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The Effects of Ten Weeks of Lower-Body Unstable Surface Training on Markers of Athletic Performance
Abstract
Initially reserved for rehabilitation programs, unstable surface training (UST) has recently grown in popularity in strength and conditioning and general exercise scenarios. Nonetheless, no studies to date have examined the effects of UST on performance in healthy, trained individuals. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 10 weeks of lower-body UST on performance in elite athletes. Nineteen healthy, trained members (ages 18-23 years) of a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate men's soccer team participated. The experimental (US) group (n = 10) supplemented their normal conditioning program with lower-body exercises on inflatable rubber discs; the control (ST) group (n = 9) performed the same exercises on stable surfaces. Bounce drop jump (BDJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) heights, 40- and 10-yard sprint times, and T-test (agility) times were assessed before and after the intervention. The ST group improved significantly on predicted power output on both the BDJ (3.2%) and CMJ (2.4%); no significant changes were noted in the US group. Both groups improved significantly on the 40- (US = -1.8%, ST = -3.9%) and 10-yard sprint times (US = -4.0%, ST = -7.6%). The ST group improved significantly more than the US group in 40-yard sprint time; a trend toward greater improvement in the ST group was apparent on the 10-yard sprint time. Both groups improved significantly (US = 2.9%, ST = -4.4%) on T-test performance; no statistically significant changes were apparent between the groups. These results indicate that UST using inflatable rubber discs attenuates performance improvements in healthy, trained athletes. Such implements have proved valuable in rehabilitation, but caution should be exercised when applying UST to athletic performance and general exercise scenarios.
... They observed that two training groups significantly improved lower limb alignment after seven weeks, and from this improvement in lower limb biomechanics inferred that lower limb injuries can be prevented. In addition to Myer et al. (15) , Cressey et al. (16) also investigated ten-weeks proprioceptive training effects on athlete performance. They used drop vertical jump (DVJ), countermovement jump (CMJ) and 10 and 40-yard sprint time in pre and post intervention. ...
... DVJT is commonly used to quantify anomalous movement patterns (28) and, consequently, musculoskeletal injuries in lower limbs (19) . However, few studies (15,16) have applied jumps as a way of evaluating proprioceptive training effect. Myer et al. (15) applied a 7-week proprioceptive training with volleyball players and Cressey et al. (16) applied 12week training with soccer players and found improvement in jumping performance. ...
... However, few studies (15,16) have applied jumps as a way of evaluating proprioceptive training effect. Myer et al. (15) applied a 7-week proprioceptive training with volleyball players and Cressey et al. (16) applied 12week training with soccer players and found improvement in jumping performance. The difference between results of present study and studies cited above can be explained by population evaluated. ...
Background: Fencing is an agility sport and is characterized by a combination of short and frequent high intensity movements. Proprioceptive training demonstrates a positive effect on athletes' performance. It is effective in increasing dynamic balance by reducing ankle muscle reaction time that stabilize joint. Objective: The aim of this study was to verify influence of a 12-week proprioceptive training program on ankle instability, jumping performance and ankle muscle’s reaction time during Lunge in fencing athletes. Method: The study was a clinical trial, non-randomized, with 19 fencing athletes from 14-35-year-old, divided in intervention group (n=10) and control group (n=9). The study was performed in four stages: familiarization of jump performance; pre-intervention; intervention and post-intervention. At pre-intervention was evaluated jump performance, ankle muscle reaction time and functional ankle instability. At the intervention, athletes performed 30 minutes of proprioceptive training for 12 weeks, three times a week. At post-intervention, the same pre-intervention tests were performed. Data were presented in mean and standard error, submitted to the Generalized Estimates Equations test with Bonferroni post hoc. The level of significance was 0,05. Results: Jump performance decreased significantly in both groups. Anterior tibial muscle reaction time did not differ neither in any of groups, nor in any of legs. The peroneus longus and lateral gastrocnemius reaction time decreased significantly in both groups. Regarding functional ankle instability, athletes had instability at pre- and post-intervention time. Conclusion: Proprioceptive training program was not able to improve jump performance, nor to decrease ankle muscle reaction time or improve athletes' perception of ankle stability.
... When speaking about the benefits of PT for neuromuscular control, we refer to improvements in muscle reflex activity [6][7][8][9][10][11], reaction time [12]), rate of force development and electromiography activity [13]. On the other hand, the outcomes of interest for functional performance are expressed in terms of postural control [14,15], agility [15,16], muscle strength [15], jump performance [13,16,17], and sprint time [16][17][18]. ...
