute to our growing understanding on how endocrine measures explain individual differences in caregiving quality in mothers and fathers.
... Under this theory, women would prefer men of higher genetic quality for short-term sexual encounters, but prefer men with greater investment potential for long-term partnerships. Strategic Pluralism accounts for potential trade-offs between important partner characteristics because those men who possess indicators of high immune quality (e.g., masculinity; Foo et al., 2020) that could be passed on to potential offspring, thereby potentially increasing fitness, might make poorer quality partners (see, e.g., Pollet et al., 2011) and fathers (see Fleming et al., 2002;Kuo et al., 2012Kuo et al., , 2016. Mate choice should therefore reflect how women resolve this trade-off between genetic and investment benefits. ...
A great deal of research has focused on women’s attention to the physical and behavioral cues of potential romantic partners. Comparatively little work has investigated how these cues influence women’s sexual risk-taking. The current study investigated the relationship between women’s perceptions of various factors associated with their partner’s genetic or investment quality, and women’s risky sexual behaviors (i.e., behaviors that could lead to unintended pregnancy). This work also investigated the influence of estimated menstrual cycle phase using a between-subject design. Analyses failed to reveal menstrual cycle effects, but women reported a greater tendency to engage in risky sexual behaviors when they had more physically attractive partners and when they use sexual inducements as a mate retention strategy. Also, conception-risking behaviors occurred most often when the woman reported being more socially dominant and she reported being less upset by a potential pregnancy. Moreover, the self-reported likelihood that women would carry an unintended pregnancy to term with their partner was predicted by feeling less upset by a potential pregnancy, taking fewer social risks, religiosity, and by more favorable ratings of their partners’ masculinity. These results are discussed in line with evolutionary theory surrounding mate choice.
... To date, functional adaptations in fathers' brains have been demonstrated to come along with hormonal changes supporting caregiving behaviors (Storey et al., 2020). According to relevant evolutionary perspectives (Mascaro et al., 2013;Wingfield, 2017), a wide range of studies have shown a general decrease of Testosterone levels for fathers (Mascaro et al., 2014), with this being associated with an enhanced quality of nurturant behaviors (Fleming et al., 2002;Weisman et al., 2013;Gordon et al., 2017;Roellke et al., 2019). Conversely, high levels of Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Prolactin have been generally linked to a greater amount of paternal synchrony and responsiveness Atzil et al., 2012). ...
As fathering research has flourished, a growing body of studies has focused on behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms, respectively associated with caregiving sensitivity and responsiveness to infant stimuli. However, the association between these aspects and the key concept of paternal involvement in childcare (i.e., contribution in infant care in terms of time, availability, and responsibility) has been poorly investigated. The current work aims to systematically review the role of involvement in childcare on both neural activations and sensitive behaviors in fathers by examining (a) how paternal involvement has been measured and (b) whether paternal involvement has been associated with neurobiological activation and behavioral sensitive responses. Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed quantitative studies, concerning fathers responding to infant stimuli at neurobiological or behavioral level, and including a quantitative measurement of paternal involvement in childcare. A quality rating for each study has been performed based on the measurements adopted to assess paternal involvement. Of 2,529 articles, 27 studies were included. According to our quality rating, 10 out of 27 studies included fairly good-standard measures for measuring paternal involvement, whereas 17 studies used good-standard measures. In addition, 11 studies provided details of paternal involvement in the context of neurobiological responses to infant stimuli, whereas 16 addressed paternal sensitive behaviors. Overall, only 8 studies reported relevant findings about the relationship between paternal involvement and neurobiological responses or sensitive behaviors in fathers. The present study is the first systematically evaluating the scope of paternal involvement in the field of Paternal Brain and fathers' sensitive responsiveness research. When high-standard measures are used, paternal involvement seems to play a significant role in modulating both the hormonal and the neural pathways associated with paternal behaviors. Remarkably, the role of paternal engagement may underpin an adaptive nurturance that is not dependent on pregnancy and childbirth but on caregiving experience. A promising positive link between paternal involvement and behavioral sensitivity may be expected in further studies, which will need to corroborate our conclusion by adopting detailed and appropriate measures assessing paternal involvement. As a future line of research, the inclusion of gay fathers may be beneficial for the field.
... La testostérone est associée à certains comportements sexuels dimorphiques liés à l'accouplement (Young et al., 1959) et influence aussi le comportement paternel. Les pères humains subissent aussi des changements neuro-endocriniens et ceux qui ont des taux de testostérone plus bas sont plus fidèles à la mère et répondent mieux aux stimuli des nouveaunés qui pleurent (Fleming et al., 2002). Les effets de la testostérone prénatale sur le comportement sexuel ultérieur ont en premier lieu été démontrés chez des rongeurs (Young, 1959), puis chez de nombreuses espèces dont des primates non humains (Thornton, 2009). ...
... Is this also the case for the human baby cry? Numerous studies have shown that human infant cries affect the neural (Laurent & Ablow 2012;Venuti et al. 2012; Form follows function in human nonverbal vocalisations Messina et al. 2016;Bornstein et al. 2017;Witteman et al. 2019), physiological (Frodi et al. 1981;Boukydis & Burgess 1982;Fleming et al. 2002) cognitive and behavioural (Gustafson & Harris 1990;Bornstein et al. 1992;Yoo et al. 2019) responses of human adult listeners in ways that align with their ostensible function to elicit aid. For example, in a large comparative study, Bornstein et al. (1992) show cross-culturally shared behavioural responses among mothers exposed to the cries of their own babies, namely a shared tendency to pick-up and speak to the crying infants. ...
Until recently, human nonverbal vocalisations such as cries, laughs, screams,
moans, and groans have received relatively little attention in the human behavioural
sciences. Yet these vocal signals are ubiquitous in human social interactions across
diverse cultures and may represent a missing link between relatively fixed nonhuman
animal vocalisations and highly flexible human speech. Here, we review converging
empirical evidence that the acoustic structure (“forms”) of these affective
vocal sounds in humans reflect their evolved biological and social “functions”.
Human nonverbal vocalisations thus largely parallel the form-function mapping
found in the affective calls of other animals, such as play vocalisations, distress
cries, and aggressive roars, pointing to a homologous nonverbal vocal communication
system shared across mammals, including humans. We aim to illustrate how
this form-function approach can provide a solid framework for making predictions,
including about cross-species and cross-cultural universals or variations in the
production and perception of nonverbal vocalisations. Despite preliminary evidence
that key features of human vocalisations may indeed be universal and develop
reliably across distinct cultures, including small-scale societies, we emphasise the
important role of vocal control in their production among humans. Unlike most
other terrestrial mammals including nonhuman primates, people can flexibly
manipulate vocalisations, from conversational laughter and fake pleasure moans
to exaggerated roar-like threat displays. We discuss how human vocalisations may
thus represent the cradle of vocal control, a precursor of human speech articulation, providing important insight into the origins of speech. Finally, we describe how ground-breaking parametric synthesis technologies are now allowing researchers to create highly naturalistic, yet fully experimentally controlled vocal stimuli to directly test hypotheses about form and function in nonverbal vocalisations, opening the way for a new era of voice sciences.
... Interestingly, a number of studies have actually found that endogenous T concentrations of male participants rise during acute situations of infant distress (Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner, 2002;Storey, Noseworthy, Delahunty, Halfyard, & McKay, 2011;van Anders et al., 2012). Moreover, administration of T enhanced neural responses to infant cries among women, and this was accompanied by a less aversive experience (Bos et al., 2010). ...
