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The Application of Training to Failure in Periodized Multiple-Set Resistance Exercise Programs
Abstract
Few studies and reports in the body of literature have directly addressed the issue of whether resistance exercise sets should be performed to failure. Research has clearly demonstrated the superiority of performing multiple sets vs. single sets for increases in maximal strength. However, there is little direct evidence to decide conclusively whether or not multiple sets should be performed to failure. Therefore, the purpose of this research note was to discuss what is currently known concerning the application of training to failure and to stimulate further research on this topic. Although not essential for increases in muscular characteristics such as strength and hypertrophy, training to failure might allow advanced lifters to break through training plateaus when incorporated periodically into short-term microcycles. Because muscular hypertrophy is a key contributor to long-term increases in maximal strength, advanced lifters should consider training to failure occasionally. The potential mechanisms by which training to failure might provide an advantage are through greater activation of motor units and secretion of growth-promoting hormones. However, training to failure is not an effective stimulus without lifting at a sufficient intensity (percentage of 1 repetition maximum). Furthermore, training to failure should not be performed repeatedly over long periods, due to the high potential for overtraining and overuse injuries. Therefore, the training status and the goals of the lifter should guide the decision-making process on this issue.
... One of the most popular approaches to prescribing RT is establishing the load correspondent to a range of maximal repetitions (RMs) (3,28,29), in which transient concentric failure is achieved at the end of performed sets (i.e., 4-6RMs or 10-12RMs). It has been argued that performing RT sets to failure (RTF) would maximize motor unit (MU) recruitment and would, consequently, optimize neuromuscular adaptations to RT (59,60). This theory is based on the size principle, suggesting that as consecutive repetitions are performed, the lower-threshold MUs (i.e., those composed of type I muscle fibers) are fatigued and, consequently, high-threshold MU (i.e., those composed of type II muscle fibers) recruitment will be maximized (6,59,60). ...
... It has been argued that performing RT sets to failure (RTF) would maximize motor unit (MU) recruitment and would, consequently, optimize neuromuscular adaptations to RT (59,60). This theory is based on the size principle, suggesting that as consecutive repetitions are performed, the lower-threshold MUs (i.e., those composed of type I muscle fibers) are fatigued and, consequently, high-threshold MU (i.e., those composed of type II muscle fibers) recruitment will be maximized (6,59,60). However, there are some controversial findings in studies investigating this issue using electromyography signals (EMGs) because it has been demonstrated that a higher EMG signal is achieved and stabilized before the repetition corresponding to muscular failure (10,55). ...
... Although sets using repetitions to failure promote mechanical and muscle function adaptations, it is also notable that a certain degree of fatigue may induce high levels of discomfort and physical exertion, preventing the correct execution of the movement, particularly in nonexperienced practitioners (56,59). In this sense, it is believed that the performance of RTF in the long term could increase the risk of overuse injuries (6). ...
Concurrent training (CT) is an efficient strategy to improve neuromuscular function and cardiorespiratory fitness in older adults, which are factors of pivotal importance for the maintenance of functional capacity with aging. However, there is a lack of evidence about the effectiveness of power training (PT) as an alternative to traditional strength training (TST) during CT. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the effect of 16 weeks (twice weekly) TST combined with high intensity interval training (TST + HIIT) vs. PT combined with HIIT (PT + HIIT) on functional performance, cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition in older men. Thirty five older men (65.8 ± 3.9 years) were randomly allocated into two training groups: TST + HIIT (n = 18), and PT + HIIT (n = 17). TST + HIIT performed resistance training at intensities ranging from 65% to 80% 1RM at slow controlled speed (≅ 2 s for each concentric phase), whereas PT + HIIT trained at intensities ranging from 40% to 60% of 1RM at maximal intentional speed. Both groups performed HIIT at intensities ranging from 75 to 90% of VO2peak. Participants performed functional tests (sit-to-stand, timed-up-and-go, stair climbing); cardiopulmonary exercise testing (maximal cycling power output: Wmax, peak oxygen uptake: VO2peak, cycling economy), as well as body composition assessment (DXA) before, post 8 and post 16 weeks of training. The groups improved similarly (P < 0.05) with training in all functional capacity outcomes, Wmax, cycling economy, VO2peak and body composition (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that HIIT based CT programs involving TST vs. PT are equally effective in improving functionality, cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition in healthy older men.
... One of the most popular approaches to prescribing RT is establishing the load correspondent to a range of maximal repetitions (RMs) (3,28,29), in which transient concentric failure is achieved at the end of performed sets (i.e., 4-6RMs or 10-12RMs). It has been argued that performing RT sets to failure (RTF) would maximize motor unit (MU) recruitment and would, consequently, optimize neuromuscular adaptations to RT (59,60). This theory is based on the size principle, suggesting that as consecutive repetitions are performed, the lower-threshold MUs (i.e., those composed of type I muscle fibers) are fatigued and, consequently, high-threshold MU (i.e., those composed of type II muscle fibers) recruitment will be maximized (6,59,60). ...
... It has been argued that performing RT sets to failure (RTF) would maximize motor unit (MU) recruitment and would, consequently, optimize neuromuscular adaptations to RT (59,60). This theory is based on the size principle, suggesting that as consecutive repetitions are performed, the lower-threshold MUs (i.e., those composed of type I muscle fibers) are fatigued and, consequently, high-threshold MU (i.e., those composed of type II muscle fibers) recruitment will be maximized (6,59,60). However, there are some controversial findings in studies investigating this issue using electromyography signals (EMGs) because it has been demonstrated that a higher EMG signal is achieved and stabilized before the repetition corresponding to muscular failure (10,55). ...
... Although sets using repetitions to failure promote mechanical and muscle function adaptations, it is also notable that a certain degree of fatigue may induce high levels of discomfort and physical exertion, preventing the correct execution of the movement, particularly in nonexperienced practitioners (56,59). In this sense, it is believed that the performance of RTF in the long term could increase the risk of overuse injuries (6). ...
The aim of this review was to summarize the evidence from longitudinal studies assessing the effects induced by resistance training (RT) performed to failure (RTF) vs. not to failure (RTNF) on muscle strength, hypertrophy, and power output in adults. Three electronic databases were searched using terms related to RTF and RTNF. Studies were eligible if they met the following criteria: randomized and nonrandomized studies comparing the effects of RTF vs. RTNF on muscle hypertrophy, maximal strength, and muscle power in adults, and RT intervention ≥6 weeks. Results were presented as standardized mean differences (SMDs) between treatments with 95% confidence intervals, and calculations were performed using random effects models. Significance was accepted when p < 0.05. Thirteen studies were included in this review. No difference was found between RTF and RTNF on maximal strength in overall analysis (SMD: -0.08; p = 0.642), but greater strength increase was observed in RTNF considering nonequalized volumes (SMD: -0.34; p = 0.048). Resistance training performed to failure showed a greater increase in muscle hypertrophy than RTNF (SMD: 0.75; p = 0.005), whereas no difference was observed considering equalized RT volumes. No difference was found between RTF and RTNF on muscle power considering overall analysis (SMD: -0.20; p = 0.239), whereas greater improvement was observed in RTNF considering nonequalized RT volumes (SMD: -0.61; p = 0.025). Resistance training not to failure may induce comparable or even greater improvements in maximal dynamic strength and power output, whereas no difference between RTF vs. RTNF is observed on muscle hypertrophy, considering equalized RT volumes.
... Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that training for concentric muscular failure may be beneficial when the goal is to maximize muscle hypertrophy [9]. One definition of muscular failure is "the point in a resistance exercise set when the muscle can no longer produce enough force to control the given load" [9]. ...
... Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that training for concentric muscular failure may be beneficial when the goal is to maximize muscle hypertrophy [9]. One definition of muscular failure is "the point in a resistance exercise set when the muscle can no longer produce enough force to control the given load" [9]. Theoretically, performing a set to concentric muscular failure may activate all motor units, which may be important because this may have the greatest potential for muscle hypertrophy [10]. ...
Abstract Background One of the most popular time-efficient training methods when training for muscle hypertrophy is drop sets, which is performed by taking sets to concentric muscle failure at a given load, then making a drop by reducing the load and immediately taking the next set to concentric or voluntary muscle failure. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of drop sets over traditional sets on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Methods This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE/PubMed databases were searched on April 9, 2022, for all studies investigating the effects of the drop set training method on muscle hypertrophy that meets the predefined inclusion criteria. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3 (Biostat Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA) was used to run the statistical analysis. Publication bias was assessed through visual inspection of the funnel plots for asymmetry and statistically by Egger’s regression test with an alpha level of 0.10. Results Six studies met the predefined inclusion criteria. The number of participants in the studies was 142 (28 women and 114 men) with an age range of 19.2–27 years. The average sample size was 23.6 ± 10.9 (range 9–41). Five studies were included in the quantitative synthesis. Meta-analysis showed that both the drop set and traditional training groups increased significantly from pre- to post-test regarding muscle hypertrophy (drop set standardized mean difference: 0.555, 95% CI 0.357–0.921, p
... The use of maximum repetitions is questioned by some researchers [41][42][43]. In this issue, although not applied to elderly subjects, several studies have been conducted to compare the responses in training using maximum repetitions (concentric failure) to training with similar loads without maximum effort [44,45]. ...
... Along with that, using high training loads could induce to larger dropouts in physical exercise programs [47]. In line with that, the use of maximum effort for prolonged periods of training could possibly be associated with a high risk of overtraining and overuse injury in subjects with high physical fitness syndrome [42]. ...
Objective: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of training using loads from a repetition maximum value (%1RM) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in elderly women. Methods: Twenty-five elderly women (60–75 years old) were randomly assigned to a group that trained using loads determined by 1RM test (G%; n = 12) or to a group that trained using loads determined by RPE (GPE; n = 13). Elderly women trained for 12 weeks using five exercises performed with 2–3 sets of 8–15 repetitions. Loads progressed from 45% to 75% of 1RM (G%) and from 13 to 18 from Rating Perceived Exertion of Borg Scale (GPE). The outcome measures, 1RM and maximum repetitions (RMs with 70% 1RM), were assessed before, between and after training programs. Results: Increased 1RM value and RMs were observed in both groups (20–42%, p < 0.001 and 56–76%, p < 0.001, respectively, for %G; and 17–56%, p < 0.001 and 47–106%, p < 0.001, respectively, for GPE), without differences between them. Conclusions: Prescribing loads using the RPE and 1RM might be similarly effective for training elderly women in order to promote strength gains. As a practical application, RPE could be an additional method to determine training loads. In spite of the promising results of the present study, it is not possible to state that the use of RPE is effective in monitoring loads during sub maximal strength training in elderly and more research must be carried out to confirm it.
... Schoenfeld claimed also that the drop-set protocols can stimulate greater muscular growth by increasing greater motor unit fatigue. He referenced an often cited brief review by Willardson (15). However, Willardson's article focused on whether or not training to failure was necessary to achieve the greatest strength gains, not muscle hypertrophy. ...
... It is also worth mentioning that Willardson (15) cited a study by Drinkwater and colleagues (16) 17 times in his brief article as evidence to support performing sets to failure. However, Drinkwater and colleagues compared strength gains after training to failure (4 sets of 6 reps) or not to failure (8 sets of 3 reps), both with 85-105% 6RM (equal training volume), 2x/week for 6 weeks, in teenage male resistance trained elite junior athletes. ...
Researchers have expressed concern recently for standardization of resistance training protocols so that valid comparisons of different training variables such as muscular fatigue, time under tension, pre-exhaust exercise and exercise order, pyramid and drop sets, amount of resistance (load), range of repetitions, frequency and volume of exercise, interset rest intervals, etc. can be more closely studied and compared. This Critical Commentary addresses some recent review articles and training studies specifically focused on the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy in participants with several years of resistance training experience. It reveals that many of the recommended resistance training protocols have their foundation in some long-held, self-described bias. Blinding of assessors and statisticians, self-plagiarism, authorship responsibility, and conflicts of interest are briefly discussed as well. The conclusion is that most of the published peer-reviewed resistance training literature failed to provide any compelling evidence that the manipulation of any one or combination of the aforementioned variables can significantly affect the degree of muscle hypertrophy, especially in well-trained participants. Although the specific stimulus for optimal gains in muscle mass is unknown, many authors are desperately clinging to their unsupported belief that a greater volume of exercise will produce superior muscle hypertrophy.