... When speaking about the benefits of PT for neuromuscular control, we refer to improvements in muscle reflex activity [6][7][8][9][10][11], reaction time [12]), rate of force development and electromiography activity [13]. On the other hand, the outcomes of interest for functional performance are expressed in terms of postural control [14,15], agility [15,16], muscle strength [15], jump performance [13,16,17], and sprint time [16][17][18]. ...
... When speaking about the benefits of PT for neuromuscular control, we refer to improvements in muscle reflex activity [6][7][8][9][10][11], reaction time [12]), rate of force development and electromiography activity [13]. On the other hand, the outcomes of interest for functional performance are expressed in terms of postural control [14,15], agility [15,16], muscle strength [15], jump performance [13,16,17], and sprint time [16][17][18]. ...
The aim of the study was to determine the effects of proprioceptive training (PT) on balance, strength, agility and dribbling in adolescent soccer players. In this research, we included an experimental (n = 48) and a control (n = 48) group (CG) with 14 years old players. The experimental group (EG) participated in an 8 week PT program, with four 30 minute sessions per week. The experimental program included 12 bosu ball exercises to improve balance, stability and strength which were grouped into two subprograms: the first not using the soccer ball, the second subprogram using the soccer ball. The subprograms were implemented alternately during 16 proprioceptive training sessions, on two types of firm and foam surfaces. Pre- and post-tests included the static balance [Balance Error Scoring System (BESS)], vertical, horizontal, and lateral jumping, and the completion of agility (“arrowhead”) and dribbling (“short dribbling”) tests. Regarding the total BESS score, the CG has demonstrated progress between the pre- and the post-test, with 0.780 ± 0.895, fewer errors, while the EG had 5.828 ± 1.017 fewer errors. The difference between the two groups was of 5.148 fewer errors for the EG who had practiced the proposed program of proprioceptive training. The highest difference registered between the pre- and the post-test was at the test “single-leg forward jump with the right leg”, with a result of 1.083 ± 0.459 cm for the CG and of 3.916 ± 0. 761 cm for the EG. Through the analysis of average differences between the pre- and the post-tests, we observe that, regarding the “Agility right side test”, the EG has progressed with 0.382 s in comparison with the CG; regarding the “Agility left side test”, the EG has progressed with 0.233 s compared to the CG; regarding the “Agility right and left side test”, the EG has progressed with 0.196 s compared to the CG; in the “Short dribbling test”, the EG has progressed with 0.174 s compared to the CG. The highest progress was made at the “Agility right side test”, of 0.402 s for the EG, while the CG registered 0.120 s. Most of the results in all tests for both experimental groups show an effect size ranging from small to medium. The progress made by the experimental group in all tests was statistically significant, while in the control group the progress was mostly statistically insignificant for p < 0.05. The results suggest that a PT program performed at about 14 years of age could be successfully implemented in the training regime of soccer players to improve components of fitness along with dribbling skills. The results of the study revealed that sports training on the foam surfaces determined a superior progress of the development of proprioception compared to the increased training on the firm surfaces.
... The core region, which is defined as the central region of the body; stabilization of the abdominal, paraspinal and gluteal muscles, consisting of the spine, pelvis, abdominal cavity and upper muscle, nerve, skeleton and other connective tissues is critical to optimal performance [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. Athletes, coaches and lifelong physical condition for individuals who want to protect core training has been a training and fitness trend is most commonly used in the field. ...
... Core strengthening physical performance of the region. Attempts to apply for the development of core performance training according to the results of the research about the topic; is developing the upper and lower extremity forces [27,19,9], basic education is effective in development [6], 10-20-30-40 m Sprint performance [1,31,8,13], balance performance [33,3,21,10,25] with abdominal muscles rectus femoris maximal force, activation , standing long jump performance and agility [17,13,9,1,2], long distance running performance [25], throwing the ball forward health [28,27,19,31], the shuttle run performance [35], the speed of movement of the body [26][27][28] and maximal launch speed performance [24] was reported positively on the development shows. ...
... Core strengthening physical performance of the region. Attempts to apply for the development of core performance training according to the results of the research about the topic; is developing the upper and lower extremity forces [27,19,9], basic education is effective in development [6], 10-20-30-40 m Sprint performance [1,31,8,13], balance performance [33,3,21,10,25] with abdominal muscles rectus femoris maximal force, activation , standing long jump performance and agility [17,13,9,1,2], long distance running performance [25], throwing the ball forward health [28,27,19,31], the shuttle run performance [35], the speed of movement of the body [26][27][28] and maximal launch speed performance [24] was reported positively on the development shows. ...