Emotional reactivity to others’ distress is a vital prerequisite for a caring response. Testosterone, in contrast, is mostly associated with protection of personal dominance and decreased responsiveness to others’ needs. However, experimental work also indicates that rising testosterone levels in response to infant distress can potentially facilitate protection. We assessed the impact of testosterone administration on participants’ emotional reactivity to infants in distress, measuring their facial responses on the corrugator supercilii forehead muscle (‘frowning’) and the zygomaticus major (‘smiling’) as an index of emotional responses towards children. Moreover, we probed whether the effect of testosterone is moderated by participants’ self-reported nurturance and protective tendencies. Our preliminary results showed that testosterone not only increased emotional reactivity to empathy eliciting images of children, but that this increase was strongest in participants with strong protective tendencies. Our administration study is the first to link testosterone to infant protection.
... Fathers with higher basal salivary testosterone levels show more neural activation to infant cries which may indicate hyperreactivity [29]. They seem less sympathetic to infant cries and feel less need to respond to them [22], although increases in salivary testosterone may also signal a readiness to respond to infant crying [55]. High testosterone has been associated with low impulse control and higher levels of aggression in general (e.g., [59,60]), suggesting that parents with higher testosterone levels may tend to respond more harshly to infant signals. ...
Parents' ability to appropriately respond to infant crying is essential for parental care and has been found to relate to parents' own childhood experiences. Additionally, childhood experiences can affect endocrine factors, which may subsequently affect behavior. In the current study, preregistered on https://osf.io/hwgtu, we examined in expectant and new fathers (N = 152) associations between experiences of maltreatment in their own childhood, hair cortisol and testosterone concentrations and their ability to modulate handgrip force when exposed to infant crying. Cortisol and testosterone were quantified from the 1cm of hair most proximal to the scalp using Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Participants were asked to squeeze a handgrip dynamometer at full and half strength while listening to infant cries and control sounds. Results indicated that fathers who experienced more childhood maltreatment used more excessive handgrip force during infant cry sounds. Hair cortisol and testosterone were not related to either experienced childhood maltreatment or handgrip strength modulation. These findings confirm that fathers’ early experiences of maltreatment reduce their ability to modulate their behavioral responses during infant cries, but suggest that hair cortisol and testosterone concentrations do not identify the underlying mechanism of this association.
... Our findings suggest that fathers may start gaining weight as early as the first few months of fatherhood but that weight gain may be fluctuating over the first year after birth. Proposed by others, potential mechanisms that contribute to fathers' weight gain over the parenthood transition period might include hormonal changes (e.g., a reduction in testosterone and an increase in prolactin) [35,36] and disruptions of health behaviors, such as those related to sleep, diet, and physical activity [2]. In comparison to prior studies, fathers in our study were older, had a higher baseline BMI, and had higher levels of education and income. ...
Background:
While research has examined prenatal to postnatal changes in women's weight, sleep, and diet, much less is known about these changes among fathers.
Purpose:
This study aimed to (a) examine changes in fathers' body mass index (BMI), sleep, and diet from 1 month before birth to 5-6 months following birth, and from 5-6 months to 11-12 months following birth and (b) explore the moderating roles of parenthood experience and coparenting support.
Methods:
169 fathers (mean age 35.5 years, 58.9% White) participated. Fathers completed an intake survey shortly after their infant's birth to recall their height and weight, nighttime sleep hours, fruit and vegetable intake, soda intake, and fast food intake for the month prior to birth. When their child was 6 and 12 months old, fathers reported their weight, sleep, and diet again for the past 4 weeks (i.e., 4 week periods spanning 5-6 months and 11-12 months following birth). Generalized estimating equations were used to answer our research questions.
Results:
Fathers reported higher BMI (Δ = 0.22 kg/m2; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.06, 0.38; p = .008) and less nighttime sleep duration (Δ = -0.21 hr; 95% CI = -0.38, -0.05; p = .012) at 5-6 months following birth compared to 1 month prior to birth. Fathers' diet remained stable over the three timepoints. No evidence was found to support the moderating roles of parenthood experience and coparenting support on fathers' weight and behavior changes.
Conclusions:
5-6 months following birth may be an important point of intervention for fathers to promote a return to prebirth BMI and sleep levels.
Bu çalışmada, çocuğu okul öncesi eğitime devam eden evli ve boşanmış babalarının çocuk sahibi olmaya yönelik görüşlerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma nitel araştırma yöntemi ile yürütülmüştür. Katılımcılar, amaçlı örnekleme yöntemine göre belirlenmiş; çocuğu Ankara ilinde Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı’na bağlı resmi okul öncesi eğitime devam eden 6 evli ve 6 boşanmış babadan oluşmaktadır. Veriler, araştırmacı tarafından babalara hazırlanan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Görüşmelerden elde edilen veriler, içerik analizi yöntemiyle çözümlenmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucunda, boşanmış babaların çocuk sahibi olmaya ilişkin duygu ve görüşlerinin evli olan babalara göre çeşitlilik gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Boşanmış babaların görüşlerinde, evli olan babalara kıyasla daha fazla korku, endişe, üzüntü ve kızgınlık gibi olumsuz duyguları yansıtan ifadeleri görülmüştür. Bu araştırma boşanmanın, babanın çocuklarıyla ilgili duygularını, ilişkilerini ve çocuklarına yaklaşımlarını olumsuz yönde etkilediğini göstermektedir. Çocuğun gelişiminde ve hayatında anneler kadar önemli olan babalar da boşanma sonrasında ebeveyn- çocuk ilişkisine yönelik eğitim ve projelerle desteklenebilir.
Despite the important contributions that fathers make to parenting, the neurobiological underpinnings of men's adaptation to parenthood are still not well understood. The current study focuses on prolactin, a hormone that has been extensively linked with reproduction, lactation, and parental behavior in mothers. There is preliminary evidence that prolactin may also reflect the transition to sensitive fatherhood. We sampled prolactin in 91 first-time expectant fathers who participated in a laboratory visit along with their pregnant partners. Fathers' prolactin levels were correlated with their partners' prolactin levels. Men's prolactin levels during their partner's pregnancy were associated with their self-reported antenatal bonding to the unborn infant. Prenatal prolactin levels in fathers also predicted more positive attitudes toward fatherhood at three months postpartum, including lower parenting stress, greater enjoyment of the infant, and a more attunement-oriented parenting style. Within a smaller sample of 32 men who participated in MRI scanning before and after their child's birth, prenatal prolactin also predicted greater reductions in grey matter volume in the left posterior cingulate, left insula, and left nucleus accumbens. In conclusion, men's prenatal prolactin may reflect their perceptions of fatherhood and changes to their perinatal brain structure.
Parenting induces many neurological and behavioral changes that enable parents to rear offspring. Vasopressin plays an important role in this process via its effects on cognition, affect, and neuroplasticity, and in some cases, via interactions with decreased parental androgens. Thus far, the role of these hormones has been primarily studied in rodents. To address this gap, we explored vasopressin receptors and androgens in titi monkeys, a pair-bonding and biparental primate species. In Studies 1 and 2, we used receptor autoradiography to correlate arginine vasopressin receptor 1a (AVPR1a) binding in the hippocampus (Study 1, n = 10) and the rest of the forebrain (Study 2, n = 23) with parental status, parental experience, parity, infant carrying, and pair affiliation. We found that parents exhibited lower AVPR1a binding than non-parents throughout most brain regions assessed, with especially strong effects in the hippocampus (β = -.61), superior colliculus (β = -.88), lateral septum (β = -.35), and medial preoptic area (β = -.29). The other measures of parental experience also tended to be negatively associated with AVPR1a binding across different brain regions. In Study 3 (n = 44), we compared pre- and postpartum urinary androgen levels in parents and non-parents and found that mothers exhibited a sustained androgen decrease across 3-4 months postpartum (relative to 3 months prepartum; β ranged from -.72 to -.62 for different comparisons). For males, we found that multiparous fathers exhibited decreased androgen levels at 1-2 weeks postpartum (β = -.25) and at 3-4 months postpartum (β = -.40) compared to the prepartum, indicating both immediate and long-term reductions with subsequent paternal experience. Together, the results of this study suggest that decreases in AVPR1a binding and circulating androgens are associated with parental behavior and physiology in titi monkeys.