... To maximize these neuromuscular adaptations, it has been recommended to perform RT until muscle failure (RT-F), defined as the point where the activated muscles are incapable of completing another repetition in the appropriate range of motion [5,6]. It is commonly thought that trained individuals, particularly bodybuilders and strength-trained athletes, benefit most from RT-F [7]. Trained individuals are able to tolerate high training stresses, and it has been suggested that RT-F might provide an extra stimulus to increase muscle mass and strength [8,9]. ...
... It has been suggested that performing RT-F maximizes muscle activation (i.e., electromyographic signal [EMG] amplitude) [7,11], which is influenced by motor units (MU) recruitment, rate coding ...
The aim of this study was to compare the effects of resistance training to muscle failure (RT-F) and non-failure (RT-NF) on muscle mass, strength and activation of trained individuals. We also compared the effects of these protocols on muscle architecture parameters. A within-subjects design was used in which 14 participants had one leg randomly assigned to RT-F and the other to RT-NF. Each leg was trained 2 days per week for 10 weeks. Vastus lateralis (VL) muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), pennation angle (PA), fascicle length (FL) and 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) were assessed at baseline (Pre) and after 20 sessions (Post). The electromyographic signal (EMG) was assessed after the training period. RT-F and RT-NF protocols showed significant and similar increases in CSA (RT-F: 13.5% and RT-NF: 18.1%; P < 0.0001), PA (RT-F: 13.7% and RT-NF: 14.4%; P < 0.0001) and FL (RT-F: 11.8% and RT-NF: 8.6%; P < 0.0001). All protocols showed significant and similar increases in leg press (RT-F: 22.3% and RT-NF: 26.7%; P < 0.0001) and leg extension (RT-F: 33.3%, P < 0.0001 and RT-NF: 33.7%; P < 0.0001) 1-RM loads. No significant differences in EMG amplitude were detected between protocols (P > 0.05). In conclusion, RT-F and RT-NF are similarly effective in promoting increases in muscle mass, PA, FL, strength and activation.
... Three review papers have discussed the potential effects of muscular failure on OR/OTS (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007;Willardson et al., 2010); however, no studies appear to have tested this hypothesis in practice. Whilst regular failure training can stimulate increases in strength and athletic performance, it might also result in NFOR/OTS when used to excess (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007;Willardson et al., 2010). ...
... Three review papers have discussed the potential effects of muscular failure on OR/OTS (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007;Willardson et al., 2010); however, no studies appear to have tested this hypothesis in practice. Whilst regular failure training can stimulate increases in strength and athletic performance, it might also result in NFOR/OTS when used to excess (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007;Willardson et al., 2010). Consequently, future research should investigate the effects of training to muscular failure on NFOR/OTS to inform the scientific community, (Davies et al., 2016) and to provide coaches and athletes with much-needed guidance in this area -particularly in experienced recreational bodybuilders where training to failure may be more widely used (Willardson et al., 2010). ...
To date, little is known about overreaching (OR) and the overtraining syndrome (OTS) in strength sports and resistance training (RT) populations. However, the available literature may elucidate the occurrence of both conditions in these populations. A scoping review was conducted. SPORTDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science were searched in a robust and systematic manner, with relevant articles analysed. 1170 records were retrieved during an initial search, with a total of 47 included in the review. Two broad themes were identified during data extraction: 1) overreaching in strength sports; 2) overreaching and overtraining syndrome in RT. Short-term periods of OR achieved with either high-volume or high-intensity RT can elicit functional OR (FOR) but there is also evidence that chronic high-volume and/or intensity RT can lead to non-functional overreaching (NFOR). There is minimal evidence to suggest that true OTS has occurred in strength sports or RT based on the studies entered during this review. More research is needed to develop robust guiding principles for practitioners. Additionally, due to the heterogeneous nature of the existing literature, future research would benefit from the development of practical tools to identify and diagnose the transition from FOR to NFOR, and subsequently OTS in strength athletes and RT populations.
Abbreviations
RT: Resistance training; OR: Overreaching; FOR: Functional overreaching; NFOR: Non-functional overreaching; OTS: Overtraining syndrome; WP: Weightlifting performance
... Whilst continuing exercise to momentary failure has been recommended for standardization within resistance exercise training studies (Dankel et al., 2017), recent reviews have suggested that the evidence is equivocal as to the necessity to exercise to momentary failure to optimize strength and/or hypertrophic adaptations (Davies, Orr, Halaki, & Hackett, 2016;Nóbrega & Libardi, 2016). Furthermore, whilst to the authors' knowledge no empirical evidence exists (with the exception of some data suggesting it may lead to blunted resting levels of anabolic hormones; Izquierdo et al., 2006), the argument has been presented that regular or prolonged resistance exercise to muscular failure results in a higher potential for overtraining and overuse injuries as well as elevated central fatigue (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007). Indeed, recent volume-load matched work demonstrates that exercise to momentary failure slows recovery up to 24-48 when compared with exercise that is performed submaximally, that is-not to momentary failure (Morán-Navarro et al., 2017). ...
... The practical implications of our findings should be considered. As noted, some authors have argued that regular resistance exercise to momentary failure may result in overtraining and overuse injuries as well as elevated central fatigue (Davies et al., 2016;Willardson, 2007). Morán-Navarro et al. (2017) recently reported that exercise to momentary failure compared with not to momentary failure, even when volume-load matched (i.e., where the load permitted 10 repetitions to momentary failure either 3 sets x 10 repetitions, or 6 sets x 5 repetitions), slows recovery up to 24-48-hr post-exercise. ...
Purpose: The present study compared the fatigue and perceptual responses to volume-load matched heavier- and lighter- load resistance exercise to momentary failure in both a local/exercised, and non-local/non-exercised limb. Methods: Eleven resistance-trained men undertook unilateral maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) testing for knee extension prior to and immediately, 24 hr- and 48 hr- post heavier (80% MVC) and lighter (40% MVC) load dynamic unilateral knee extension exercise. Only the dominant leg of each participant was exercised to momentary failure using heavier and lighter loads, and perceptions of discomfort were measured immediately upon exercise cessation. Results: Point estimates and confidence intervals suggested that immediately post-exercise there was greater fatigue in both the exercised and non-exercised legs for the lighter- load condition. At 24 hr the exercised leg under the heavier-load condition had recovered to pre-exercise strength; however, the exercised leg under lighter- load condition had still not fully recovered by 48 hr. For the non-exercised leg, only the lighter-load condition induced fatigue; however, recovery had occurred by 48 hr. Median discomfort ratings were statistically significantly different (Z = −2.232, p = .026) between lighter and heavier loads (10 [IQR = 0] and 8 [IQR = 3], respectively). Conclusions: This study suggests that lighter-load resistance exercise induces greater fatigue in both the exercised- and non-exercised limbs, compared to heavier-load resistance exercise. These findings may have implications for exercise frequency as it may be possible to engage in heavier-load resistance exercise more frequently than a volume-load matched protocol using lighter loads.Abbreviations CI: Confidence intervals: ES: Effect size: MVC: Maximum voluntary contraction; Nm:Newton meters; RM: Repetition maximum; SD: Standard deviation; SI: Strength index
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... This is supported by data from a meta-analysis conducted by Davies et al. [10], which showed that similar gains in muscular strength can be achieved without performing sets of resistance exercise to momentary failure. However, resistance training performed to momentary failure for prolonged periods might result in overtraining and might increase the risk of musculoskeletal injuries [11,12]. Therefore, the ability to accurately estimate the number repetitions away from momentary failure seems valuable when practitioners or trainers are aiming to maximise resistance-training effects. ...
... Prolonged periods of resistance training performed to momentary failure might lead to overtraining and overuse injuries [11,12], and increase the risk of cardiovascular related adverse events [33]. Therefore, incorporation of ERF into resistance training might be a useful strategy for optimising performance or improving safety in specific clinical populations (e.g., elderly and people with hypertension). ...
The ability to accurately identify proximity to momentary failure during a set of resistance exercise might be important to maximise training adaptations. This study examined the association between perceptual fatigue and the accuracy of the estimated repetitions to failure (ERF). Twenty-seven males and eleven females performed sets of 10 repetitions at specific loads for the chest press and leg-press. Following the completion of 10 repetitions, participants rated their fatigue and ERF and then proceeded to concentric failure (actual repetitions to failure) to determine the ERF accuracy (i.e., error-ERF). Small correlations were found between perceptual fatigue and error-ERF for the chest-press (r = −0.26, p = 0.001) and the leg-press (r = −0.18, p = 0.013). For actual repetitions to failure and error-ERF, a strong correlation was found for the chest-press (r = 0.68, p < 0.001) and a very strong correlation was foundfor the leg-press (r = 0.73, p < 0.001). Moderate correlations were found between perceptual fatigue and actual repetitions to failure for the chest-press (r = −0.42, p < 0.001) and leg-press (r = −0.40, p < 0.001). Overall, findings suggest that the accuracy of the estimated repetitions to failure is more strongly associated with proximity to task repetition failure rather than subjective feelings of fatigue.
... 1,2 The magnitude of adaptations induced by CT fundamentally depends on the manipulation of acute training variables. [3][4][5] Regarding strength training (ST), performing exercises leading to concentric failure (repetition maximum-RM) has received considerable attention from researchers; however, the additional benefits that this type of training can promote are still questionable, especially in the context of CT. [6][7][8] It have been suggested that performing repetitions to failure would optimize muscular adaptations, 9 but few studies have shown that this training strategy induces greater strength gains than the non-failure approach. 10,11 Indeed, several investigations have observed that repetitions to failure produce similar changes in maximal strength, 7,12-15 maximal neuromuscular activity, 7,15,16 and muscle power output 8 compared with the non-failure approach. ...
... Sets using repetitions to failure promote high fatigue, which may induce high levels of discomfort and physical exertion, preventing the correct execution of the movement. 9,39 In addition, it is believed that the use of repetitions to failure for long training periods could increase the risk of overuse injuries. 39 Moreover, this approach also implies a longer time undertension, leading to higher increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and rate-pressure product, 17,18,20 which may increase the risk of cardiovascular complications in the older. ...
This study compared the effects of 20 weeks of concurrent training with and without repetitions to failure on neuromuscular and functional adaptations in older men.
Methods
Thirty‐six older men (67.1 ± 5.1 years) were randomized into three groups: one performing repetitions to failure (RFG, n = 13), another performing repetitions not to failure and 50% of the repetitions of the RFG (NFG, n = 12), and a third performing repetitions not to failure with equal training volume of the RFG (ENFG, n = 11). Training was performed twice a week for 20 weeks at intensities ranging from 65 to 80% of maximal strength. In each session, the individuals started with strengthening exercises and then performed aerobic exercise on a treadmill. Before and after the intervention, individuals were assessed for their one repetition maximum (1RM) for leg press (LP) and knee extension (KE) exercises, knee extensors’ isometric peak torque (PTiso) and rate of torque development (RTD) at 50 ms, 100 ms and 250 ms, muscle thickness of the quadriceps, as well as functional performance on sit‐to‐stand, and timed up and go tests.
Results
After training, there were significant (P<0.001) increases in the LP and KE 1RM, PTiso, and RTD outcomes in all groups. Also, there were significant increases in muscle thickness of the quadriceps and in the sit‐to‐stand test (P <0.05) in all groups. No significant differences were observed between groups in any outcome.
Conclusion
Concurrent training using repetitions to concentric failure did not promote additional benefits for neuromuscular function, muscle thickness or functional capacity of older individuals.