The aim of training of young football players Quad-Core core muscle strength and stamina is intended to examine whether acute effect. The research is in the range 13-15 and the age of school's football team plays in 36 athletes voluntarily. The specially designed Quad-Core exercise program for young athletes' muscle strength development and muscular endurance was applied for 10 weeks, 3 days a week, 20-25 minutes (warming) in addition to the school team soccer practice. Determination of the acute effects of training athletes practice before and after the sports-specific endurance (plank) test has been applied. Positive improvements have been observed in core muscle strength and endurance of athletes who have been training with Quad-Core for 10 weeks. Quad-Core training pre-test (95,70 ± 8.92) and last test (123,47 ± 10.01) test significant difference statistically between the values (p > 0.05). As a result, the 10-week Quad-Core training athletes core muscle strength and endurance has been developing in a positive direction. The development of muscle strength and muscular development age children for their own body weight with Quad-Core training basic skills learning and will contribute to the development of basic motor skills.
... Limited evidence supports the notion that such proprioceptive exercises are more beneficial than traditional strength training to improve performance outcomes (10). Football players may suffer from overuse and traumatic lower limb injuries (1,12,21), including anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), and ankle sprains which are the most commonly affected lower limb regions areas (1,12,21), with hamstring strains caused, in part, by fatigueinduced strength loss in the lower extremities (1,21,32). Conversely, there is strong evidence supporting the contention thatdevelopment of the strength characteristics may reduce injury risks (1,12,32). ...
... Limited evidence supports the notion that such proprioceptive exercises are more beneficial than traditional strength training to improve performance outcomes (10). Football players may suffer from overuse and traumatic lower limb injuries (1,12,21), including anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), and ankle sprains which are the most commonly affected lower limb regions areas (1,12,21), with hamstring strains caused, in part, by fatigueinduced strength loss in the lower extremities (1,21,32). Conversely, there is strong evidence supporting the contention thatdevelopment of the strength characteristics may reduce injury risks (1,12,32). ...
... Football players may suffer from overuse and traumatic lower limb injuries (1,12,21), including anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), and ankle sprains which are the most commonly affected lower limb regions areas (1,12,21), with hamstring strains caused, in part, by fatigueinduced strength loss in the lower extremities (1,21,32). Conversely, there is strong evidence supporting the contention thatdevelopment of the strength characteristics may reduce injury risks (1,12,32). For example, there is growing evidence that the implementation of targeted hamstring strength exercises not only increase strength which may reduce posterior thigh injuries, thereby providing greater benefit to the player compared to minimally loaded, unstable proprioceptive exercises (1,6,20). ...
Football (soccer) performance requires a diversity of physical attributes and biomotor abilities, such as strength, power, jump mechanics, repeat sprint ability, change of direction and on-ball skills. In-season training focus is often based on metabolic conditioning activities such as small sided games, tactical and technical football drills and traditional running drills in order to further develop and maintain aerobic and anaerobic capacity. However, this often comes at the expense of strength training, which may be compromised for additional time on the pitch. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide an evidenced-based approach, to the periodisation of strength and power during a football season. Secondly, the increased popularity of incorporating on-pitch pre-rehabilitation and injury prevention programs that utilise unstable exercises during the entire season to maintain strength and power will also be discussed. Collectively, literature suggests that strength and power maintenance can be achieved with one strength session per week for football athletes. However, it is important for strength and conditioning coaches to continue the development of strength and power characteristics during a football season, which not only assists on-pitch performance but may also attribute to reduction of injury risk. Evidence supporting the effectiveness of on-pitch pre-rehabilitation programming centred on unstable training is lacking at this time.
... Different studies have compared the effect of training on unstable bases with training on stable bases, generally finding that there are no statistically significant differences in some neuromuscular performance variables (Kibele & Behm, 2009;Sparkes & Behm, 2010;Mate-Muñoz et al., 2014;Zuo et al., 2022). Some research has reported slight differences in certain variables in favor of stable training (Zemková, 2020;Cressey et al., 2007) or unstable base training (Lago-Fuentes et al., 2018;Sánchez-Sánchez et al., 2022). These findings demonstrate that contrasting results and inconsistent differences are found in the literature (Behm et al., 2015). ...
... In contrast to the aforementioned findings, other research has reported improvements in protocols developed under stable conditions with significant differences. Cressey et al. (2007) determined the effect of 10 weeks of lower-body strength training on unstable surfaces on athletic performance markers such as CMJ and linear sprinting at 10 and 40 yards in soccer players (18 to 23 years old). It was found that power in the CMJ had a percentage change of 2.4% when performed under stability, whereas under instability it was 0.0%, with a statistically significant difference between both groups (p<0.05); ...