The aim of this contribution is to attempt to understand the adaptive functions of father-child rough-and-tumble play (RTP) in humans. We first present a synthesis of the known proximate and ultimate mechanisms of peer-peer RTP in mammals and compare human parent-child RTP with peer-peer RTP. Next, we examine the possible biological adaptive functions of father-child RTP in humans, by comparing paternal behavior in humans versus biparental animal species, in light of the activation relationship theory and the neurobiological basis of fathering. Analysis of analogies reveals that the endocrine profile of fathers is highly variable across species, compared to that of mothers. This can be interpreted as fathers' evolutionary adjustment to specific environmental conditions affecting the care of the young. Given the high unpredictability and risk-taking features of RTP, we conclude that human adult-child RTP appears to have a biological adaptive function, one of 'opening to the world'.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Depression is a general and treatable mood disorder. 18,000 children are born prematurely in the Nordic
countries while 12.9 million worldwide this is mostly due to premature birth. Premature birth is linked to multiple births,
vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, and polyhydramnios or oligohydramnios. It happens when maternal stress during
pregnancy. Intrauterine infection causes the immune system to become activated, which can lead to preterm birth.
There are two types of depression. First one is antepartum depression. The term "antepartum" refers to the period
preceding childbirth. The second one is postpartum depression, which means depression after birth. The other types
are maternal depression and paternal depression. Women are more at risk to depression during pregnancy, as well
as in the weeks and months following childbirth. Changes in brain chemistry or hormones and genes can play major
role in depression. Lack of social is also factor to enhance the depression. Domestic violence and abuse history are
significant risk factors for depression and anxiety. It can be treated if these SOPs are followed like prenatal care,
a doctor, psychologist, social worker, consultant, or therapist may be involved, counselling, such as CBT and IPT,
and support groups are examples of treatment options. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a treatment that involves
sending an electric current through the brain. You should not begin or quit taking any medication on your own. It
should stop domestic violence, and all other causes of pregnancy depression. Hence there is a big necessity of these
instructions to stop the pregnancy complexities.
The tend and befriend theory characterizes a social response to stress that aligns specifically with female physiology and behavioral patterns. Tending behaviors include caring for and protecting offspring from harm, while befriending behaviors create and maintain social networks for purposes of protection and support. On a biological level, sex differences in stress responding patterns are attributed to the much larger role oxytocin plays in the female stress response compared to that observed in males. Additionally, unlike the males of most mammalian species, females are often required to protect themselves from harm in addition to caring for immature young. In order to ensure species survival, females must respond to stress in such a way that does not put offspring at risk. Finally, tending and befriending has positive consequences on the physical and mental health of both female parents and their offspring. The present chapter will discuss the origins of tend and befriend theory as well as the biological, evolutionary, and psychosocial aspects and implications of this pattern of stress responding observed in the female sex.KeywordsTend and befriendFight or flightSympathetic nervous system (SNS)Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Allostasis/allostatic loadOxytocinOpioidsTending response patternBefriending response patternCortisolSecure attachment
Neben Frauen erleben auch Männer die Schwangerschaft und Geburt eines Kindes als Phase des Umbruchs. Dadurch können Sorgen und Ängste entstehen. Studien zufolge sind ca. 5–10% der Väter von einer peripartalen Depression betroffen. Da sich diese ebenso wie eine Depression der Mutter negativ auf die Entwicklung des Kindes auswirken kann, ist es wichtig, die Erkrankung frühzeitig zu diagnostizieren und zu behandeln. Durch ihre Nähe zu den Familien, spielen Hebammen bei der Erkennung eine wichtige Rolle.
Background
Hearing loss leads to impairments in communication, social interactions, and cognitive functions. This renders early treatment particularly important. A causal therapy is not yet available. Human and animal studies have shown that certain hormones can have a positive effect on hearing.Objective
This review provides an overview of the effects of various hormones on hearing and describes the potential benefit for future therapeutic approaches.Materials and methodsA systematic literature review of reviews dealing with the effects of various hormones on hearing in humans and animals published in PubMed between 2015 and 2020 was conducted.ResultsHormones may mediate antiapoptotic effects on structure-relevant cells of the cochlea and auditory pathway, and may influence hair cell functionality or the electrolyte balance of the endo- and perilymph. Current research focuses on glucocorticoids; the mineral corticoid aldosterone; the sex hormones estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone; the growth hormones GH (growth hormone) and IGF‑1 (insulin-like growth factor 1); thyroid hormones; and insulin. Study results are still inconsistent at this time, but various hormones appear to represent a possible future treatment option for acute hearing loss. Long-term hormone treatment, which would be necessary particularly in the case of age-related hearing loss, does not currently represent a sensible course of action due to the side effect profile of the systemic treatment/lack of practicable topical application options.Conclusion
The mode of action of hormones is complex. Whether they can be used in the future for individualized treatment of patients with acute hearing impairment requires further investigation.
Men's health has the potential to be influenced by the transition to fatherhood. This chapter aims to present a concise overview of current research findings around paternal depression in the perinatal period. Focusing on fathers’ emotional well-being from pregnancy until 24 months is crucial for them, as well as for their entire family; specifically, when their partners also experience mental health difficulties. This chapter includes men from Western cultures in a heterosexual relationship with the child’s mother. However, we consider, albeit briefly, some of the diverse contexts in which children are raised and the implications when fathers experience depression. The chapter incorporates epidemiological aspects of paternal perinatal depression, including, prevalence (a discussion on the varying rates of paternal perinatal depression), symptomatology assessment (a consideration of available assessment tools), as well as the social, genetic, biological, and familial risk factors that are implicated. Also included, are the consequences of perinatal depression for fathers (for example, difficulties to meet obligations at home and at work, lack of interest, exhaustion, stress, anxiety, and in some cases an increased suicide risk). Apart from the mental health difficulties that fathers may experience, potential influences on the mental health and well-being of the mother, the offspring and other siblings are also considered. Furthermore, both direct (for example, via parenting) and indirect (for example, via couple functioning) mechanisms of risk transmission are examined. Finally, the available non-pharmacological treatment options that are particularly salient in the perinatal period – targeting both the father and his family are discussed. The chapter concludes with future research directions.
Human fathers often form strong attachments to their infants that contribute to positive developmental outcomes. However, fathers are also the most common perpetrators of infant abuse, and infant crying is a known trigger. Research on parental brain responses to infant crying have typically employed passive listening paradigms. However, parents usually engage with crying infants. Therefore, we examined the neural responses of 20 new fathers to infant cries both while passively listening, and while actively attempting to console the infant by selecting soothing strategies in a video game format. Compared with passive listening, active responding robustly activated brain regions involved in movement, empathy and approach motivation, and deactivated regions involved in stress and anxiety. Fathers reporting more frustration had less activation in basal forebrain areas and in brain areas involved with emotion regulation (e.g., prefrontal cortex and the supplementary motor area). Successful consolation of infant crying activated regions involved in both action‐outcome learning and parental caregiving (anterior and posterior cingulate cortex). Overall, results suggest that active responding to infant cries amplifies activation in many brain areas typically activated during passive listening. Additionally, paternal frustration during active responding may involve a combination of low approach motivation and low engagement of emotion regulation.