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... 1,2 The magnitude of adaptations induced by CT fundamentally depends on the manipulation of acute training variables. [3][4][5] Regarding strength training (ST), performing exercises leading to concentric failure (repetition maximum-RM) has received considerable attention from researchers; however, the additional benefits that this type of training can promote are still questionable, especially in the context of CT. [6][7][8] It have been suggested that performing repetitions to failure would optimize muscular adaptations, 9 but few studies have shown that this training strategy induces greater strength gains than the non-failure approach. 10,11 Indeed, several investigations have observed that repetitions to failure produce similar changes in maximal strength, 7,12-15 maximal neuromuscular activity, 7,15,16 and muscle power output 8 compared with the non-failure approach. ...
... Sets using repetitions to failure promote high fatigue, which may induce high levels of discomfort and physical exertion, preventing the correct execution of the movement. 9,39 In addition, it is believed that the use of repetitions to failure for long training periods could increase the risk of overuse injuries. 39 Moreover, this approach also implies a longer time undertension, leading to higher increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and rate-pressure product, 17,18,20 which may increase the risk of cardiovascular complications in the older. ...
This study compared the functional and physiological adaptations induced by concurrent training (CT) performed with repetitions to concentric failure and not to failure in elderly men. Fifty-two individuals (66.2 ± 5.2 years) completed the pre- and post-measurements and were divided into three groups: repetitions to failure (RFG, n = 17); repetitions not to failure (NFG, n = 20); and repetitions not to failure with total volume equalized to that in the RFG (ENFG, n = 15). The participants' sit-to-stand ability, timed-up-and-go (TUG), muscle power output in squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), blood lipids and glucose, as well as blood pressure levels were assessed. A subsample of our participants (n = 22) also underwent assessment of body composition by dual x-ray X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). CT was performed twice weekly for over 12 weeks. In addition to the specific strength training (ST) programme, each group also underwent endurance training (ET) in the same session (i.e., ST immediately followed by ET). After training, all groups improved similarly and significantly in their sit-to-stand ability (P < 0.01), muscle power output relative to body mass in SJ and CMJ (P < 0.001), VO2peak (P < 0.01) and HDL cholesterol levels (P < 0.001). There were reductions in the total, leg and trunk percent fat mass as well as increases in the total, leg and trunk percent lean mass (P values ranging from P < 0.05 to P < 0.01). Independent of performing repetitions until concentric failure and greater ST volumes, all CT groups exhibited improved sit-to-stand ability, muscle power output, VO2peak and HDL cholesterol levels. In addition, our preliminary data suggest that there are no differences in the effects of the assessed CT approaches on body composition outcomes. We therefore highlight the need for additional well-powered studies to assess whether repetitions to failure could underlie distinct effects on body composition.
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
The heightened concern with aesthetics can lead to indiscriminate use of
Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS), leading to serious health problems. Objectives: To
determine the prevalence of AAS among bodybuilders in the city of Teresina, Piauí.
Methods: It is a cross-sectional, quantitative exploratory and retrospective study. After
identification of the gyms registered on the Regional Council of Physical Education (CREF 5
- CE/MA/PI), it was applied a questionnaire as a research tool, containing objective questions
on socioeconomic variables, training and on the use of AAS. Data were analyzed using
frequency and Chi-square test (P <0.05). Results: The study consisted of 400 subjects (24.7 ±
6.34 years), 69.5% (n = 278) were male. Use prevalence was 7.75% (n = 31). The users were
male, young (18-25 years). The most used substances were Nandrolone (28.4%),
Testosterone propionate (20.9%) and Testosterone Cypionate (14.9%), with the
recommendation of use made by a colleague or friend (67.7%). The main side effects cited in
the survey were acne, mood variations, irritability, headaches and anxiety. Conclusions:
Therefore, the results of this study identify and contribute for the comprehension of an old
problem, still emerging, which requires relevant policies to act against its use.
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Dentre os diversos protocolos de treinamento de força adotados na musculação, protocolos de repetições máximas ou até a falha concêntrica contribuem para ativar um maior número de unidades motoras, aumentam a estimulação de unidades motoras de maior limiar (Willardson, 2007), o estresse metabólico e a liberação de hormônios anabólicos (Linnamo, Pakarinen, Komi, Kraemer, & Hakkinen, 2005), potencializando, dessa forma, a resposta hipertrófica (Willardson, 2007). Além disso, protocolos até a falha concêntrica permitem monitorar o desempenho máximo do indivíduo em uma determinada sessão, considerando falha concêntrica o momento da série em que os músculos não mais conseguem produzir força suficiente para deslocar um determinado peso contra a ação da gravidade (Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
... Specifically, APRE sets the overall number of sets and the number of repetitions for the first two sets, whereas the third and fourth sets require the subject to reach exhaustion, but the maximum number of repetitions varies with the subject's exercise status (Mann et al., 2010). The third and fourth sets of APRE required participants to perform repetitions until failure, and the rationale for performing resistance exercises until failure is to maximize motor unit recruitment (Willardson, 2007). Type IIa muscle fibers are maximally mobilized during force training under moderate-to-high intensity loads. ...
Objectives
Jumping ability has been identified as a key factor that influences the performance of badminton athletes. Autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise (APRE) and velocity-based resistance training (VBRT) are commonly used approaches to enhance muscle strength and have been shown to accurately monitor the development of explosive power to improve jumping ability. This study aims to investigate the effects of APRE and VBRT on badminton athletes’ jumping ability and to provide practical insights into improving their jumping performance during competitions.
Methods
Upon completing familiarization and pretesting, 18 badminton athletes were included and completed the training intervention (age, 21.4 ± 1.4 years; stature, 170.1 ± 7.3 cm; body mass, 65.9 ± 12 kg); they were randomly divided into the APRE group ( n = 9) and VBRT group ( n = 9). Jumping performance was assessed during the countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and drop jump (DJ) via SmartJump, with CMJ ’s and SJ’s jump height, eccentric utilization ratio (EUR), and reactive strength index (RSI). All participants then completed a 4-week in-season resistance training intervention.
Results
(1) The results of the within-group indicated that only the CMJ (pre: 41.56 ± 7.84 vs post: 43.57 ± 7.85, p < 0.05) of the APRE group had significant differences, whereas the SJ, EUR, and RSI were not significantly different ( p > 0.05). (2) The results of the intergroups revealed that all indicators had no significant differences ( p > 0.05), but APRE had a moderate effect size on the improvement of the CMJ ( η ² = 0.244) and EUR ( η ² = 0.068) when compared with VBRT.
Conclusions
The results showed that, compared to VBRT, APRE can effectively improve the performance of the reactive athletes’ lower limb explosive power in the CMJ in a shorter period of time. The findings indicate that APRE may be useful for coaches seeking to improve the CMJ performance of athletes in the short term.
... Research has already demonstrated the superiority of performing multiple sets vs. single sets for increases in maximal strength [18,23]. Although, there is little direct evidence to decide conclusively whether or not multiple sets should be performed to failure [30]. ...
Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two strength training protocols, equated in volume, on the elbow flexor muscle thickness (MT) in women.
Methods Twenty-seven women (mean±sd, age 21.89±2.85 years; stature,167.82±5.90 cm; body mass 63.01±7.20 kg; estimate of body fat mass, 19.19±2.88%) were divided in three experimental groups: a drop-set (DS), a traditional (TR), and a control group (CG). The CG maintained regular strength training without perform any upper body exercises. The participants performed a dumbbell biceps curl for two days per week for 12 weeks 4 sets of 3 blocks of 10 repetitions at 75%, 55%, and 35% of their 1 Repetition Maximum (RM) for the DS group, and 8 sets of 11 repetitions at 75% of the 1RM for the TR protocol. Rest interval between sets was 120 seconds for both groups. The MT was acquired in the anterior face of both upper arms at 50% and 60% of the distance between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the acromial process of the scapula before (T0) and after the 24 training sessions (T1).
Results There was a significant increase in all MT measurements between T0 and T1for the training groups(p<0.05). In addition, significantly higher values of MT were found in the training groups compared to the control group for all local measurements in T1 (p<0.05). No significant differences were found between training the groups for MT.
Conclusion It appears that both training groups (DS and TR), were effective in promoting MT of the elbow flexors muscles of young women with no differences between training strategies.
... 29 It has been shown that training to`momentary muscular failure, maximizes muscle fibre recruitment (especially to the higher threshold fast-twitch muscle fibres), and increases the secretion of growth-promoting hormones compared to not reaching`momentary muscular failure. 30 Both are important factors for the capability of producing the greatest increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy. ...
... Zeigt "Ausbelastung" (PMF) wesentlich günstigere Effekte auf Muskelkraft und Muskelmasse als ein "sanftes Krafttraining"? Im leistungssportlichen Bereich ist dem definitiv so (Willardson 2007), allerdings sollte keine überdauernde Ausbelastung, explizit im gesundheits-und fitnessorientierten Krafttraining, erfolgen. Vergleichende Untersuchungen im gesundheitsorientierten Fitnessbereich zeigen leichte bis moderat-deutliche Unterschiede (Kemmler et al. 2005) zwischen beiden Ansätzen zugunsten einer Ausbelastungsstrategie. Dass jedoch auch ein sanftes Krafttraining geeignet ist, relevante Effekte bei Einsteigern/moderat Trainierten zu generieren, steht außer Frage. ...
Sportmotorische Basisfertigkeiten wie Laufen, Springen, Werfen als auch Alltagsbewegungen wie Sitzen, Stehen, Gehen setzen ein bestimmtes Maß an Kraft bzw. Kraftfähigkeit voraus. Daher kommt der energetisch determinierten Kraftfähigkeit, der Strukturierung der jeweiligen trainingsmethodischen Differenzierung als auch der zielorientierten Umsetzung eine zentrale Rolle zu. Die Kraftfähigkeit spielt einerseits eine immer wichtigere Rolle im Hinblick auf allgemeine Fitness, Gesundheit und Rehabilitation, andererseits ist das Krafttraining seit Jahren in nahezu allen Sportarten und Disziplinen ein elementarer Bestandteil eines zielorientierten Trainings. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmotorische Fähigkeiten und sportliches Training, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Michael Fröhlich, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.
... 29 It has been shown that training to`momentary muscular failure, maximizes muscle fibre recruitment (especially to the higher threshold fast-twitch muscle fibres), and increases the secretion of growth-promoting hormones compared to not reaching`momentary muscular failure. 30 Both are important factors for the capability of producing the greatest increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy. ...
... 29 It has been shown that training to`momentary muscular failure, maximizes muscle fibre recruitment (especially to the higher threshold fast-twitch muscle fibres), and increases the secretion of growth-promoting hormones compared to not reaching`momentary muscular failure. 30 Both are important factors for the capability of producing the greatest increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy. ...
Background
International guidelines recommend endurance (ET) and strength training (ST) in patients with chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs), but only provide rough guidance on how to set the initial training load. This may unintentionally lead to practice variation and inadequate training load adjustments. This study aimed to develop practical recommendations on tailoring ET and ST based on practices from international experts from the field of exercise training in CRDs.
Methods
35 experts were invited to address a 64-item online survey about how they prescribe and adjust exercise training.
Results
Cycling (97%) and walking (86%) were the most commonly implemented ET modalities. Continuous endurance training (CET, 83%) and interval endurance training (IET, 86%) were the frequently applied ET types. Criteria to prescribe IET instead of CET were: patients do not tolerate CET due to dyspnoea at the initial training session (79%), intense breathlessness during initial exercise assessment (76%), and/or profound exercise-induced oxygen desaturation (59%). For ST, most experts (68%) recommend 3 sets per exercise; 62% of experts set the intensity at a specific load that patients can tolerate for a range of 8 to 15 repetitions per set. Also, 56% of experts advise patients to approach local muscular exhaustion at the end of a single ST set.
Conclusions
The experts´ practices were summarized to develop practical recommendations in the form of flowcharts on how experts apply and adjust CET, IET, and ST in patients with CRDs. These recommendations may guide health care professionals to optimize exercise training programs in patients with CRDs.
... performing a single set to failure) decreases with the increment in the load [41]. The rationale for training to failure, more specifically until the load can be lifted concentrically, is to enhance the muscle recruitment [41,42], albeit this was not confirmed when muscle activation was investigated comparing heavy loads versus repetitions to failure [43]. Nevertheless, performing repetitions to failure seems to promote greater metabolic impact at cellular level [44]. ...