Introduction: The effect of Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) has been investigated using various strength exercises and training equipment. Objective: This study aimed to assess the effect of dynamic strength exercises on unstable platforms on jump ability and linear speed in jumping athletes and university sprinters. Methodology: A randomized controlled crossover design was implemented with fifteen athletes from the University of Antioquia. All participants had at least six weeks of training experience, though variability in training years was considered a potential factor influencing results. The study lasted three weeks, with two randomized interventions. Participants initially completed three familiarization of strength exercises on unstable platforms. Pre-tests measuring 20-meter sprint and countermovement jump were then conducted. Two groups were formed: Group A performed a standard warm-up, while Group B completed three sets of eight repetitions of strength exercises on Bosu with two minutes of recovery. Post-tests were administered at 0, 5, 9, and 12 minutes after intervention. Following a seven-day washout period, groups switched protocols, and tests were repeated. A blinded statistical analyst used repeated measures ANOVA and post-hoc Tukey tests for comparisons, with graphical analysis conducted in R Studio. Results: Both protocols significantly improved countermovement jump and sprint performance (p < 0.001). However, the experimental group exhibited immediate sprint potentiation, whereas the control group experienced it at minute 9 (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Strength warm-ups on unstable platforms produce similar Post-Activation Performance Enhancement effects to stable dynamic warm-ups on neuromuscular variables such as countermovement jump and sprint.
... The torso and arms are generally the parts exposed to the greatest "instability" applied further up the kinetic chain, even on stable surfaces. This is why URT could be more useful when training the "core" and upper body rather than the lower body [40]. The results of previous studies included in the meta-analysis [21] suggest that the use of unstable as compared to stable surfaces during strength training is not recommended in healthy adolescents and young adults if the goal is to enhance performance measures such as maximal strength and power on stable surfaces. ...
... Studies that tried to determine the effects of unstable training on lower body muscle power results mostly depended on the study sample training background. Some studies [40,41], which include trained adult athletes, suggest that lower body unstable training attenuates jumping performance. Despite studies that include inexperienced resistance training participants, unstable resistance training may be considered as effective as traditional stable resistance training [36,39,42]. ...
Background: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of resistance training on stable versus unstable surfaces on strength performance in young judokas. Methods: The study included 18 young judokas (age: 13.2 ± 1.2 years) with 4.7 years of training experience assigned to either the URT (unstable resistance training) group or the STG (stable resistance training) group. Both groups performed the bench press and squat exercise for 12 weeks (3 sessions/week, 30–40 min each), with one group performing on the stable surface and the other on the unstable surface. The tests included the 1RM bench press and squat, maximal power output during bench press and squat (Pmax), abdominal strength test (AB60), and the standing long jump (SLJ). Results: Statistical analyses revealed a group × time interaction for AB60 (p < 0.02) in favor of the URT group. Significant main effects of time (p < 0.01) for the 1RM bench press, 1RM squat, bench press power, AB60, and SLJ were found. There were no significant effects for squat maximal power in both groups (p ˃ 0.05). Conclusions: Both unstable and stable resistance training effectively improved maximal strength and performance in adolescent judokas, with unstable training offering additional benefits in abdominal strength.
... However, some studies have shown significant performance improvements in trained subjects. These studies emphasized the performance of strength exercises in unstable environments [32], in this case with exercises for the lower limb. The upper limb has also been analyzed, but without distinguishing between the experiences of the participants [32]. ...
... These studies emphasized the performance of strength exercises in unstable environments [32], in this case with exercises for the lower limb. The upper limb has also been analyzed, but without distinguishing between the experiences of the participants [32]. ...
(I) The execution of different sports involves a significant number of throws, jumps, or direction changes, so the body must be as stable as possible while performing a specific action. However, there is no classification of unstable devices and their influence on performance variables. Furthermore, the effect on athletes’ experience using instability is unknown. (II) The aim of this study was to analyze the power and speed parameters in bench press with different loads and unstable executions: (1) stable (SB), (2) with asymmetric load (AB), (3) with unstable load (UB), (4) on fitball (FB) and (5) on a Bosu® (BB). A total of 30 male participants (15 trained and 15 untrained) were evaluated for mean propulsive speed (MPS), maximum speed (MS), and power (PW) with different types of external load: a low load (40% of 1RM), medium load (60% of 1RM), and high load (80% of 1RM) in each condition. Variables were measured with an inertial dynamometer. (III) The best data were evidenced with SB, followed by AB (3–12%), UB (4–11%), FB (7–19%), and BB (14–23%). There were no differences between groups and loads (p > 0.05) except in the case of MS with 60% 1RM, where trained participants obtained 4% better data (p < 0.05). (IV) Executions with implements and equipment such as fitball and Bosu® do not seem to be the most recommended when the objective is to improve power or execution speed. However, situations where the load is unstable (AB and UB) seem to be a good alternative to improve stabilization work without high performance. Furthermore, experience does not seem to be a determining factor.