This longitudinal study investigated changes in the content of mood and in mood levels of primiparous mothers. Interview responses were collected from a core sample of 32 women during pregnancy and at 1, 3, and 16 months postpartum. Correctional analyses of interview mood scores across time indicated consistency in mothers' moods from one point to the next, although mothers felt considerably better at 3 and 16 months postpartum than at earlier time points. Despite this overall improvement in mood, mothers showed different temporal patterns in relation to the different referent categories. It was found that positive feelings about the infant increased linearly, whereas positive feelings about the spouse showed a
U-shaped function, with least positive feelings experienced during the 1st and 3rd postpartum months. Self-directed affects remained relatively constant throughout the 16-month postpartum period. The results are discussed in terms of changes over time that occur during the transition to parenthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
focuses on the interaction between psychological and physiological influences in the expression of maternal behavior in human mothers / examine the premise that research in nonhuman maternal behavior provides a useful approach to the examination of psychobiological influences in human maternal behavior / seeks to uncover the sensory, hormonal, and neural factors that regulate parental behavior in human beings with particular emphasis on mother–infant interactions
some preliminary considerations [the role of animal models in understanding human mothering, defining human maternal behavior: cultural relativity and universality, methodology] / development of maternal behavior across pregnancy and parturition [hormonal correlates of maternal behavior during pregnancy and postpartum, emotion, interactions between hormonal and sensory effects: response to infant cues] / maintenance and retention of maternal behavior: short-term experience and sensory effects [effects of postpartum experiences in the 1st 3 mo, adoption and separation, prematurity, sensory mechanisms] / parity and gender as moderators of perinatal experience and sensory effects [parity effects on maternal behavior, onset and maintenance of parental behavior in fathers] / role of the brain in human maternal behavior / rat and human data on maternal behavior contrasted (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Self-report data were obtained from a middle-income sample of first-time mothers during pregnancy and at 1 and 3 months postpartum, and behavioral interactions between the mother and her infant were observed at 3 days and 1, 3, and 16 months postpartum. The main analyses revealed that pregnancy and postpartum mood states together explain a high proportion of the variance in mothers' maternal attitudes during the postpartum, although postpartum mood has the greater predictive power. Additionally, prior experience with children is significantly associated with maternal attitudes at all time points. Moreover, at both 1 and 3 months postpartum, depressed mothers, relative to nondepressed mothers, exhibit fewer affectionate contact behaviors toward their infants and are less likely to respond to infant vocalizations by vocalizing themselves, and, at 3 months, a higher proportion of the depressed mothers had started bottle-feeding their infants. Finally, differences in maternal behavior between depressed and nondepressed mothers during the early postpartum period were no longer apparent at 16 months postpartum. The implications of these findings are discussed with particular reference to the interrelations between prior child-care experience, mood, and maternal responsiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In some mammals, both sexes exhibit a high degree of parental behaviour. This is the case in many primates which form pair bonds, such as marmosets, tamarins, owl monkeys and siamangs1-4. It is not known if any endocrine changes occur in male mammals which show parental behaviour. We report here that in male common marmosets carrying their twin offspring, plasma prolactin levels are five times higher, on average, than in males without infants. There are, however, no consistent differences in levels of plasma testosterone. Increases in prolactin are most pronounced during periods when males (rather than other group members) are carrying their offspring. This suggests that physical contact may be important in producing the effects. Although prolactin has been implicated in the control of maternal behaviour in avian and mammalian species5-8 this is the first demonstration that prolactin is elevated during parental behaviour in a male mammal.
Two studies were undertaken (1) to determine whether human mothers undergo a change in maternal responsiveness during pregnancy before the birth of the baby, as shown for other mammalian species, and (2) to establish whether a relation exists between changes in maternal feelings and attitudes and changes in hormones. In both studies prospective first-time mothers completed an extensive set of questionnaires, covering a broad range of issues, including a set of 76- to 100-item likert scales concerning attitudes toward infants, childbirth, pregnancy, caretaking, and other interpersonal relationships. In the first cross-sectional study, mothers completed the questionnaires at one of seven time points, ranging from prior to pregnancy to 3 months postpartum. In the longitudinal study, questionnaires were completed repeatedly throughout this same time period. In addition, blood was taken at these same time points and assayed by RIA for plasma concentrations of the steroids, estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and cortisol. The primary findings are (1) feelings of nurturance grow during pregnancy and from pregnancy to postpartum; in the cross-sectional study, for most of the factors relating to infants or mothering, pregnancy and postpartum responses were more positive than prepregnancy responses; in the longitudinal study, many of these factors also showed elevations across pregnancy itself, as well as further elevations with the birth of the infant. (2) Pregnancy hormones were not related to the growth of attachment to the infant across pregnancy. (3) However, the pattern of change in the ratio of estradiol to progesterone from early to late pregnancy was related to postpartum attachment feelings. (4) Finally, hormonal correlates of attachment feelings may reflect effects both on feelings of nurturance directly and, indirectly, on mothers' feelings of well-being.
Testosterone (T) mediates a trade-off, or negative correlation, between paternal behavior and aggression in several seasonally breeding avian species. However, the presence or absence of a T-mediated trade-off in mammals has received less attention. We examined the relationship between paternal behavior and territorial aggression in the biparental California mouse, Peromyscus californicus. In contrast to seasonally breeding birds, T maintains paternal behavior in this year-round territorial species. Castration reduced paternal behavior, whereas T replacement maintained high levels of paternal behavior. We hypothesize that T is aromatized in the brain to estradiol, which in turn stimulates paternal behavior. In contrast to paternal behavior, aggressive behavior was not reduced by castration. Interestingly, only sham males showed an increase in aggression across three aggression tests, while no change was detected in castrated or T-replacement males. Overall, trade-offs between aggression and paternal behavior do not appear to occur in this species. Measures of paternal behavior and aggression in a correlational experiment were actually positively correlated. Our data suggest that it may be worth reexamining the role that T plays in regulating mammalian paternal behavior.
Nest attendance by male and female meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus , was monitored in 24-h recordings. Fathers housed with mothers and their pups, but with no other adults present, were in the natal nest for much of the observation period. When unfamiliar males were present, instead of, or in addition to, the fathers, females prevented the unfamiliar males from entering the natal nest, and showed reduced tolerance to the fathers' attempts at nest entry. Females housed with unfamiliar males were the only voles to spend more time in the nest at night than during the day, which may be related to the only instance of infanticide occurring when an unfamiliar male successfully entered the nest at night. The introduction of an oestrous female did not reduce the amount of time the father spent in the nest, although several fathers mated with the oestrous females. In another experiment, females were found to be temporarily less tolerant of fathers that were removed during pregnancy and returned after the pups were born, but after renewed contact, the females allowed the males to enter the nest. Fathers tested in the absence of mothers spent a substantial portion of the test time with pups, and effectively prevented unfamiliar males from gaining access to their pups. These results were related to the seasonal changes in nest sharing in meadow voles, suggesting that male reproductive tactics should be flexible to accommodate changes in mating opportunities and changes in the value of biparental care.
Objective. To determine the biological correlates of maternal responsiveness in new mothers, comparisons were made between new mothers and nonpostpartum women on their affective, hormonal, and heart rate responses to infant cries and odors. Design. Eighty-six new mothers were divided into 3 groups: a cry group who listened to prerecorded cries of newborn infants (n = 27), an odor group who smelled the T-shirts previously worn by newborn infants (n = 28), and the nonstimulation control group (n = 31). Nonpostpartum women also listened to infant cries (n = 30) or no stimuli (n = 30). Salivary samples were taken at 3 time points: prior to and at 20 and 40 min after stimulus session onset. Heart rates were recorded throughout the stimulus session. Results. New mothers were more sympathetic and more alert in response to cries than nonpostpartum women. There were no differences in mothers' responses to odors and control stimuli. Multiparous mothers showed a greater difference in their sympathy to pain versus hunger cries than did primiparous mothers. Mothers who experienced greater sympathy in response to cries had higher baseline salivary cortisol levels and a higher heart rate; in comparison to mothers showing low sympathy, they also underwent a greater decline in cortisol concentrations over the stimulus period. Nonpostpartum women did not show these same affect - physiology relations. These relations were not affected by mothers' social, educational, or economic status, events at the childbirth, or sex of the infant. Conclusions. During the postpartum period, elevations in glucocorticoids and in heart rate facilitate mothers' nurturant and attentive responses to infants and their cues.