Manipulating resistance training variables is crucial to plan the induced stimuli correctly. When reporting the exercise variables in resistance training protocols, sports scientists and practitioners often refer to the load lifted and the total number of repetitions. The present conceptual review explores all within-exercise variables that may influence the strength and hypertrophic gains, and the changes in muscle architecture. Together with the (1) load and (2) the number of repetitions, (3) performing repetitions to failure or not to failure, (4) the displacement of the load or the range of movement (full or partial), (5) the portion of the partial movement to identify the muscle length at which the exercise is performed, (6) the total time under tension, the duration of each phase and the position of the two isometric phases, (7) whether the concentric, eccentric or concentric-eccentric phase is performed, (8) the use of internal or external focus and (9) the inter-set rest may all have repercussions on the adaptations induced by each resistance exercise. Manipulating one or more variable allows to increase, equalize or decrease the stimuli related to each exercise. Sports scientists and practitioners are invited to list all aforementioned variables for each exercise when reporting resistance training protocols.
... The greater effort applied during RTF may require the recruitment of motor units with a higher excitability threshold [10,11] and a greater increase in metabolic response and muscle damage compared with RT not performed to failure (RTNF) [7][8][9]12]. In this way, greater improvements in muscular adaptations would be expected after RTF [13,14]. ...
Background
Proper design of resistance training (RT) variables is a key factor to reach the maximum potential of neuromuscular adaptations. Among those variables, the use of RT performed to failure (RTF) may lead to a different magnitude of acute fatigue compared with RT not performed to failure (RTNF). The fatigue response could interfere with acute adaptive changes, in turn regulating long-term adaptations. Considering that the level of fatigue affects long-term adaptations, it is important to determine how fatigue is affected by RTF versus RTNF.Objective
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of RTF versus RTNF on acute fatigue.Methods
The search was conducted in January 2021 in seven databases. Only studies with a crossover design that investigated the acute biomechanical properties (vertical jump height, velocity of movement, power output, or isometric strength), metabolic response (lactate or ammonia concentration), muscle damage (creatine kinase activity), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were selected. The data (mean ± standard deviation and sample size) were extracted from the included studies and were either converted into the standardized mean difference (SMD) or maintained in the raw mean difference (RMD) when the studies reported the results in the same scale. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed.ResultsTwenty studies were included in the systematic review and 12 were included in the meta-analysis. The main meta-analyses indicated greater decrease of biomechanical properties for RTF compared with RTNF (SMD − 0.96, 95% confidence interval [CI] − 1.43 to − 0.49, p < 0.001). Furthermore, there was a larger increase in metabolic response (RMD 4.48 mmol·L−1, 95% CI 3.19–5.78, p < 0.001), muscle damage (SMD 0.76, 95% CI 0.31–1.21, p = 0.001), and RPE (SMD 1.93, 95% CI 0.87–3.00, p < 0.001) for RTF compared with RTNF. Further exploratory subgroup analyses showed that training status (p = 0.92), timepoint (p = 0.89), load (p = 0.10), and volume (p = 0.12) did not affect biomechanical properties; however, greater loss in the movement velocity test occurred on upper limbs compared with lower limbs (p < 0.001). Blood ammonia concentration was greater after RTF than RTNF (RMD 44.66 μmol·L−1, 95% CI 32.27–57.05, p < 0.001), as was 48 h post-exercise blood creatine kinase activity (SMD 0.86, 95% CI 0.33–1.42, p = 0.002). Furthermore, although there was considerable heterogeneity in the overall analysis (I2 = 83.72%; p < 0.01), a significant difference in RPE after RTF compared with RTNF was only found for studies that did not equalize training volumes.Conclusions
In summary, RTF compared with RTNF led to a greater decrease in biomechanical properties and a simultaneous increase in metabolic response, higher muscle damage, and RPE. The exploratory analyses suggested a greater impairment in the velocity of movement test for the upper limbs, more pronounced muscle damage 48 h post-exercise, and a greater RPE in studies with non-equalized volume after the RTF session compared with RTNF. Therefore, it can be concluded that RTF leads to greater acute fatigue compared with RTNF. The higher acute fatigue after RTF can also have an important impact on chronic adaptive processes following RT; however, the greater acute fatigue following RTF can extend the time needed for recovery, which should be considered when RTF is used.Protocol RegistrationThe original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42020192336) in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO).Graphical abstract
... Previous resistance training interventions commonly used loads of 60-80% of 1RM [39][40][41][42] given that such loads have been shown to increase muscular strength [38,43]. Previous work has demonstrated that resistance training intervention implementing repetitions until failure protocols are effective for improving muscular strength and strength endurance [44][45][46]. Repetitions until failure was favoured over protocols using a fixed training load given that the open-ended nature of repetitions until failure protocol allowed for a more robust assessment of the effect of acute caffeine consumption across the course of the training intervention. All participants completed two circuits of all 8 exercises, alternating between upper and lower body exercises. ...
The present study uniquely examined the effect of 3 mg·kg−1 chronic caffeine consumption on training adaptations induced by 7-weeks resistance training and assessed the potential for habituation to caffeine’s ergogenicity. Thirty non-specifically resistance-trained university standard male rugby union players (age (years): 20 ± 2; height (cm): 181 ± 7; body mass (kg): 92 ± 17) completed the study), who were moderate habitual caffeine consumers (118 ± 110 mg), completed the study. Using a within-subject double-blind, placebo-controlled experimental design, the acute effects of caffeine intake on upper and lower limb maximal voluntary concentric and eccentric torque were measured using isokinetic dynamometry (IKD) prior to and immediately following a resistance training intervention. Participants were split into strength-matched groups and completed a resistance-training program for seven weeks, consuming either caffeine or a placebo before each session. Irrespective of group, acute caffeine consumption improved peak eccentric torque of the elbow extensors (p < 0.013), peak concentric torque of the elbow flexors (p < 0.005), total eccentric work of the elbow flexors (p < 0.003), total concentric work of the knee extensors (p < 0.001), and total concentric and eccentric work of the knee flexors (p < 0.046) following repeated maximal voluntary contractions. Many of these acute caffeine effects were still prevalent following chronic exposure to caffeine throughout the intervention. The training intervention resulted in significant improvements in upper and lower body one-repetition maximum strength (p < 0.001). For the most part, the effect of the training intervention was equivalent in both the caffeine and placebo groups, despite a small but significant increase (p < 0.037) in the total work performed in the participants that consumed caffeine across the course of the intervention. These results infer that caffeine may be beneficial to evoke acute improvements in muscular strength, with acute effects prevalent following chronic exposure to the experimental dose. However, individuals that consumed caffeine during the intervention did not elicit superior post-intervention training- induced adaptations in muscular strength.
... Strength training based on repetitions to concentric failure implied longer training sessions, higher neuromuscular fatigue, higher RPE, and discomfort [8,12,35]. In addition, repetitions to concentric failure should not be performed repeatedly over long periods due to the high potential for overtraining and overuse injuries [36]. Therefore, we believe this type of ST training is not necessary to improve strength gains in this population. ...
Background:
The "effort character" (EC) is a resistance training method without reaching muscle failure. It was defined by González-Badillo and Gorostiaga Ayestarán (2002) as the relationship between the repetitions performed and the repetitions achievable. Then, the EC is at its maximum (i.e., 100%) when the subject realizes all the repetitions possible in a series with any load. Therefore, an EC of 50% indicates execution of 50% of the repetitions achievable in a series. This study aimed to determine the effects of two programs of eight weeks of concurrent training (CT) with different EC over muscle strength (MS), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), functional mobility (FM), health-related quality of life (HRQoL), and lipid profile (LP) among hospital workers.
Methods:
Fourteen hospital workers (age: 41.1 ± 10.8 years; body mass: 63.0 ± 10.8 kg; height: 165.2 ± 6.5 cm; body mass index (BMI): 23.0 ± 3.4 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to an EC 50% (n = 7) or EC 100% (n = 7) group.
Results:
The main finding was that both groups significantly improved in MS and FM levels but not HRQoL, with no statistical differences between EC 50% and EC 100% in adherence and any test despite performing half the volume of the strength workout.
Conclusions:
An eight-week CT program with different EC (i.e., EC 50% vs. EC 100%) seems to improve the MS and FM levels in hospital workers similarly. These findings could be very useful in health-training practices because of the possibility of planning training loads with half the volume of strength workouts without the loss of any training adaptation.
... For muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, middle-to high-load RT is needed. When RT is performed to failure, low-and high-load RT induce muscle hypertrophy to a similar extent [29][30][31], even though individuals training with a low load to failure complete a higher total volume than individuals training at high load to failure [32]. In addition, the acute response (e. g., muscle swelling, echo intensity, blood pooling, and metabolite accumulation leading to muscle hypertrophy) to low-load RT was shown to be greater than that to high-load RT [33,34]. ...
Online exercise is undoubtedly useful and important; however, chronic adaptations to online exercise, particularly strength gain, muscle hypertrophy, and cardiovascular parameters, remain unclear. We investigated the effect of online exercise training using Zoom on fitness parameters compared with the same exercises supervised directly. In the present study, 34 subjects (age: 42.9±14.4 years) were included. Twenty-three subjects performed eight weeks of body mass-based exercise training online using Zoom, and eleven subjects performed the same exercise supervised directly as the control group. The subjects performed low-load resistance exercises twice a week for 8 weeks for a total of 16 sessions. The sessions included 9 exercises: leg raises, squats, rear raises, shoulder presses, rowing, dips, lunges, Romanian dead lifts, and push-ups. Chair-stand, push-up, and sit-and-reach tests were performed on all subjects. Overall, the home exercise program effectively increased strength and muscle mass and decreased blood pressure and arterial stiffness, but there were no differences between the groups. Changes in chair-stand and sit-and-reach test results were higher in the control group than in the online group. Our results show that there is a similar training response to body mass-based training in both groups, even with virtual experiences using Zoom.
... Our findings revealed that using higher VL thresholds in lower body exercises (i.e., squat) did not induce better 1RM strength gains than lower VL thresholds (< 15%). Some authors have postulated that performing RT sets to a point close to muscle failure is necessary to maximize motor unit recruitment, and consequently, elicit superior muscular strength gains [48,49]. Notably, our findings showed that performing repetitions far below the point of muscle failure (i.e., VL < 15%; We also examined how these VL thresholds affected the different regions of the load-velocity curve by measuring the velocity attained with light (AV > 1 m·s -1 ) and heavy (AV < 1 m·s -1 ) loads. ...