... Increased simple reaction time is an independent risk factor for falls in 6 populations of older people SMT (sensorimotor training) is a form of exercise aiming to decrease the muscle imbalance by maximizing the sensory input coming from three sites in the body where there is a large number of propioception (the foot, sacroiliac joint, cervical spine) which in turns increases the nervous system ability to generate a fast and optimal muscle ring pattern, increase dynamic joint stability and improve motor control. SMT emphasizes motor control through progressive challenges to sensory motor system through static, dynamic and functional 7 situations to restore normal motor programs. it may also be a helpful tool at the beginning of a strength training intervention. ...
... The underlying theory is that balancing on such surfaces will lead to heightened proprioception when foot is on the 13 solid surfaces during normal activities. Research on age related changes in balance control has shown an increase in body sway during 7 quite stance both with eyes open or eyes close. Greater muscle activity and body movement are observed when standing on an unstable 12 surface. ...
Background: SMT (sensorimotor training) is a form of exercise aiming to decrease the muscle imbalance by maximizing the sensory input coming from three sites in the body where there is a large number of propioception(the foot, sacroiliac joint ,cervical spine).The purpose of study is to check the effect of SMT on neuromuscular control, balance and reaction time using three levels i.e. stable surface , unstable surface and sand in elderly population. Method:The study was an experimental study with a sample size of 30 elderly subjects of age group 60-80 years. They had performed exercises in st three levels 1 in stable then foam then sand. They were assessed using SOT test, test for neuromuscular control and reaction time. Conclusion: The study shows that the sensorimotor training which is given in three levels i.e., in stable surface , foam and sand are effective in improving balance, increasing neuromuscular control and decreasing reaction time in elderly for decreasing risk of fall and improving quality of life in elderly.
... However, a few studies focusing on the FRT effects on vertical jumping ability demonstrated that although vertical CMJ increased after long-term FRT (Yildiz et al., 2019;Keiner et al., 2020), FRT did not have a great advantage in improving explosive force, which was contrary to a study done on non-athletes (Liu et al., 2014). By contrast, the results of another two studies showed that FRT protocol did not improve jumping abilities (Cressey et al., 2007;Tomljanovic et al., 2011), which was inconsistent with our study. Additionally, two main reasons explaining the inability of Cressey's and Tomljanović's protocols to improve participants' jumping abilities were elucidated. ...
... However, inconsistent study findings were also found in trained individuals. For example, Cressey et al. (2007) reported that elite athletes could improve more significantly by performing stable training rather than unstable surface training in 40-yard sprint time, and they can produce better results for other indicators of athletic performance. Given the fact that the present study target is untrained young men, we should exercise caution when interpreting the treatment outcomes. ...
Background: Functional resistance training (FRT) has been proposed as a safe alternative to traditional resistance training (TRT) for developing neuromuscular adaptation capacity and improving muscular strength and competitive performance. This study sought to compare the effects of 6 weeks of FRT and TRT on upper and lower limb muscular endurance and performance variables in untrained young men.
Methods: Twenty-nine untrained healthy young males aged 18–29 years were randomly given 6 weeks of FRT [40% of 1repetition maximum (RM), 4,5 sets of 20 repetitions, 3 times/week] or TRT (70% of 1RM, 4,5 sets of 12 repetitions, 3 times/week). All participants underwent numerous tests before and after the 6-week training, such as muscular endurance (reps of bench press and leg flexion) and physical performance tests (sprint performance, pull-ups, throwing ability, and jumping ability).
Results: After the 6 weeks of training, the TRT and FRT groups showed an equally significant increase in muscular endurance (p < 0.01), while the throwing and jumping abilities, 30-m sprint, and pull-ups performances in both the groups (p < 0.01) also improved significantly. However, no differences were observed between the groups (p > 0.05).
Conclusion: These findings indicate that both functional resistance training and traditional resistance training are effective training methods for improving the upper and lower limb muscular endurance and performance in untrained young men.