The first study replicated prior research in showing that new mothers in a two-choice recognition test are able to accurately identify their own infant's body odours on a T-shirt. The second study tested the hypothesis that new mothers are uniquely primed to rapidly acquire recognition of infant odorants. In contrast to expectation, this study showed that in a three-choice preexposure paradigm, new mothers perform no better than non-mothers at recognizing a pre-exposed unfamiliar infant T-shirt; they also perform no better when infant odours are used as discriminative stimuli than when non-infant-related stimuli are used. However, among the population of new mothers, mothers who are consistently able to recognize their own infants' odours in a three-choice pre-exposure paradigm differ from mothers who do not, in having more prior experience with infants, a shorter interval to first nurse their infants, more nurturing attitudes and more close nasal interactive contact with their infants during a feeding session. These results are discussed in terms of the interrelation between prior maternal experiences, infant recognition and maternal responsiveness.
The present study assesses, for the first time, the association of hormones during the puerperium with a mother's early responses to her infant. It also evaluates the relation to maternal behaviour of women's pregnancy attitudes to children and caretaking, focusing especially on the relative contributions of hormones and maternal attitudes to variations in maternal behaviour in primiparous new mothers. Thirty primiparous women filled out questionnaires during pregnancy and on days 3 or 4 postpartum. During the puerperium plasma levels of a variety of pitutitary, ovarian, and adrenal hormones were determined and observations of mother-infant interaction were undertaken. Multiple regression analyses indicated that levels of non-instrumental ‘approach’ maternal behaviours were directly associated with levels of cortisol and positive pregnancy maternal attitudes. A framework for understanding these results is discussed.
The term “couvade” refers to a variety of rituals performed by men in nonindustrialized societies, around the time of birth of their offspring. Couvade symptoms are shown at similar times by men in industrialized societies, and these symptoms may be physical or psychosomatic. Behavioral change is also seen in a wide variety of male mammals during their mates' pregnancies. These males change from being infanticidal or indifferent toward infants to being paternal. This onset of paternal care, before the arrival of the young, is mediated by social cues that initiate physiological changes. The present study examines the possibility that human males show similar physiological changes and that these are the biological basis of the couvade.
From 1980 to 1989, experiments were conducted on 28 intact (13 females, 15 males) and 10 neutered wolves (5 females, 5 males) to characterize prolactin (PRL) release. From these studies, we have (i) adapted and validated the canine PRL radioimmunoassay of Parlow for wolves; (ii) determined that the plasma half-life of PRL is 44 min; (iii) demonstrated that anesthesia with 400 mg ketamine plus 50 mg promazine, 400 mg ketamine plus 30 mg xylazine, or 7.5 μg∙kg−1 etorphine plus 0.5 mg∙kg−1 xylazine, administered intramuscularly, does not alter PRL rhythms or control mechanisms; (iv) indicated that PRL is not secreted in response to handling stress (P ≥ 0.78) or by activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis simulated by intravenous injection of 50 μg ovine corticotropin-releasing factor (P = 0.28); (v) demonstrated a circannual rhythm in intact and neutered wolves characterized by elevated PRL levels just prior to summer solstice; (vi) detected a circadian PRL rhythm in females; (vii) provided evidence for dopaminergic control of PRL secretion by injecting 2.0 mg∙kg−1 promazine, a dopaminergic antagonist, which increased PRL levels significantly (P = 0.0001); (viii) shown that intravenous injection of 100 μg thyrotropin-releasing hormone results in PRL release (P = 0.0001), but that this release could not be attenuated by prior administration of 1.0 mg∙kg−1 of the opioid antagonist naloxone; (ix) determined that feeding 2.0 mg of melatonin daily reduced basal PRL levels in May and June (P = 0.03), but not in October–December (P = 0.42), and that PRL stimulation with 100 μg thyrotropin-releasing hormone was consistently lower in melatonin-fed wolves; and (x) shown that pinealectomy does not abolish the circadian PRL rhythm nor alter absolute PRL levels relative to sham-operated control wolves (P = 0.33).
Virgin male Peromyscus californicus tend to behave infanticidally or nonparentally towards pups, whereas virtually all males exhibit parental behavior following birth of their own young. Most males (65–75%) living with their pregnant partner attacked or ignored unfamiliar pups and did not become parental (behave parentally) prior to birth of their young. However, a significant minority of males (34%) living with their partner became parental after just 24 h of postcopulatory cohabitation with the female and remained parental throughout their mate's pregnancy. Males that were infanticidal before the birth of their young became parental only after their young were born. The presence of the mother was necessary for the postpartum maintenance of paternal behavior and the inhibition of infanticide in males that were infanticidal prepartum. In contrast, males that were paternal prior to birth of their young continued to be paternal after birth, even in the absence of postpartum contact with the mother. Thus, different mechanisms are involved in the inhibition of infanticide and the onset and maintenance of paternal behavior.
Male Djungarian hamsters, Phodopus campbelli, are naturally paternal and actively participate in the birth and care of growing pups. Males undergo hormonal changes several days prior to the birth of their pups. Although these changes cannot be attributed to pup stimuli, they are nevertheless essential for the expression of complete paternal behaviour during and following the birth of the litter. We conducted two laboratory experiments to test the hypothesis that cues from the pregnant female are important for the expression of midwife and paternal behaviour in Djungarian hamsters. In experiment 1, we allowed pairs to mate, then removed the sires and housed them in separate cages in the same room as their mates. We then either reintroduced the sires 5 min later, or on the evening before the birth of their litter, or we did not reintroduce the sires. In experiment 2, we replicated the treatment of housing the sire and the female in separate cages in the same room until just prior to the birth of the litter, but we added another group of sires that were housed in a different room (with independent air handling) until just prior to the birth of their litter. Male behaviour was not altered in any of the treatments: (1) reunions just a few hours before the birth were free of aggression; (2) males participated as ‘midwives’ during the birth at levels similar to previous studies; and (3) males provided extensive paternal care during pup growth, staying with pups on the nest during development and rapidly approaching, contacting and retrieving a 3-day-old pup that was experimentally displaced from the nest. We conclude that physical, olfactory, auditory and visual stimuli from the pregnant female are not necessary for the expression of paternal behaviour in this species. Alternative hypotheses, including the hypothesis that paternal behaviour does not require external stimuli, are worthy of exploration.
The socially monogamous cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) monkey is a cooperative breeder with the breeding male providing extensive parental care shortly after birth. We examined the relationship of urinary prolactin and cortisol excretion both to male parental care and as a stress response in the cotton-top tamarin monkey. First-morning urine samples were collected to determine hormonal concentrations. Hormonal and behavioral data were collected on 8 male cotton-top tamarins during the 2 weeks before and the 2 weeks following birth of infants to their mate, 11 nonparental males with exposure to females, and three eldest sons from large family groups. Prolactin levels were significantly higher in experienced fathers during the postpartum period than in the other males, while cortisol levels were significantly lower in experienced fathers and eldest sons. Prolactin levels in experienced fathers were consistently elevated before birth, following birth, and after infants were weaned; prolactin levels during times of infant independence were still significantly higher than those in nonfather males. First-time fathers exhibited prolactin levels that were significantly higher after the births of infants than these same males did when they were paired with nonpregnant females. Elevated prolactin concentrations also occurred prior to the first birth, suggesting that males may be receiving cues from their pregnant females. The elevated prolactin levels in parental males may be associated with the experience of the fathers. Correlation between prolactin levels and number of successful births, number of previous births, and age were high. The care of newborn infants did not appear to be a stressful event since cortisol levels were not elevated postpartum. Both cortisol and prolactin were elevated following capture and injection of saline or a dopaminergic receptor antagonist, indicating that prolactin does respond to acute stress. Cortisol levels did not coincide with prolactin levels except under acute stress conditions, suggesting that different neural pathways are probably involved in prolactin release during parental care versus acute stress. These studies provide evidence that male urinary prolactin levels may be elevated due to cues from pregnant females and the constant exposure of males to the family environment.