Background: The level of effort seems to play a key role in determining neuromuscular adaptations; however, less is known regarding the optimal dose-response for intra-set levels of effort on chronic resistance training (RT) adaptations. Objective: We aimed to synthesize the current literature on chronic RT adaptations in response to different intra-set velocity loss (VL) thresholds in the back squat exercise. We investigated changes in muscle strength, muscular endurance, sports-related physical performance, and muscle hypertrophy outcomes during resistance exercise to establish optimal dose-response relationships in physically active individuals.Methods: We conducted a literature search using PubMed (Medline), Web of Science™, Scopus, and Cochrane up to April 2021, with no restriction on year of publication. The inclusion criteria were based on the PICO strategy. A random-effect meta-analysis was performed to determine the standardized mean differences (SMD ± 95% confidence intervals) for different intra-set VL thresholds (low VL [< 15%], moderate VL [≥ 15% and < 30%], and high VL [≥ 30%]) in RT on maximum muscular strength, bar velocity against submaximal loads, endurance against a given load, countermovement jump height, running sprint time, and muscle hypertrophy. Results: A total of 4,031 articles were found and 11 studies met our eligibility criteria. Pooled results revealed improvements between pre- and post-training intervention in 1RM strength (SMD = 0.78; p < 0.001); bar velocity outputs (light-loads [SMD = 0.79; p < 0.001] and heavy-loads [SMD = 2.08; p < 0.001]); endurance against a given load (SMD = 1.21; p < 0.001); countermovement jump height (SMD = 0.50; p < 0.001); running sprint time (SMD = - 0.28; p = 0.001); and muscle hypertrophy (SMD = 0.31; p = 0.05), with no significant difference between VL thresholds (p > 0.05). However, low VL elicited greater within-group SMD for 1RM strength than moderate and high VL thresholds (SMD = 0.93; 0.72; and 0.75; for low, moderate, and high VL thresholds, respectively). Low and moderate VL thresholds resulted in greater within-group SMD than high VL thresholds for velocity against light loads (SMD for low VL = 0.89; moderate VL = 0.90; high VL = 0.59); countermovement jump height (SMD for low VL = 0.51; moderate VL = 0.58; high VL = 0.36); and running sprint time (SMD for low VL = -0.49; moderate VL = -0.32; high VL = -0.09). Moderate and high VL thresholds induced higher within-group SMD for muscle hypertrophy than low VL (SMD for low VL = 0.14; moderate VL = 0.40; high VL = 0.44). Conclusions: Low to moderate VL thresholds may provide more effective and efficient training stimuli for improving performance in strength-power tasks, due to the similar or even greater chronic adaptations achieved compared with high VL, despite the lower number of repetitions performed during the RT program. Conversely, moderate to high VL may provide more favorable training stimuli for inducing muscle hypertrophy. Strength coaches may apply these dose-response trends to design optimal RT stimuli based on their specific training goals. Protocol registration: The study protocol was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (CRD42020189321).
... Bei höheren Intensitäten wird die Notwendigkeit der Ausbelastung immer wieder in Frage gestellt, da hier vermutlich die mechanische Spannung als Mechanismus an Bedeutung gewinnt [21], [22]. Es wird daher empfohlen, das Krafttraining bis zum Muskelversagen periodisiert oder wenige Male pro Woche einzusetzen [23]. Aus trainingspraktischer Sicht eignen sich außerdem technisch anspruchsvolle Übungen mit höheren Intensitäten bei Anfängern eher weniger für ein Training bis zum Muskelversagen, da diese unter ermüdeten Bedingungen ein gewisses Verletzungsrisiko bergen. ...
The breakdown of skeletal muscles increases with age and is further accelerated in today’s society due to lower physical activity. The skeletal muscles are primarily responsible for the transmission of force and thus for our everyday movement. With the reduction of muscle mass, the execution of everyday movement is continuously hampered and the quality of life can be significantly reduced. However, strength or hypertrophy training can counteract muscle atrophy by slowing down degradation processes and rebuilding skeletal muscles. Nonetheless, training recommendations for hypertrophy training vary considerably. The primary aim of this article, therefore, is to summarize the current state of research and make practical recommendations.
The most decisive aspect of hypertrophy training seems to be the setting of regular progressive and exhausting stress stimuli that activate at least one mechanism of action that is responsible for hypertrophic effects. In particular, the variation of the mechano-biological descriptors (training resistance, number of repetitions and sets, rests, etc.) could help to create long-term effective stimuli. There is almost no limit to the number of possible combinations, but these have to be adapted to the level of performance and the resilience of the training person as well as the feasibility in everyday life. As in the motto “many roads lead to Rome,” hypertrophy training does not just entail one specific solution for planning and implementation. It is more essential to perform iterative stress stimuli in different variations in order to generate a hypertrophy effect and consequently counteract the breakdown of the skeletal muscles.
... While the sticking region is frequently assumed to be the area where success/failure occurs, there is no consensus on what the sticking region is other than the most difficult region of the barbell lift [6,22,23]. There are many possible mechanisms driving the sticking region (e.g., proper transition from knee to hip dominance [24] or muscular failure [25,26]; however, there is no consensus as how the sticking region is overcome. ...
Previous literature suggests the sticking region, the transition period between an early peak concentric velocity to a local minimum, in barbell movements may be the reason for failing repeated submaximal and maximal squats. This study determined the effects of load on lower extremity biomechanics during back squats. Twenty participants performed the NSCA's one-repetition maximum (1RM) testing protocol, testing to supramaximum loads (failure). After completing the protocol and a 10-minute rest, 80% 1RM squats were performed. Statistical parametric mapping was used to determine vertical velocity, acceleration, ankle, knee, and hip sagittal and frontal plane biomechanics differences between 1RM, submaximum, and supramaximum squats (105% 1RM). Vertical acceleration was a better discriminative measure than velocity, exibiting differences across all conditions. Supramaximum squats emphasized knee moments, whereas 1RM emphasized hip moments during acceleration. Submaximum squats had reduced hip and knee moments compared to supramaximum squats, but similar knee moments to 1RM squats. Across all conditions, knee loads mirrored accelerations and a prominent knee (acceleration) to hip (sticking) transition existed. These results indicate that 1) submaximum squats performed at increased velocities can provide similar moments at the ankle and knee, but not hip, as maximal loads and 2) significant emphasis on hip strength is necessary for heavy back squats.
... Several studies show that training with CF may be more efficient in promoting positive adaptations in hypertrophy and muscle strength (J. P. Fisher, Steele, Bruce-Low, & Smith, 2011, Pinto et al., 2014, Willardson, 2007. However, contradictory findings are demonstrated in some studies (Izquierdo et al., 2007, Sampson & Groeller, 2016. ...
The practice of strength training (ST) promotes several benefits such as increased strength, endurance, muscle strength, hypertrophy, as well as changes in body composition. Concentric failure (CF)Several studies show that exercise until CF may be more efficient in promoting positive adaptations about hypertrophy and muscle strength, however, it is still unclear at which time of the exercise CF is achieved. The number of repetitions (NR) performed in each set may be influenced by fatigue caused by CF training. The objective was to analyze the response of the NR between sets as indicative of CF within a session of ST. The study included fourteen trained men (25.0 ± 3.5 years old) (5 ± 4 years) who performed three sets with 75% of 1(repetition maximum) (RM) until CF with fixed rest interval between sets. Statistical analysis: Data normality was tested according to the Shapiro-Wilk test. Subsequently the one-way ANOVA of repeated measures was used to compare the variance of the means between the moments and, when necessary, the post hoc test was used for multiple comparisons using Bonferroni correction. Percentage variations of decreasing NR between sets were found, being from the 1st vs. 2nd set (45,3 ± 14,6 %;), 2nd vs. 3rd set (41,4 ± 19,5%), and 1st vs. 3rd set (67,8 ± 15,1%). The NR can be used to identify if the exercise is being performed up to the CF, considering that the NR between sets decreases substantially due to acute metabolic changes.
... Therefore, the potential relationship between the acute response to a single bout of RT and muscle hypertrophy after chronic RT remains elusive. Recent studies on medium-load or HL RT indicate that failure induces greater muscle hypertrophy than nonfailure (28), but smaller (10) or similar strength and power gains (4,7,9). However, no study has compared failure with nonfailure using lowload RT. ...
Terada, K, Kikuchi, N, Burt, D, Voisin, S, and Nakazato, K. Full title: Low-load resistance training to volitional failure induces muscle hypertrophy similar to volume-matched, velocity fatigue. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1576-1581, 2022-We investigated how resistance training (RT) to failure at low load affects acute responses and chronic muscle adaptations compared with low-load RT to velocity fatigue at equal work volume. Twenty-seven subjects performed 8 weeks of bench press twice weekly. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: low-load volitional failure (LVoF, n = 9), low-load velocity fatigue (LVeF, n = 8), and high-load (HL, n = 10). Resistance training comprised 3 sets to failure at 40% one repetition maximum (1RM) in the LVoF group, 3 sets to velocity fatigue (20% lifting velocity loss) at 40% 1RM in the LVeF group, and 3 sets of 8 repetitions at 80% 1RM in the HL group. We measured muscle strength, hypertrophy, endurance, and power at baseline and after the RT program. We also measured muscle swelling and blood lactate after each RT bout to investigate the acute response. There were no differences in total work volume between the LVoF and LVeF groups. Responses to RT were similar between LVoF and LVeF, whether looking at acute muscle swelling, increase in blood lactate, chronic hypertrophy, and strength gain. However, LVoF and LVeF RT triggered different responses to muscle function in comparison with HL training: LVoF and LVeF showed enhanced acute responses and greater chronic endurance gains, but lower chronic strength gains than HL. In conclusion, low-load RT to volitional failure induces muscle hypertrophy similar to volume-matched velocity fatigue.
... It is also worth mentioning that Willardson (15) cited a study by Drinkwater and colleagues (16) 17 times in his brief article as evidence to support performing sets to failure. However, Drinkwater and colleagues compared strength gains after training to failure (4 sets of 6 reps) or not to failure (8 sets of 3 reps), both with 85-105% 6RM (equal training volume), 2x/week for 6 weeks, in teenage male resistance trained elite junior athletes. ...
Researchers have expressed concern recently for standardization of resistance training protocols so that valid comparisons of different training variables such as muscular fatigue, time under tension, pre-exhaust exercise and exercise order, pyramid and drop sets, amount of resistance (load), range of repetitions, frequency and volume of exercise, interset rest intervals, etc. can be more closely studied and compared. This Critical Commentary addresses some recent review articles and training studies specifically focused on the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy in participants with several years of resistance training experience. It reveals that many of the recommended resistance training protocols have their foundation in some long-held, self-described bias.
... It is also worth mentioning that Willardson (15) cited a study by Drinkwater and colleagues (16) 17 times in his brief article as evidence to support performing sets to failure. However, Drinkwater and colleagues compared strength gains after training to failure (4 sets of 6 reps) or not to failure (8 sets of 3 reps), both with 85-105% 6RM (equal training volume), 2x/week for 6 weeks, in teenage male resistance trained elite junior athletes. ...
Researchers have expressed concern recently for standardization of resistance training protocols so that valid comparisons of different training variables such as muscular fatigue, time under tension, pre-exhaust exercise and exercise order, pyramid and drop sets, amount of resistance (load), range of repetitions, frequency and volume of exercise, interset rest intervals, etc. can be more closely studied and compared. This Critical Commentary addresses some recent review articles and training studies specifically focused on the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy in participants with several years of resistance training experience. It reveals that many of the recommended resistance training protocols have their foundation in some long-held, self-described bias.
... It also has been proposed that resistance training performed until muscle failure is necessary to maximize adaptations in muscle strength and hypertrophy (7,28,33). This claim is based on the hypothesis that it is necessary to perform repetitions until muscle failure for the complete recruitment of high-threshold motor units, which comprise type II muscle fibers (30,39). Because type II muscle fibers have a greater potential to increase strength (35) and are more susceptible to hypertrophy than type I fibers (12), muscle failure seemingly would be an important stimulus to maximize muscle adaptations. ...
Lasevicius, T, Schoenfeld,BJ, Silva-Batista, C,Barros, TdS,Aihara, AY,Brendon,H, Longo,AR, Tricoli, V, Peres,BdA, and Teixeira,EL.
Muscle failure promotes greater muscle hypertrophy in low-load but not in high-load resistance training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X):
000–000, 2019—The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an 8-week resistance training program at low and high loads
performed with and without achieving muscle failure on muscle strength and hypertrophy. Twenty-five untrained men participated in the
8-week study. Each lower limb was allocated to 1 of 4 unilateral knee extension protocols: repetitions to failure with low load (LL-RF;
;34.4 repetitions); repetitions to failure with high load (HL-RF;;12.4 repetitions); repetitions not to failure with low load (LL-RNF;;19.6
repetitions); and repetitions not to failure with high load (HL-RNF; ;6.7 repetitions). All conditions performed 3 sets with total training
volume equated between conditions. The HL-RF and HL-RNF protocols used a load corresponding to 80% 1 repetitionmaximum (RM),
while LL-RF and LL-RNF trained at 30%1RM.Muscle strength (1RM) and quadriceps cross-sectional area (CSA) were assessed before
and after intervention. Results showed that 1RMchanges were significantly higher for HL-RF (33.8%, effect size [ES]: 1.24) and HL-RNF
(33.4%, ES: 1.25) in the post-test when compared with the LL-RF and LL-RNF protocols (17.7%, ES: 0.82 and 15.8%, ES: 0.89,
respectively). Quadriceps CSA increased significantly for HL-RF (8.1%, ES: 0.57), HL-RNF (7.7%, ES: 0.60), and LL-RF (7.8%, ES: 0.45),
whereas no significant changes were observed in the LL-RNF (2.8%, ES: 0.15).We conclude that when training with low loads, training
with a high level of effort seems to have greater importance than total training volume in the accretion of muscle mass, whereas for high
load training, muscle failure does not promote any additional benefits. Consistent with previous research, muscle strength gains are
superior when using heavier loads.