... The available literature consistently demonstrates that unstable surface training is an inferior training method for strength (1,2,28,29,45,65,66,74) and power (16,28,72,81) development when compared with traditional (stable surface) training. Significant reductions in maximal force capacity have Table 1 Commonly used snowboarding terms, technical words, and sayings ...
... A study involving adolescent surfers showed that unstable surface training over 7 weeks resulted in a 6.5% decrease in lowerbody power, whereas traditional (stable) training resulted in a 5.7% increase (72). In addition, 10 weeks of unstable surface training has also been shown to attenuate performance in elite athletes (16). Because of these findings, it is recommended that snowboarding athletes avoid excessive amounts of unstable surface training if trying to develop strength or power qualities. ...
The rapid growth in trick progression for competitive snowboarding over the past 20 years has resulted in increased physical demands required from snowboarding athletes. Despite a wealth of knowledge surrounding strength and conditioning principles for other sports, researchers are yet to address the novel strength and conditioning challenges faced by the freestyle nature of competitive snowboarding. This article, therefore, offers practitioners strategies to address the unique considerations surrounding cultural qualities, injury prevention, unstable surface training, skill acquisition, and recovery strategies for the effective implementation of strength and conditioning interventions for snowboarding athletes.
... In addition to muscle excitation, additional health and fitness outcomes (e.g., force production, power output, and balance) postunstable training have demonstrated inconsistent results, particularly in regards to active populations (1,3,12,(16)(17)(18)20,39,40). Given that optimal balance and stability are fundamental aspects of performance and injury prevention (10), instability devices are believed to be beneficial for individuals competing or performing activities in unstable environments. ...
... Not restricted to reductions in force and power output, measures of agility and speed have provided conflicts within the literature. Cressey et al. (12) examined the effects of unstable training on sprint speed, jump performance, and change of direction ability over a 10-week period in Division I male soccer athletes. Within this study, participants performed their traditional lower-body exercises on inflatable discs as compared to a control group of the same exercises on a stable platform. ...
A growing trend in strength and conditioning is the execution of traditional exercises on instability devices. With the addition of these implements, there is a greater challenge to maintain stability and balance. Implementing a device, such as the BOSU ball, may provide benefits to individuals rehabilitating from an injury, older individuals, and those looking to increase overall health benefits. Thus, this column provides detailed descriptions of the proper technique, advanced progressions, and exercise prescription for 4 bodyweight BOSU ball exercises.
... Despite their widespread application, exercises on unstable surfaces have ignited controversies, particularly regarding their suitability for athletes needing rapid and explosive muscle actions. Critics argue that such exercises are not conducive to the development of explosive strength and speed, which are essential in many sports disciplines (7). They assert that these exercises fail to replicate the specific conditions of activities like running or sprinting, where a firm and stable surface is indispensable for maximizing movement speed, power and efficiency (8). ...
Unstable Surface Training (UST) has gained prominence in rehabilitation for its uniqueapproach to enhancing proprioception, balance, and neuromuscular control. This review aims tosynthesize the current understanding and applications of UST in the sport training, educationaland rehabilitation context. Reviews the historical development of UST, its biomechanicalprinciples, and its integration into modern rehabilitation practices. A comprehensive analysisof clinical studies and trials examining the efficacy of UST across various populations formsthe core of this review. Studies demonstrate UST's role in enhancing rehabilitation outcomes,with particular emphasis on musculoskeletal rehabilitation and core stability makining USTis a valuable addition to rehabilitation programs, offering improved outcomes in terms ofproprioception, muscle strength, and joint stability. However, its application must be tailored toindividual needs, with careful consideration of safety and progression protocols.
... Separately, students' physical capabilities can be rated reliably from physical education assessments, as has been demonstrated from a study on youth field hockey players [8]. Performance classification within any team sport can involve different measures of a variety of variables, which include: anthropometric testing; measurements of different physical attributes support the ability to play [9][10][11][12][13]; skill testing, and measures of how the sport is performed in regards to particular tasks in both training and match-play [14][15][16]; aspects of psychology [17,18]; performance through team tactics; and the roles and/or positions within the whole team structure [19,20]. Both general and sportspecific player capabilities can be evaluated through physical testing, although individual results are not always used in the prediction of match-play performance, due to an individual's competitive performance comprising a mixed complex nature [21]. ...