Male black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii) contribute to the rearing of their offspring. Here we evaluated predictions of hypotheses suggesting that (1) T and E2 influence infant-care behavior in male marmosets, (2) levels of T and E2 are modulated by paternal experience, and (3) paternal behavior and levels of T and E2 in male marmosets covary with stress. We observed the behavior of marmosets in their family groups following the birth of infants and evaluated urinary concentrations of T, E2, and the stress hormone cortisol (CORT) among fathers before and after the birth of young. Urinary levels of T, E2, and CORT were lower among males who carried infants at high rates than males who carried at low rates, and T and CORT levels were negatively correlated with carrying rates across all males. Males had significantly lower T levels while carrying the second compared to the first litter and slightly lower rates of infant-carrying, possibly due to assistance provided by offspring of the first litter. There were increases in CORT levels of fathers after the birth of the first litter, but decreases in CORT after the birth of the second. Our results suggest a relationship in C. kuhlii between paternal behavior, hormones, and paternal experience. Rates of infant-carrying appear to be linked to hormone levels, and hormone levels in turn are affected by experience caring for young. Our data also suggest that T, E2, and CORT have synergistic influences on infant-carrying behavior or alternatively that associations between T and E2 and rates of infant-carrying are influenced by stress or other glucocorticoid-related variables. Finally, we propose a hypothesis suggesting that experience-related changes in hormones reinforce the commitment of males to successful breeding partnerships.
We describe temporal patterns of change in paternal behaviour and urinary concentrations of the steroid hormones testosterone (T) and oestradiol (E2) in male black tufted-ear marmosets, Callithrix kuhlii, relative to the birth of their young, and test predictions of the hypotheses that (1) high levels of T are incompatible with paternal care and (2) levels of T and E2vary with a father's prior experience in his family group. After young were born, levels of urinary T and E2remained near prepartum concentrations and rates at which fathers carried infants were below peak levels until the approximate time that postpartum mating ordinarily occurs, suggesting a possible trade-off between readiness to mate and paternal behaviour in C. kuhlii. Infant-carrying behaviour of fathers occurred at its highest rate 3–4 weeks after parturition and coincided with significant declines in urinary levels of T and E2, providing preliminary support for the hypothesis that these hormones are antagonistic to paternal behaviour. Urinary T and E2declined among fathers regardless of whether their young survived to weaning or died at birth, indicating that variation in these hormones after parturition occurs even in the absence of continued stimuli from infants. When adjusted for declines ordinarily associated with aging, urinary T tended to be lower among fathers with a great deal of prior experience caring for young compared with fathers having little or no experience, suggesting that either experience affects T levels of fathers, or that T levels influence fathers' chances of successfully rearing infants. Overall, our results suggest that in maleC. kuhlii , T, and possibly E2, play an important role in balancing the expression of paternal care with that of other reproductive behaviours.
Many animals show multiple patterns of parental care, where more than one of the four basic patterns (biparental care, uniparental care by males or females, or no care) is present within a single population during a single breeding season. We consider three reasons for the existence of multiple patterns of parental care: (1) mixed-strategy behaviours; (2) time-dependent behaviour with parents changing their care decision during the breeding season; and (3) quality differences between individuals leading to different care decisions being made depending on the qualities of both parents. The basic framework we use to investigate these is a two-stage game-theoretical model, and we highlight the importance of including feedback between the parental care decisions made by population members and the probability that a deserting individual will find a new mate. Including this feedback may introduce a nonlinear dependence of the fitness payoffs on the frequencies with which the pure strategies (‘care’ and ‘desert’) are played by each of the sexes. This can have important consequences for the existence of evolutionarily stable strategies (ESSs). For example, mixed-strategy ESSs may exist (an outcome forbidden if the feedback is not included) and, in one model, the feedback also prevents uniparental care by either sex from being evolutionarily stable. We also point out that decisions made by animals without dependent offspring can have important consequences for observed parental care behaviour.
Male meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, were tested with unrelated pups to determine the social factors that affect the initiation of paternal responsiveness and the inhibition of infanticide. Adult males were initially more responsive to pups if they had been reared as neonates with their fathers rather than with unfamiliar males. Decreased aggression and facilitation of paternal responsiveness occurred most reliably after extensive exposure to pups, even if exposure had occurred more than 2 months before testing. Unlike house mice, neither copulation nor exposure to females enhanced male responsiveness to pups. Given that male meadow voles only nest with females and young during the colder parts of the breeding season, it may be adaptive for paternal responsiveness to be triggered by pup exposure, rather than by some aspect of earlier contact with the female.
Oxytocin (OT) administration has been shown to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)/cortisol secretion in several experimental conditions. In the present study, the plasma OT responses to suckling in 7 lactating women or to mechanical breast stimulation in 6 normally menstruating women (experimental tests) or to sham stimuli in the same subjects (control tests) were measured and correlated with the simultaneous changes in plasma ACTH/cortisol levels. All women showed similar basal levels of OT, ACTH and cortisol, which remained unmodified after sham stimulation. In contrast, both suckling and breast stimulation produced a significant increase in plasma OT levels and a significant decrease in plasma ACTH concentrations. When OT and ACTH data were considered together, a significant negative correlation was found between the OT increase and the simultaneous ACTH decline. Plasma cortisol levels were lower during suckling or breast stimulation than in control conditions. These data show an inverse relationship between plasma OT and ACTH levels during suckling and breast stimulation in humans, suggesting an inhibitory influence of OT on ACTH/cortisol secretion in a physiological condition.
Relatively little is known about hormonal mechanisms underlying paternal behavior in mammals. Male California mice, Peromyscus californicus, display extensive parental care toward their young. Parental behavior of fathers, expectant fathers (males living with their pregnant partner), and virgin males was assessed in a 10-min test with a 1- to 3-day-old alien pup. Few virgin males acted parental (19%) compared to fathers one day postpartum (80%) and expectant fathers (56%). Plasma prolactin levels were significantly elevated in fathers 2 days postpartum compared to expectant fathers and virgin males. Paternal prolactin levels were similar to those of mothers. There were no differences between groups in levels of plasma testosterone. These data suggest, contrary to other reports, that prolactin is a likely correlate of paternal behavior in rodents.
Both copulation and postcopulatory cohabitation with pregnant females reduce infanticide and enhance paternal responsiveness in male CS1 mice. The effectiveness of copulation in this process, however, depends on the number of occasions that males have previously encountered infants. Infanticidal males which have been subordinated in brief encounters with other males are less likely to commit infanticide in subsequent tests than are those which became dominant to other males. Males which copulate and cohabit with a relatively large female are less likely to be infanticidal than are those with a relatively small female. These data suggest that males are subordinated after copulation by their mates and that this subordination is a factor in the reduction of infanticide and the initiation of paternal responsiveness.
Inexperienced, hypophysectomized female rats treated with steroids were used in experiments to investigate the roles of the pituitary gland and prolactin in the expression of maternal behavior. Administration of ovine prolactin or treatment with ectopic pituitary grafts, which release prolactin into the circulation, stimulated maternal care in these females toward rat young. Steroid treatment alone, while stimulating maternal behavior in rats with intact pituitary glands, did not facilitate maternal responsiveness in hypophysectomized females. These findings indicate a stimulatory behavioral role for pituitary prolactin in the establishment of maternal care and suggest that exposure to prolactin during pregnancy helps to stimulate the immediate onset of maternal behavior at parturition.