Key Words: muscular failure, muscle mass, strength, low load and high load
... We further speculate that activation may have been improved with explosive training because every repetition was performed with maximal effort. In contrast, most repetitions during traditional "repetition maximal" training represent submaximal effort with the exception of the final repetition in which all motor units are (or should be) recruited (36). The additional maximal contractions in the explosive training may have elicited adaptations to the sarcoplasmic reticulum that facilitated higher rates of calcium release and uptake as previously reported for sprint exercise training (37). ...
Muscular power is important in applications ranging from elite sport to activities of daily living. Results for improvements in power following resistance training have been mixed, possibly because of changes in muscle activation and deactivation rates. Our purpose was to determine the effects of heavy and explosive training programs on maximal power across a range of frequencies during cyclical contractions using a mathematical model.
Methods:
Maximum force production and time constants for muscle activation and deactivation following heavy and explosive training programs were determined using previously reported data. A muscle-tendon model was subjected to sinusoidal length change and activation and deactivation were set to maximize power for a range of cycle frequencies (0.5-3.0Hz). Power for shortening/lengthening cycles was modeled for each training program and for a hypothetical periodized program with the best results from each program.
Results:
The heavy training program increased strength by 26.8%, and increased time required for activation (20%) and deactivation (48%). The explosive training program increased strength by 10.8%, but decreased time required for activation (24%) and deactivation (10%). Increases in maximum power were similar following heavy (13.6%) and explosive (13.8%) training, but with different power-frequency relationships (optimal frequencies of 1.56Hz and 1.94Hz for heavy and explosive, respectively). The hypothetical periodized program increased power by 30.3% (optimal frequency at 1.94Hz).
Conclusion:
Power during low-frequency movements (e.g. swimming) improved more following heavy training whereas high-frequency movements (e.g. running) improved more following explosive training. These findings suggest that changes in time required for activation and deactivation in response to training are highly influential for maximal power across a range of functional frequencies, ultimately altering the ideal training regimen for specific activities.
... Bu nedenle tükeninceye kadar olan sete sahip egzersizin ideal bir faydası gösterilmemiştir. Oysa tükeninceye kadar olan setler yüksek antrenmanlı kişilerin bir Spor ve Rekreasyon Araştırmaları Kitabı -1116antrenman düzlüğünü aşması için bir teknik olarak öne sürülmüştür(Willardson, 2007). TARTIŞMA VE SONUÇ İncelenen tüm egzersiz şekilleri ile ilgili kanıtlar, çoklu sete sahip programların tek sete sahip programlara kıyasla daha üstün kuvvet kazanımları ile sonuçlandığını göstermektedir. ...
İÇİNDEKİLER
Bölüm 1: Beden Eğitiminde İşbirliğine Dayalı Öğrenme Modelinin İncelenmesi
Doç. Dr. Mehmet KUMARTAŞLI
Bölüm 2: Okul Öncesi Dönemi Çocuklarda Eğitsel Oyunların Önemi ve Kazanımları
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Serhat ÖZDENK
Bölüm 3: Antrenman Planlaması
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Dede BAŞTÜRK
Bölüm 4: Renklerin Sporda Kullanımları
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Mehmet İMAMOĞLU
Bölüm 5: Zihinsel Antrenman Uygulaması: Otojenik Antrenman
Uzm. Ozan YILMAZ
Bölüm 6: Dîvânu Lugâti't-Türk'te Yer Alan Spor ve Rekreatif Faaliyet Terimleri
Arş. Gör. Sümeyra ALAN
Bölüm 7: Direnç Antrenmanına Yönelik Farklı Yaklaşımların Araştırılması
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Dede BAŞTÜRK
Bölüm 8: Çocuklarda Kuvvet Antrenmanı
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Serhat ÖZDENK
Bölüm 9: Spor Kulüpleri Kanunu Çalışmasına Yönelik Görüşler
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Mehmet İMAMOĞLU
... Zeigt "Ausbelastung" (PMF) wesentlich günstigere Effekte auf Muskelkraft und Muskelmasse als ein "sanftes Krafttraining"? Im leistungssportlichen Bereich ist dem definitiv so (Willardson 2007), allerdings sollte keine überdauernde Ausbelastung, explizit im gesundheits-und fitnessorientierten Krafttraining, erfolgen. Vergleichende Untersuchungen im gesundheitsorientierten Fitnessbereich zeigen leichte bis moderat-deutliche Unterschiede (Kemmler et al. 2005) zwischen beiden Ansätzen zugunsten einer Ausbelastungsstrategie. Dass jedoch auch ein sanftes Krafttraining geeignet ist, relevante Effekte bei Einsteigern/moderat Trainierten zu generieren, steht außer Frage. ...
Sportmotorische Basisfertigkeiten wie Laufen, Springen, Werfen als auch Alltagsbewegungen wie Sitzen, Stehen, Gehen setzen ein bestimmtes Maß an Kraft bzw. Kraftfähigkeit voraus. Daher kommt der energetisch determinierten Kraftfähigkeit, der Strukturierung der jeweiligen trainingsmethodischen Differenzierung als auch der zielorientierten Umsetzung eine zentrale Rolle zu. Die Kraftfähigkeit spielt einerseits eine immer wichtigere Rolle im Hinblick auf allgemeine Fitness, Gesundheit und Rehabilitation, andererseits ist das Krafttraining seit Jahren in nahezu allen Sportarten und Disziplinen ein elementarer Bestandteil eines zielorientierten Trainings.
... Another important variable to control during RT is the level of fatigue or physiological stress, which can be controlled by exercising to momentary failure (MF). Today, there is still a debate within the literature about the need to exercise to MF when the goal is to increase strength and hypertrophy (6,7,38,48). Some researchers suggest that reaching MF increases the degrees of fatigue and optimizes strength and hypertrophy gains (8,17,37), whereas others report similar gains, or greater benefits, when training is performed with submaximal repetitions (e.g., not to momentary failure [NF]) (2,13,22,25,28,41). ...
Abstract Santos, WDNd, Vieira, CA, Bottaro, M, Nunes, VA, Ramirez-Campillo, R, Steele, J, Fisher, JP, and Gentil, P. Resistance training performed to failure or not to failure results in similar total volume, but with different fatigue and discomfort levels. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2018—The purpose of this study was to compare the acute response to 4 sets of high velocity of parallel squats performed to momentary failure (MF) or not to momentary failure (NF). Twelve women (24.93 ± 5.04 years) performed MF and NF protocols, in a randomized order with 2–3 interday rest. The protocol involved 4 sets of parallel squats executed at high velocity at 10RM load, with 2 minutes of rest interval between sets. During the NF protocol, the sets were interrupted when the participant lost more than 20% of mean propulsive velocity. The analysis involved the number of repetitions performed per set, total number of repetitions, movement velocity loss, power output loss, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), rating of perceived discomfort (RPD), and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Compared with NF, MF resulted in a higher number of repetitions in the first set (11.58 ± 1.83 vs. 7.58 ± 1.72, p < 0.05), but a lower in the last set (3.58 ± 1.08 vs. 5.41 ± 1.08, p < 0.05). Total number of repetitions was similar between the protocols (MF 26.25 ± 3.47 vs. NF 24.5 ± 3.65, p > 0.05). In both protocols, there were significant decreases in maximum and mean movement velocity loss and power output loss, but higher decreases were observed in MF than NF (p < 0.05). Values for RPE, sRPE, and RPD were higher during MF than NF (p < 0.05). Controlling the movement velocity in NF protocol enabled performance of a similar total volume of repetitions with lower movement velocity and power output losses, RPE, sRPE, and RPD than during an MF protocol.
... Some studies have shown that RT to concentric muscular failure is required for maximizing exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy [32]. In order to avoid high levels of neuromuscular fatigue and maintain a high volume load during all sessions (per muscle group), several methods can be proposed to manipulate load and sets (i.e. ...
The aim of the present study was to compare acute neuromuscular responses and muscle thickness of a resistance training session with continuous-vs. grouped-sets. The experimental procedures were performed across three sessions in a crossover and random fashion. During the first session, all subjects were familiarized and the 10RM load was determined for both exercises: biceps curl (BC) and triceps extension (TE). The following two sessions were randomized for continuous-or grouped-sets. For continuous-sets, 8 sets of 10RM for each exercise (BC and TE) were performed sequentially, while for grouped-sets, each exercise was alternated every 4 sets until 8 sets of 10RM for each exercise were completed. Two minutes of rest was used between sets and exercises. Volume load and muscle thickness (biceps brachii, MT BB , and triceps brachii, MT TB) were measured pre-and post-exercise. Peak force and myoelectric activity (iEMG) were measured for each exercise (BC and TE) and each muscle (biceps brachii and triceps brachii) during a maximal voluntary isometric contraction test. Results demonstrated that volume load was significantly greater in grouped-sets for both exercises (P<0.001). MT BB and MT TB increased after both sessions (P<0.001), however, there was a greater effect with continuous-sets when compared to grouped-sets (P=0.001). Peak force decreased for both exercises and sets (P<0.05). iEMG decreased only after continuous-sets for both muscles (P<0.001). In conclusion, continuous-and grouped-sets resulted in specific neuromuscular responses and similar muscle thickness for prime movers. Continuous-sets decreased peak force, volume load, and muscle activity, and increased muscle thickness, while grouped-sets decreased peak force and maintained a high volume load.
... Training to failure in order to maximize gains in strength and hypertrophy is a topic of debate (Fisher et al., 2011;Stone, Chandler, Conley, Kramer, & Stone, 1996;Willardson, 2007). While there are benefits to this maximal-intensity style of training, it carries a risk for injury (Willardson, 2006). ...
Research in aerobic exercise has linked the affective responses (pleasure–displeasure) experienced during exercise to future exercise participation. While this is yet to be confirmed in anaerobic activities, it can be inferred that making resistance exercise (RE) more psychologically rewarding is an important consideration. The purpose of this article is to review the acute effects of RE on affect, anxiety, and mood and to draw conclusions on how to maximize feelings of pleasure in an effort to increase rates of participation. This review provides evidence to support lower training volumes performed at low to moderate intensities (50–70% 1RM) with long inter-set rest intervals (90–150 s). Additional recommendations are provided based on physiological and theoretical support, but there is a strong need for more research on the affective experience of RE.
... It remains a contentious issue as to whether training to momentary failure is necessary 45 to promote optimal adaptations in resistance training.( Willardson 2007, Davies et al. 2016 Dankel et al. 2017) Some studies suggest that performing repetitions to momentary failure 47 (MF) may be necessary to promote optimal gains in lean mass and muscle strength, (Rooney 48 et al. 1994, Drinkwater et al. 2005, Gieβing et al. 2016) while others suggest that similar, or 49 even greater, gains in muscle strength, power and athletic performance can be obtained 50 without reaching MF ( Folland et al. 2002, Izquierdo 2006, Izquierdo-Gabarren et al. 2010, 51 Martorelli et al. 2017, Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017, Nóbrega et al. 2018). However, it seems that 52 at least employing near maximum efforts is necessary to optimize results from a resistance 53 training intervention.( ...
... Another important variable to control during RT is the level of fatigue or physiological stress, which can be controlled by exercising to momentary failure (MF). Today, there is still a debate within the literature about the need to exercise to MF when the goal is to increase strength and hypertrophy (6,7,38,48). Some researchers suggest that reaching MF increases the degrees of fatigue and optimizes strength and hypertrophy gains (8,17,37), whereas others report similar gains, or greater benefits, when training is performed with submaximal repetitions (e.g., not to momentary failure [NF]) (2,13,22,25,28,41). ...