Coaches typically play a central role in team performance and player selection, but their assessments can also be valuable for the medical team in injury prevention and recovery. This research aimed to evaluate whether soccer coaches' evaluations of their players' physical abilities align with performance testing during pre-season. The players were rated subjectively by two coaches independently, focusing on various aspects such as technical, tactical, physical, and psychological skills. Ratings were given on a scale of 0 to 100, based on the coaches' perceptions of top players in those positions globally. The mean score of the coaches' ratings was used for each player. The study used the Intra-class Correlation Coefficient (ICC) to measure the reliability of inter-coach ratings, while players' scores on common functional tests were assessed independently by the medical staff. Decision tree analysis was conducted to determine the association between coaches' ratings and functional testing scores, as well as to identify cut-off values for differentiating higher and lower coach ratings. Sixty-three male professional soccer players from the Saudi Professional League participated voluntarily. The ICC values ranged from 0.73 to 0.79, indicating good to excellent agreement between coaches. The analysis showed that functional performance scores and coach ratings agreed in 86% of cases, with 88% precision and 91% recall. The algorithm correctly identified 88.4% of players rated high performers by coaches and 80% of lower-rated players. Cut-off scores were determined based on specific functional test results. For instance, players scoring above certain thresholds on tests like the Y-balance test and triple medial hop were more likely to receive higher coach ratings. The study revealed a solid alignment between coaches' subjective evaluations of physical abilities and objectively measured functional performance tests. These results hold the potential for aiding in player selection, establishing preparation standards, and facilitating players' return to play after injury.
... The third outcome measures included the player Performance which wasassessed using the 20-m running sprint as well as Triple-Hop Test (THT): The 20-m running sprinttest: Two trials of maximal sprints of 20 mwereperformed, with 3 min of rest between each trial; following a two warm-up trials; the time taken was recorded using a stop watch; only the fastest trials were included in the final analysis (Cressey, West, Tiberio, Kraemer, &Maresh, 2007).The 20-m running test is a highly reproducible and was able to track aerobic fitness changes in well-trained players (Paradisis et al., ...
Background: the volume of research that has studied the fatiguing effects on postural control is high, while studying the fatigue effect on balance and actual sport performance in football players has been of less attention. Objectives: to examine the impact of fatigue on core endurance and balance in addition to performance in adolescent football players. Subjects and methods: 60 male football players were randomized into one of two groups: one fatigue group, and the control group. Initially, all players were evaluated for core endurance, balance, as well as performance. After that, the fatigue group was given a fatigue protocol to follow. After that, all measurements were repeated. Study design: Randomized clinical study.Results:Within group comparison there was a significant difference between pre and post measurements for all variables of the fatigue group,while in the control group there was a non-significant difference between pre and post measurements of all variables.Between groupscomparison there was a non-significant difference of all outcome measures betweengroups in pre fatigue measurements,while post fatigue protocol there was a significant difference regarding balance and running sprint time and non-significant differenceregarding core endurance and Triple-Hop Test. Conclusion: Fatiguehas a negative impact on adolescent football player'sbalanceand performance that could increase the risk of injury.
... Circuit resistance training is one of the best methods for improving cardiovascular fitness 33,46,47 . In addition, suspension training performed under unstable conditions may affect performance and motor control, positively contributing to a decrease in the incidence of injury [21][22][23] . The intervention in this study was designed for circuit resistance workouts using suspension training with the TRX band to address all physical fitness demands required by military personnel. ...
Optimal physical fitness is essential for military personnel to effectively meet their rigorous physical demands. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a suspension training program on physical fitness, biomechanical risk factors for lower extremity injury, mental health, and work-related factors in Navy personnel. A total of 50 young men participated in a randomized controlled trial. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups (n = 25): the intervention group and the control group. The intervention group performed an eight-week suspension training session three times per week, while the control group maintained their daily duties. The primary outcome was physical performance. The secondary outcomes were determined biomechanical risk factors for lower extremity injuries, mental health, and work-related factors. The data were analyzed using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Compared with the control group, the intervention group showed significant improvements in physical performance, biomechanical risk for lower extremity injuries, and work-related factors from baseline to follow-up (p ≤ 0.05). However, there was no improvement in mental health. Based on these findings, suspension training positively impacted physical fitness, reduced injury risk, and enhanced the work-related factors of Navy personnel. This study provides new insights for various related experts and military coaches because it is an easy-to-use and feasible method with minimal facilities.
... Upon reviewing the literature on unstable exercises, we found only studies that focused on unstable exercises and their effect on agility, which corroborated our findings. Where Cressey et al., observed no significant improvement in the agility of collegiate males' soccer players after 10-week lower-body exercises performed between unstable surfaces group and the control group, but significant improvements were observed within groups [48]. It is believed that the changes in explosive strength, balance, and agility following high-intensity interval training applied to unstable and stable groups, which were shown to be superior to the control group in the current study, are brought on by the heavy usage of high-intensity, repetitive movements. ...