The ability of various exteroceptive stimuli to inhibit milk ejection and the suckling-induced release of prolactin was tested in lactating rats on postpartum day 7. Milk ejection was assessed by weighing the milk in the pups’ stomachs at the conclusion of suckling; prolactin was assayed with the intradermal pigeon crop-sac method. The odor of oil of peppermint, intermittent bright light, or intermittent low intensity sounds, including personnel conversation, each significantly reduced the amount of milk obtained by the pups in 30 min of suckling following 8 hr of nonsuckling. The odor of an oily solution of chlorophyll was ineffective. The subcutaneous injection of 40 mU oxytocin concomitant with the inhibiting stimuli restored milk yields to normal values in each instance. This suggests that the stimuli employed affect milk ejection through a central inhibition of oxytocin release. The exteroceptive stimuli which inhibited milk ejection failed in the same rats to alter the extent of the reduction in the pituitary prolactin concentration that normally follows 30 min of suckling. Similarly, the high level of prolactin that results from 8 hr of nonsuckling was not altered by 30-min exposure to the same stimuli. (Endocrinology 80: 810, 1967)
The ability of various exteroceptive stimuli to inhibit milk ejection and the suckling-induced release of prolactin was tested in lactating rats on postpartum day 7. Milk ejection was assessed by weighing the milk in the pups’ stomachs at the conclusion of suckling; prolactin was assayed with the intradermal pigeon crop-sac method. The odor of oil of peppermint, intermittent bright light, or intermittent low intensity sounds, including personnel conversation, each significantly reduced the amount of milk obtained by the pups in 30 min of suckling following 8 hr of nonsuckling. The odor of an oily solution of chlorophyll was ineffective. The subcutaneous injection of 40 mU oxytocin concomitant with the inhibiting stimuli restored milk yields to normal values in each instance. This suggests that the stimuli employed affect milk ejection through a central inhibition of oxytocin release. The exteroceptive stimuli which inhibited milk ejection failed in the same rats to alter the extent of the reduction in the pituitary prolactin concentration that normally follows 30 min of suckling. Similarly, the high level of prolactin that results from 8 hr of nonsuckling was not altered by 30-min exposure to the same stimuli. (Endocrinology 80: 810, 1967)
Groups of seven intact male Long-Evans hooded rats were housed with pups for 1, 7, 14, or 22 days and their parental behavior was recorded each day. All but one male showed parental behavior. Twenty-eight control males were housed without pups. At the end of each observation period the males were decapitated and their trunk blood was collected for hormone analysis by radioimmunoassay. Males with pups had lower prolactin levels than control males on all 4 days but did not differ in luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, or testosterone levels from males without pups. Both prolactin and testosterone levels were correlated positively with the frequency of parental behavior, suggesting that the males which are behaviorally the most responsive to infants are also hormonally the most responsive.
The role of olfactory cues in maternal recognition of neonates was investigated. Mothers were able to identify the garments worn by their own infants (in comparison to garments worn by unfamiliar infants) through odor alone within the first 6 days postpartum. In a second experiment, mothers who had only limited pre-test exposure to their infants recognized the odor of their infant's garment during tests conducted at 20.5-41.7 hr after delivery. Olfaction may be an especially salient modality for recognition of infants.
Hedonic responses to a variety of infant (general body, urine, and feces) and noninfant (lotion, cheese, and spice) odorants were compared in four groups of subjects: new mothers, mothers a 1-month postpartum, and female and male nonparents. Using standard scaling procedures, subjects rated each of the odorants twice on a scale from extremely unpleasant (-20.5) to extremely pleasant (+20.5). In addition, all subjects completed a set of attitude questionnaires, and mothers also answered a childbirth questionnaire and were observed while feeding their infants.
Following copulation and cohabitation with a pregnant female, male gerbils show high levels of parental behavior toward their pups. The initiation of male parental behavior may be the result of neuroendocrine changes induced by cohabiting with the pregnant female or by pup stimuli. Experiment 1 examines the changes in androgen and prolactin levels in male gerbils cohabiting with females over the reproductive cycle. Gerbils were mated and blood samples taken from males for hormone analysis 1, 10, and 20 days after pairing and 3, 10, and 20 days after pups were born. A group of unmated male gerbils served as controls. Plasma prolactin levels of males were elevated throughout the female's pregnancy and lactation periods, but were only statistically significantly higher than those of unmated males 20 days after pups were born. Androgen levels rose during pregnancy and dropped significantly after the birth of the pups. These hormonal changes are similar to those found in males of monogamous birds and differ from those found in males of polygynous rodents such as the rat. Experiment 2 examined the hormonal responses of male and female gerbils to pup replacement after 4 hr of parent-pup separation. Female gerbils showed a significant elevation of prolactin levels 1 hr after pup replacement, but males did not. Males with pups returned showed no difference in androgen levels from males who did not have pups returned. Thus, male gerbils show neuroendocrine changes following long-term cohabitation with their mate and pups, but do not show acute hormone responses to pup removal and replacement. These results indicate that parental males have neuroendocrine changes associated with parental behavior and these differ from the neuroendocrine changes underlying female parental behavior.
A group of 51 healthy elderly volunteer subjects participated in a 3- to 6-year longitudinal study of basal cortisol levels. Once per year basal cortisol levels were examined using hourly sampling over a 24-h period. Analyses of three cortisol measures (last measure obtained, mean cortisol levels across years, and the cortisol slope) revealed that the slope of the regression line measuring cortisol levels at each year was the most predictive measure of cortisol secretion over the years in this elderly population. Cortisol levels were shown to increase with years in one subgroup, to decrease in another, and to remain stable in a third. The age of the subjects was not related to either cortisol levels or to the pattern of change in cortisol secretion over years. Free and total cortisol levels were highly correlated and the groups did not differ with regard to plasma corticosteroid binding globulin. No group differences were observed for weight, height, body mass index, pulse, blood pressure and glucose. However, significant group differences were reported for plasma triglycerides levels as well as high density lipoproteins levels. Positive correlations were reported between the obsession/compulsion subscale of the SCL-90 questionnaire and the cortisol slope of subjects. Finally, previously reported group differences in neuropsychological performance are summarized. Thus, there exists considerable variation in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function amongst aged humans. These results are consistent with recent animal studies showing the existence of subpopulations of aged rats which differ in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal activity and cognitive efficiency.
Adult male Mongolian gerbils, Meriones unguiculatusgestated in intrauterine positions between two female fetuses (2F males) are less likely than are adult males gestated between two male fetuses (2M males) to impregnate strange female gerbils with whom they are paired. The reduced copulatory success of 2F males is correlated with both lower circulating levels of and reduced sensitivity to testosterone. We asked whether 2F male gerbils compensated for their reduced copulatory success by increasing their parental effort. 2F male gerbils engaged in less sexual activity with their mates, but were more frequently in contact with pups than were 2M males, huddling over the young when their mates were absent from the nest. Although there were no differences in rates of survival or growth of pups reared by pairs consisting of a female and either a 2M or 2F male, mates of 2F males delivered significantly more pups as a consequence of copulations occurring during postpartum oestrus than did either mates of 2M males or females rearing young alone. We interpreted these results as consistent with Ketterson & Nolan's (1992, Am. Nat. (Supplement)140, 533-562) hypothesis of a testosterone-mediated trade-off between investment in sexual and parental behaviours.1997The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
Comparative endocrine studies have notably advanced understanding of ecological factors that contribute to variation in human reproductive function. Such research has relied on methodological advances that permit hormone determinations in samples that are easily and safely collected, stored, and transported, most recently on measurement of steroids in saliva. This report seeks to further expand the scope of endocrine research by demonstrating the value of blood spot samples collected by finger prick. As a sampling strategy, finger-prick blood spot collection offers the advantages of short collection time, low invasiveness, repeatability, absence of postcollection processing, low biohazard risk, and ease of sample storage and transport. We document good sample stability and present sensitive assay methods for a range of steroids and proteins (FSH, LH, PRL, T, E2, DHEAS, androstenedione, cortisol, SHGB) in blood spots that require sample volumes of 3-12 microliters and display good reliability, specificity, precision, accuracy, and convertibility of results to plasma/serum equivalent concentrations. Laboratory evaluation was augmented by a feasibility study at a remote site in Papua New Guinea that confirmed validity and stability of blood spot collections under field conditions. Research applications of blood spot sampling are illustrated with a series of studies, including cross-sectional surveys for developmental and life span endocrinology, a longitudinal, population-based developmental epidemiologic study of puberty, and serial sampling in a dynamic study of neuroendocrine response to suckling. We conclude that the sampling features and wide range of measurable biomolecules of blood spots do constitute a methodological advance for endocrine research.