Objective: To determine what are the effects of muscle failure on the development of hypertrophy in counter resistance training. Method: It is a systematic review type of study, that is, with a qualitative approach and a non-experimental design. A systematic search was carried out in 5 databases (Pubmed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Sportdiscus). After analyzing 405 studies, it was necessary to consider their usefulness and relevance in respect of the review, as well as the credibility or experience of the author on the subject. Results: After the corresponding screening and methodological evaluation, 9 studies met the inclusion criteria, as obtained from this review, the use of Muscle Failure (FM) did not show additional benefits in increasing muscle mass. In addition, it was shown that there are no significant differences when comparing high and low loads using this variable. Conclusion: It was determined that the volume variable is more important in hypertrophic developments regardless of whether or not an exercise is executed towards muscle failure, it is also more beneficial for hypertrophy when repetitions do not lead to muscle failure but are close to it.
Summary of the doctoral thesis Introduction: In many sports, strength is considered an important basis for performance. One factor affecting strength is muscle mass. Therefore, it may be necessary to increase muscle mass in athletes through resistance training. However, the most effective strategy to gain muscle mass has not yet been clearly identified. Many methods used in practice are based on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data. For this reason, different approaches to hypertrophy training were examined in this thesis based on three studies. The methods and most important results of these studies are summarized in the following. Methods: In the first study, adolescent American football players completed a 12-week resistance training program with three total-body training sessions per week using either Block Periodization (BLOCK) or Daily Undulating Periodization (DUP). The aim was to investigate the effects of the different periodization strategies on muscle mass and athletic performance. The second study assessed the impact of a three-week detraining period (DTR) on anthropometric measures and sport performance. In a third study, highly trained male subjects completed a six-week low-intensity calf resistance training intervention either without (noBFR) or with blood flow restriction (BFR). Before and after the intervention, 1-RM calf raise, calf volume, muscle thickness of the gastrocnemius, and leg stiffness were recorded. Results: At the end of the first intervention, both periodization groups showed significantly higher muscle mass and thickness, as well as athletic performance without differences between groups. Following DTR, fat mass increased significantly, and fat-free mass was reduced. All other measures were unchanged after DTR. Both BFR and NoBFR training resulted in significant increases in 1-RM and muscle thickness without differences between groups. Calf volume and leg stiffness remained unchanged in both conditions. Conclusions: In adolescent American football players, the structure of periodization does not appear to have any effect on muscle growth. Furthermore, a three weeks DTR does not result in negative effects. Both results provide new insights that can be helpful when creating training programs as well as for planning training-free periods. The currently frequently investigated BFR training does not show higher effects on muscle growth of the lower extremities than conventional low-intensity resistance training.
Purpose
This study compared sex-related affective responses during resistance training performed to concentric failure.
Methods
The study was a non-randomized trial (quasi-experimental study). Well-trained young participants were allocated into two groups according to sex (Women, n=7, 21.1±6.0 years, 57.6±5.0 kg; and Men, n=7, 28.3±5.7 years, 88.3±11.4 kg). Participants visited the laboratory three times: 1) 12-repetition maximum; 2-3) resistance training to concentric failure sessions. Perceptual measures were assessed before, during, and immediately after the resistance training sessions. The following were assessed: a) rating of perceived exertion for effort (RPE-E) and discomfort (RPE-D), b) feeling scale, c) physical activity affect scale (PAAS), d) felt arousal scale, and e) physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES)
Results
High levels of RPE-E and RPE-D were reported without between-groups differences (p>0.218). Women reported a reduction in the feeling scale (p=0.001) whereas men did not (p>0.680). Larger effect sizes were observed for women compared to men in the felt arousal scale and PAAS (negative affect and fatigue). Feeling scale and felt arousal scale data plotted in a circumplex model of affect indicated a transition to high-activation and unpleasant-affect only for the women. There was good reliability between results from sessions 1 and 2
Conclusions
Training to concentric failure resulted in negative changes in affective perceptual responses only for women. This type of training should be used with caution since it may change the affect perception and reduce training adherence in women. Further studies are needed using larger sample sizes, different resistance-training exercises, and diverse training methods.
Background:
Inspiratory muscle training has been shown to improve exercise performance, however there is limited evidence for its effectiveness in soccer players. This study investigates the effect of inspiratory muscle training on soccer-specific fitness and exercise tolerance in adolescent male players.
Methods:
Thirty highly trained soccer players (16-19 y) were randomly assigned into one of three groups: experimental 1 (N.=10), experimental 2 (N.=10) and sham-control (sham, N.=10). All groups performed inspiratory muscle training twice per day and five times per week for 8 weeks. Experimental 1 performed 25-35 breaths at 55% maximal inspiratory pressure, experimental 2 performed 45-55 breaths at 40% maximal inspiratory pressure, whereas sham performed 30 breaths at 15% maximal inspiratory pressure. Measures before and after the intervention involved the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1, running-based anaerobic test, repeated high-intensity endurance test, maximal inspiratory pressure, and spirometry.
Results:
Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1: distance increased for experimental groups 1 and 2 compared to sham (P=0.012 and P=0.031, respectively), with no difference between experimental groups. Fatigue index calculated from running-based anaerobic test improved for experimental groups 1 and 2 compared to sham (P=0.014 and P=0.011, respectively), with no difference between experimental groups. Exercise tolerance (i.e. blood lactate concentration, perceived exertion and perceived breathlessness) following the repeated high-intensity endurance test decreased in experimental groups 1 and 2 compared to sham (P <0.05), with no difference between experimental groups. Maximal inspiratory pressure increased for experimental groups 1 and 2 compared to sham (P=0.000), with no difference between experimental groups. There were no changes for the spirometry measures.
Conclusions:
Improvements in soccer-specific fitness and exercise tolerance can be achieved using inspiratory muscle training protocols of varying intensities and volumes.
American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand on Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 34, No. 2, 2002, pp. 364-380. In order to stimulate further adaptation toward a specific training goal(s), progression in the type of resistance training protocol used is necessary. The optimal characteristics of strength-specific programs include the use of both concentric and eccentric muscle actions and the performance of both single- and multiple-joint exercises. It is also recommended that the strength program sequence exercises to optimize the quality of the exercise intensity (large before small muscle group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises, and higher intensity before lower intensity exercises). For initial resistances, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 8-12 repetition maximum (RM) be used in novice training. For intermediate to advanced training, it is recommended that individuals use a wider loading range, from 1-12 RM in a periodized fashion, with eventual emphasis on heavy loading (1-6 RM) using at least 3-min rest periods between sets performed at a moderate contraction velocity (1-2 s concentric. 1-2 s eccentric). When training at a specific RM load, it is recommended that 2-10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number. The recommendation for training frequency is 2-3 d.wk(-1) for novice and intermediate training and 4-5 d.wk(-1) for advanced training. Similar program designs are recommended for hypertrophy training with respect to exercise selection and frequency. For loading, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 1-12 RM be used in periodized fashion, with emphasis on the 6-12 RM zone using 1- to 2-min rest periods between sets at a moderate velocity. Higher volume, multiple-set programs are recommended for maximizing hypertrophy. Progression in power training entails two general loading strategies: 1) strength training, and 2) use of light loads (30-60% of 1 RM) performed at a fast contraction velocity with 2-3 min of rest between sets for multiple sets per exercise. It is also recommended that emphasis be placed on multiple-joint exercises, especially those involving the total body. For local muscular endurance training, it is recommended that light to moderate loads (40-60% of 1 RM) be performed for high repetitions (> 15) using short rest periods (< 90 s). In the interpretation of this position stand, as with prior ones, the recommendations should be viewed in context of the individual's target goals, physical capacity, and training status.
In order to stimulate further adaptation toward a specific training goal(s), progression in the type of resistance training protocol used is necessary. The optimal characteristics of strength-specific programs include the use of both concentric and eccentric muscle actions and the performance of both single- and multiple-joint exercises. It is also recommended that the strength program sequence exercises to optimize the quality of the exercise intensity (large before small muscle group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises, and higher intensity before lower intensity exercises). For initial resistances, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 8-12 repetition maximum (RM) be used in novice training. For intermediate to advanced training, it is recommended that individuals use a wider loading range, from 1-12 RM in a periodized fashion, with eventual emphasis on heavy loading (1-6 RM) using at least 3-min rest periods between sets performed at a moderate contraction velocity (1-2 s concentric, 1-2 s eccentric). When training at a specific RM load, it is recommended that 2-10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number. The recommendation for training frequency is 2-3 d·wk-1 for novice and intermediate training and 4-5 d·wk-1 for advanced training. Similar program designs are recommended for hypertrophy training with respect to exercise selection and frequency. For loading, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 1-12 RM be used in periodized fashion, with emphasis on the 6-12 RM zone using 1- to 2-min rest periods between sets at a moderate velocity. Higher volume, multiple-set programs are recommended for maximizing hypertrophy. Progression in power training entails two general loading strategies: 1) strength training, and 2) use of light loads (30-60% of 1 RM) performed at a fast contraction velocity with 2-3 min of rest between sets for multiple sets per exercise. It is also recommended that emphasis be placed on multiple-joint exercises, especially those involving the total body. For local muscular endurance training, it is recommended that light to moderate loads (40-60% of 1 RM) be performed for high repetitions (> 15) using short rest periods (< 90 s). In the interpretation of this position stand, as with prior ones, the recommendations should be viewed in context of the individual's target goals, physical capacity, and training status.
The role of intramuscular metabolite changes in the adaptations following isometric strength training was examined by comparing the effect of short, intermittent contractions (IC) and longer, continuous (CC) contractions. In a parallel study, the changes in phosphate metabolites and pH were examined during the two protocols using whole-body nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMRS). Seven subjects trained three time per week for 14 weeks. The right leg was trained using four sets of ten contractions, each lasting 3 s with a 2-s rest period between each contraction and 2 min between each set. The left leg was trained using four 30-s contractions with a 1-min rest period between each. Both protocols involved isometric contractions at 70% of a maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVC). The MVC, length:tension and force:velocity relationships and cross-sectional area (CSA) of each leg were measured before and after training. The increase in isometric strength was significantly greater (P = 0.041) for the CC leg (median 54.7%; P = 0.022) than for IC (31.5%; P = 0.022). There were no significant differences between the two protocols for changes in the length:tension or force:velocity relationships. There were significant increases in muscle CSA for the CC leg only. NMRS demonstrated that the changes in phosphate metabolites and pH were greater for the CC protocol. These findings suggest that factors related to the greater metabolite changes during CC training results in greater increases in isometric strength and muscle CSA.
The efficiency, safety, and effectiveness of strength training programs are paramount for sport conditioning. Therefore, identifying optimal doses of the training variables allows for maximal gains in muscular strength to be elicited per unit of time and also for the reduction in risk of overtraining and/or overuse injuries. A quantified dose-response relationship for the continuum of training intensities, frequencies, and volumes has been identified for recreationally trained populations but has yet to be identified for competitive athletes. The purpose of this analysis was to identify this relationship in collegiate, professional, and elite athletes. A meta-analysis of 37 studies with a total of 370 effect sizes was performed to identify the dose-response relationship among competitive athletes. Criteria for study inclusion were (a) participants must have been competitive athletes at the collegiate or professional level, (b) the study must have employed a strength training intervention, and (c) the study must have included necessary data to calculate effect sizes. Effect size data demonstrate that maximal strength gains are elicited among athletes who train at a mean training intensity of 85% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM), 2 days per week, and with a mean training volume of 8 sets per muscle group. The current data exhibit different dose-response trends than previous meta-analytical investigations with trained and untrained nonathletes. These results demonstrate explicit dose-response trends for maximal strength gains in athletes and may be directly used in strength and conditioning venues to optimize training efficiency and effectiveness.