New mothers are more attracted to the body odor of newborn infants than are nonmothers. In this study we investigated the relation of postpartum hormones and of prior experience with infants to this enhanced maternal attraction to infant odors. New mothers were asked to complete a hedonics task, using a pleasantness scale to provide an attraction score to different odorants presented on a cotton substrate in a 1-pt Baskin-Robbins container. Mothers were "blind" to the contents of the container. Participants also completed an extensive set of 100-item likert scales concerning their attitudes toward infants, care taking, own maternal adequacy, and other interpersonal relations. Mothers were videotaped interacting with their infants and provided salivary samples prior to the interaction. Salivary samples were assayed by radioimmunoassay (RIA) for salivary concentrations of cortisol, progesterone, and testosterone. Results show that first-time mothers with higher cortisol concentrations were more attracted to their own infant's body odor. Mothers with higher cortisol levels were also better able to recognize their own infants' odors. While cortisol was not related to attitudinal measures of maternal responsiveness, mothers with more prior experience interacting with infants exhibited both more attraction to infant odors and more positive maternal attitudes. Together, prior maternal experience and postpartum cortisol explain a significant proportion of the variance in mothers' attraction to newborn infant odors. These relations are discussed in terms of the variety of "meanings" cortisol could have during the postpartum period.
Traumatic stress in the normal individual results in activation of the sympatho-adrenal system causing a rise in noradrenaline and adrenaline, stimulation of the thyroid system causing increased secretion of thyroid hormones and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system resulting in elevated levels of cortisol. Studies in animals and in humans with posttraumatic stress disorder indicate that chronic traumatic stress can result in dissociation of the sympatho-adrenal medullary and the HPA system resulting in sustained elevations of the former system but suppressed or altered ACTH-corticoid responsivity. As reviewed by Henry, self preservative behavior with its emphasis on power and control, is associated with catecholamines, thyroid hormones and left hemispheric functioning while species preservative behavior, with its emphasis on attachment, familiarity, reverence and synchronicity, is associated with cortisol, oxytocin and right hemispheric functioning. Traumatic stress seems to disturb this hemispheric balance which is reflected in the suppression of cortisol and loss of attachment behavior and other species preservative right hemispheric functions.
The recently evolved mammalian species preservative behavior as opposed to the ancient self preservative behavior involves parental care, nursing, social interaction, pair bonding and mutual defense. Gonadal steroids together with oxytocin are critical for this affiliative, attachment behavior. When there is stressful loss of control, gonadotrophins are diminished, and the self preservative, fight-flight catecholamine coping response takes priority. It is suggested that self preservation is associated with left hemispheric brain function and that species preservation is associated with right hemispheric function. Stress during infancy that is severe enough to create insecure attachment has a dissociative effect, disrupting right hemispheric emotional functioning and species preservative behavior, and a permanent bias towards self preservation can become an adult trait. In such a person with impaired affiliation, corticoid responses may be deficient. The coronary type A behavior pattern common in our society exhibits some of this deficiency in species preservative activity.
Blood samples from male hamsters (Phodopus) during their mate's gestation and early lactation show that key hormones important in maternal behavior are also changing in males and differ for two closely related species with different levels of paternal care. Results of study 1 were consistent with a relationship between higher prolactin, lower testosterone and paternal behavior during early lactation in P. campbelli and provided no evidence for similar hormonal changes in P. sungorus. Study 2 sampled males before or after the birth. Prolactin did not increase until at least one day after the birth in P. campbelli but was high at the end of the pregnancy in P. sungorus. Increasing testosterone concentrations in P. campbelli as the birth approached were consistent with mate guarding, high testosterone concentrations on L5 were consistent with paternal aggression in defense of the litter, and the drop in testosterone after the birth was consistent with reduced aggression toward the new pups. Results confirmed that cortisol concentrations were reduced following the establishment of a pair-bond and found that P. campbelli males had elevated cortisol before the birth. Results support the hypothesis that mammalian paternal behavior has a hormonal basis which is analogous to maternal behavior.
Previous studies have suggested that prolactin may play a role in regulating allocare behaviour in cotton-top tamarins, Saguinus oedipus. In this study, we investigate the prolactin profile of 3 groups of captive common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus. Carrying behaviour in this species was observed after parturition. Prolactin assays of blood samples of both fathers and helpers (sub-adult non-fathers) in 3 family groups were taken for 8 weeks before and after birth of the infants. The after-birth condition was divided into 2 groups: carrying and non-carrying animals. The results suggest a relationship between prolactin levels and allocare behaviour, with carrying behaviour being associated with increased prolactin in both fathers and helpers. This suggests that extra prolactin is produced in response to physical contact, and may be associated with carrying behaviour. Also, prolactin production may be related to learning parental skills in Neotropical primates.
Hormonal changes during non-maternal infant care have been demonstrated in many cooperatively breeding bird species, some monogamous rodents and two species of New World primates. Coevolution of hormones and social traits may have provided for the different breeding systems that occur today. Several hormones have been shown to covary with the breeding systems of vertebrates. Elevated levels of the hormone prolactin with male parenting behaviours are common to many birds, rodents and the callitrichid monkeys Callithrix jacchus and Saguinus oedipus. In birds, prolactin may be elevated in both male and female breeders during various stages of nest building, egg laying, incubating and feeding of young. Testosterone levels appear to have an inverse relationship to prolactin levels during infant care in birds and rodents, but this relationship has not been examined for primates. In cooperatively breeding birds, helpers who remain at the nest also have elevated levels of prolactin when displaying parental care behaviours. Prolactin levels are elevated in helper callitrichid monkeys during the postpartum period. Monogamous male rodents demonstrate elevated prolactin levels with parental care behaviour but, in contrast to the birds, the mechanisms mediating prolactin increase appear to differ for male and female rodents. Two factors may influence male parental behaviours and hormonal changes: stimuli from the pregnant female and stimuli from the newborn pups; whereas maternal behaviours are influenced by the maternal hormones of the female and the pup stimuli. An experiential factor may also influence male parental behaviours. Neuropeptides such as oxytocin and vasopressin appear to be involved in male rodent parental care and there may be an interaction between a series of hormones and neurosecretions and stimuli from mates and pups. Studies of Saguinus oedipus, the cotton-top tamarin, suggest that prolactin levels are responsive to stimuli from contact with infants and the level of infant care experience influences the levels of prolactin with male infant care. Father tamarins also have elevated levels of prolactin before the birth of infants suggesting that cues from the pregnant female are important. Prolactin's role in parental care may have evolved from prolactin's role in other reproductive functions. Hormonal regulation of non-maternal care may occur due to a complex interaction of many hormones and neurotran