There has been a proliferation in recent scholarly discussion regarding the scientific validity of single vs. multiple sets of resistance training (dose) to optimize muscular strength development (response). Recent meta-analytical research indicates that there exist distinct muscular adaptations, and dose-response relationships, that correspond to certain populations. It seems that training status influences the requisite doses as well as the potential magnitude of response. Specifically, for individuals seeking to experience muscular strength development beyond that of general health, an increase in resistance-training dosage must accompany increases in training experience. The purpose of this document is to analyze and apply the findings of 2 meta-analytical investigations that identified dose-response relationships for 3 populations: previously untrained, recreationally trained, and athlete; and thereby reveal distinct, quantified, dose-response trends for each population segment. Two meta-analytical investigations, consisting of 177 studies and 1,803 effect sizes (ES) were examined to extract the dose-response continuums for intensity, frequency, volume of training, and the resultant strength increases, specific to each population. ES data demonstrate unique dose-response relationships per population. For untrained individuals, maximal strength gains are elicited at a mean training intensity of 60% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM), 3 days per week, and with a mean training volume of 4 sets per muscle group. Recreationally trained nonathletes exhibit maximal strength gains with a mean training intensity of 80% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and a mean volume of 4 sets. For athlete populations, maximal strength gains are elicited at a mean training intensity of 85% of 1RM, 2 days per week, and with a mean training volume of 8 sets per muscle group. These meta-analyses demonstrate that the effort-to-benefit ratio is different for untrained, recreationally trained, and athlete populations; thus, emphasizing the necessity of appropriate exercise prescription to optimize training effect. Exercise professionals may apply these dose-response trends to prescribe appropriate, goal-oriented training programs.
Drinkwater, E.J., T.W. Lawton, R.P. Lindsell, D.B. Pyne, P.H. Hunt, and M.J. McKenna. Training leading to repetition failure contributes to bench press strength gains in elite junior athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 19(2):382-388. 2005. The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions X 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF4x6) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF8x3). The RF4X6 treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, + 9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, + 10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF8X3 group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+ 5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+ 6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF4x6 group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of weight training using a single set to failure vs. multiple sets not to failure in young women. The subjects were 17 previously untrained, healthy college-age women (age 18-20 years; 66.8 +/- 12.3 kg). After initial testing, the subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: the single-set group (SS, n = 9) and a multiple-set-variation group (MSV, n = 8). Testing was conducted at the beginning and end of the study. There were no initial differences between the groups. Tests included the 1 repetition maximum parallel squat (1RMS) and countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ). Body mass was measured on a medical scale. Subjects trained 3 days per week for 8 weeks; all training sessions were monitored by investigators. After warm-up, the SS performed 1 set of 8-12 repetitions to muscular failure. If 12 or more repetitions could be performed, an additional 2.5-5.0 kg were added for the next training session. The MSV group performed 3 sets at a target weight (not-to-failure) and used loading variations producing heavy and light training days. All subjects in the MSV were instructed (and encouraged) to move the weight as explosively as possible. The variation in squat training intensity across 1 week allowed the MSV subjects to produce marked differences in velocity of movement in the squat. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA. The alpha level was 0.05. Results showed that the 1RMS and CMVJ increased significantly over time (p <0.05). The 1RMS improved 34.7% in the MSV and 24.2% in the SS. The CMVJ showed a significant interaction (p = 0.047). The CMVJ improved 11.2% in the MSV and 0.3% in the SS. Body mass did not change significantly over time or between groups. These results generally show a superior adaptation for the MSV group.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Currently there is little evidence that training to failure will enhance strength, power, or hypertrophy. Constant training to failure over a relatively long period (>7 weeks) may be counterproductive to one's attempts to increase strength, power, or hypertrophy. Until there is more research substantiating the benefits, constant training to failure is inadvisable.
Human MUs vary considerably in twitch force, contractile speed, axonal conduction velocity, fatigue resistance, recruitment thresholds, firing rates, and firing patterns. These functional properties, together with the corresponding morphological characteristics such as soma size, axon diameter, and muscle fiber size, are interrelated. The smallest (soma size, axon diameter, muscle fiber size) MUs have the smallest twitch force, the slowest contraction speed, the slowest conduction velocity, the greatest resistance to fatigue, the lowest recruitment thresholds, and the lowest minimum and maximum firing rates. The converse applies to the largest MUs. Between the extremes are MUs with intermediate characteristics. MUs are generally recruited in order of size in voluntary contraction of increasing force or effort. Thus, units are recruited in order of increasing twitch force and contractile speed and decreasing resistance to fatigue. In some muscles MU recruitment occurs throughout the range of contraction force, whereas in other muscles most if not all MUs are recruited by about 50% of maximum contraction force. The latter pattern is characteristic of small muscles that perform precise movements. The recruitment order of MUs according to size is based on the inverse relation between susceptibility to discharge and motoneuron size. Thus, for evenly distributed and increasing excitatory synaptic input to a pool of motoneurons, smaller motoneurons will begin to fire before larger motoneurons. This arrangement ensures, for example, that the small, fatigue-resistant MUs will be preferentially activated in prolonged, low-intensity exercise, to which these units are most suited. In brief, intense exercise, the associated greater excitatory input will also recruit the large MUs, taking advantage of their greater strength and contractile speed. A frequent question is whether rapid, ballistic or explosive contractions and movements are associated with selective or preferential recruitment of large, fast twitch MUs. There is evidence of synaptic input systems that preferentially excite large, fast twitch MUs and inhibit small twitch MUs; however, the majority of evidence from human experiments indicates that the recruitment order is not reversed in ballistic contractions. For technical reasons, most studies have used isometric contractions, but recently successful recordings of single MUs have been made during locomotion. Future research must develop a successful recording arrangement for the study of recruitment and discharge properties of single MUs in large proximal muscles during activities such as kicking, jumping, and throwing.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
To investigate the role of fatigue in strength training, strength increases produced by a training protocol in which subjects rested between contractions were compared with those produced when subjects did not rest. Forty-two healthy subjects were randomly allocated to either a no-rest group, a rest group, or a control group. Subjects in the two training groups trained their elbow flexor muscles by lifting a 6RM weight 6-10 times on 3 d each week for 6 wk. Subjects in the no-rest group performed repeated lifts without resting, whereas subjects in the rest group rested for 30 s between lifts. Both training groups performed the same number of lifts at the same relative intensity. The control group did not train. Subjects who trained without rests experienced significantly greater mean increases in dynamic strength (56.3% +/- 6.8% (SD)) than subjects who trained with rests (41.2% +/- 6.6%), and both training groups experienced significantly greater mean increases in dynamic strength than the control group (19.7% +/- 6.6%). It was concluded that greater short-term strength increases are achieved when subjects are required to lift training weights without resting. These findings suggest that processes associated with fatigue contribute to the strength training stimulus.
The identification of a quantifiable dose-response relationship for strength training is important to the prescription of proper training programs. Although much research has been performed examining strength increases with training, taken individually, they provide little insight into the magnitude of strength gains along the continuum of training intensities, frequencies, and volumes. A meta-analysis of 140 studies with a total of 1433 effect sizes (ES) was carried out to identify the dose-response relationship.
Studies employing a strength-training intervention and containing data necessary to calculate ES were included in the analysis.
ES demonstrated different responses based on the training status of the participants. Training with a mean intensity of 60% of one repetition maximum elicits maximal gains in untrained individuals, whereas 80% is most effective in those who are trained. Untrained participants experience maximal gains by training each muscle group 3 d.wk and trained individuals 2 d.wk. Four sets per muscle group elicited maximal gains in both trained and untrained individuals.
The dose-response trends identified in this analysis support the theory of progression in resistance program design and can be useful in the development of training programs designed to optimize the effort to benefit ratio.
Acute and long-term effects of resistance-training regimens with varied combinations of high- and low-intensity exercises were studied. Acute changes in the serum growth hormone (GH) concentration were initially measured after 3 types of regimens for knee extension exercise: a medium intensity (approximately 10 repetition maximum [RM]) short interset rest period (30 s) with progressively decreasing load ("hypertrophy type"); 5 sets of a high-intensity (90% of 1RM) and low-repetition exercise ("strength type"); and a single set of low-intensity and high-repetition exercise added immediately after the strength-type regimen ("combi-type"). Postexercise increases in serum GH concentration showed a significant regimen dependence: hypertrophy-type > combi-type > strength-type (p < 0.05, n = 8). Next, the long-term effects of periodized training protocols with the above regimens on muscular function were investigated. Male subjects (n = 16) were assigned to either hypertrophy/combi (HC) or hypertrophy/ strength (HS) groups and performed leg press and extension exercises twice a week for 10 weeks. During the first 6 weeks, both groups used the hypertrophy-type regimen to gain muscular size. During the subsequent 4 weeks, HC and HS groups performed combi-type and strength-type regimens, respectively. Muscular strength, endurance, and cross sectional area (CSA) were examined after 2, 6, and 10 weeks. After the initial 6 weeks, no significant difference was seen in the percentage changes of all variables between the groups. After the subsequent 4 weeks, however, 1RM of leg press, maximal isokinetic strength, and muscular endurance of leg extension showed significantly (p < 0.05) larger increases in the HC group than in the HS group. In addition, increases in CSA after this period also tended to be larger in the HC group than in the HS group (p = 0.08). The results suggest that a combination of high- and low-intensity regimens is effective for optimizing the strength adaptation of muscle in a periodized training program.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n = 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean +/- SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions x 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF(4 x 6)) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF(8 x 3)). The RF(4 x 6) treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, +9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, +10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF(8 x 3) group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF(4 x 6) group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
The purpose of this study was to examine acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses in men and women to 3 heavy resistance but clearly different exercise protocols: (a) submaximal heavy resistance exercise (SME), (b) maximal heavy resistance exercise (HRE), and (c) maximal explosive resistance exercise (EE). HRE included 5 sets of 10 repetition maximum (10RM) sit-ups, bench press, and bilateral leg extensions (David 210 machine) with a 2-minute recovery between the sets. In SME, the load was 70%, and in EE, the load was 40% from that used in HRE. A significant increase (p < 0.05) in serum growth hormone (GH) was observed after HRE both in men and women, but the increase was greater (p < 0.05) in men than in women. Serum testosterone (T) increased significantly (p < 0.05) only during HRE in men. Since GH and T are anabolic hormones, the acute exercise-induced response during HRE may play an important role in the long-term anabolic adaptation processes related to muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength development.
The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of 11 wk of resistance training to failure vs. nonfailure, followed by an identical 5-wk peaking period of maximal strength and power training for both groups as well as to examine the underlying physiological changes in basal circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones. Forty-two physically active men were matched and then randomly assigned to either a training to failure (RF; n = 14), nonfailure (NRF; n = 15), or control groups (C; n = 13). Muscular and power testing and blood draws to determine basal hormonal concentrations were conducted before the initiation of training (T0), after 6 wk of training (T1), after 11 wk of training (T2), and after 16 wk of training (T3). Both RF and NRF resulted in similar gains in 1-repetition maximum bench press (23 and 23%) and parallel squat (22 and 23%), muscle power output of the arm (27 and 28%) and leg extensor muscles (26 and 29%), and maximal number of repetitions performed during parallel squat (66 and 69%). RF group experienced larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. The peaking phase (T2 to T3) after NRF resulted in larger gains in muscle power output of the lower extremities, whereas after RF it resulted in larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. Strength training leading to RF resulted in reductions in resting concentrations of IGF-1 and elevations in IGFBP-3, whereas NRF resulted in reduced resting cortisol concentrations and an elevation in resting serum total testosterone concentration. This investigation demonstrated a potential beneficial stimulus of NRF for improving strength and power, especially during the subsequent peaking training period, whereas performing sets to failure resulted in greater gains in local muscular endurance. Elevation in IGFBP-3 after resistance training may have been compensatory to accommodate the reduction in IGF-1 to preserve IGF availability.
Reach failure to gain success. Natl. Strength Coaches Assoc
JACOBSON, B. Reach failure to gain success. Natl. Strength Coaches Assoc. J. 3(2):24–25. 1981.
Differential effects of strength training leading to failure versus not to failure on hormonal responses, strength and muscle power increases
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- Gorostiaga
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