Background and Study Aim. This study compares the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on unstable and stable surfaces on explosive strength, balance, agility, and Tsukahara vault performance in gymnastics. Material and Methods. A nonrandomized trial study was conducted on twenty-seven well-trained male vault players who were assigned into 3 equal groups, a HIIT unstable group (UG), a HIIT stable group (SG), and the control group (CG). The training period for the subjects lasted eight weeks, with 3 sessions each week. All of the aforementioned variables were assessed both before and after the training period. Results. The main findings indicate that both UG and SG showed greater improvement than the CG on explosive strength, balance, agility, and Tsukahara vault performance in gymnastics (ES= 0.52 to 0.68, P<0.05). In addition, there were significant differences between the UG and SG in explosive strength, balance and Tsukahara vault performance (P<0.05) favoring UG, while no significant differences between UG and SG in agility. However, the UG as compared to the SG in agility had only limited additional effects. The UG and SG significantly increased all tests from pre- to post-test (ES= 1.10 to 4.78, 0.98 to 3.53), respectively (P<0.05). The CG significantly increased the explosive strength and Tsukahara vault performance tests from pre- to post-test ((ES= 0.77 to 0.78, P <0.05), while there were no significant differences in the balance and agility tests (P > 0.05). Conclusions. Accordingly, HIIT with unstable surfaces can be used as an alternative method to improve explosive strength and balance. Also, it can be used alongside stable surface exercises when developing agility
... 25 Training on unstable surfaces violates the principle of training specificity, creates unique demands, and may therefore improve dynamic balance. 26 According to Unver B, Erdem EU, and Akbas E, 6 weeks of short foot exercises provide a decrease in navicular drop, pain in the foot, and disability of the medial midfoot in pes planus. 27 The objective of a training regimen in the BOSU ball should not focus on increasing strength but rather focus on increasing stability, balance, and proprioceptive capabilities stated by Behm et al. ...
Background: Pes planus, usually called flat foot is a deformity that causes the medial longitudinal arch to collapseand makes the foot flat to the floor level. Flat feet may be caused by aging, pregnancy, heredity, physiologicalcondition or an injury to the foot ligaments. Weight-bearing exercises are performed on an unstable surface suchas wobble board and BOSU ball as part of the balance board training technique.Purpose: To find out the effect of BOSU ball exercises versus wobble board exercises among individuals with pesplanus.Materials and Methods: A sample of 30 was taken using a navicular drop test on the arch of the foot, NPRS on pain,and Berg balance scale on balance. According to the selection criteria for the study which was divided into twogroups, a BOSU ball with ultrasound (n=15) and wobble board with ultrasound (n=15) were given. Interventionswere given as 6 sessions a week for 2 weeks. The entire process was performed from November 2022 to April 2023.Result: The mean value of BOSU ball exercises at the post-test was found to be higher than the mean value ofwobble board exercises with a p-value of <0.0001.Conclusion: The study concludes that the BOSU ball with ultrasound therapy has a higher positive outcome inmanaging pes planus.
... Matches and training sessions are composed of these intermittent physical demands, often described as a load (Pisa et al., 2022). While EL can be represented by time duration, movement distance, speed, jump count, or jump height (Pelzer et al., 2020), internal load (IL) reflects the biological responses to EL, such as heart rate (Cressey et al., 2007), cardiovascular performance, or blood lactate concentration (Lupo, Ungureanu & Brustio, 2020). The relationship between IL and EL seems to be positively associated, as demonstrated by McLaren et al. (2018) found moderate to large (r = 0.48 to 0.82) ties between heart rate and perceived-exertion internal measures with EL data. ...
The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine relationships of external load variables between beach and indoor volleyball amongst individual positions on the team. The movements of eight beach and fourteen indoor female volleyball players were recorded during elite playoff matches; in total, 2,336 three-dimensional trajectories were analyzed. Time-outs and intervals between rallies or sets were excluded from active play time. In both beach and indoor volleyball, 80% of rallies lasted up to 10 s, and players covered 4.5 to 10 m of court during 60% of rally play. Differences in dependent variables of external load were found between independent variables of sports and player positions (p < 0.05). The distance covered in beach volleyball rallies and Player Load™ parameters was significantly higher by up to 23%. The unstable court surface with sand in beach volleyball elevated explosive Player Load™ (accelerations in all three orthogonal planes of motion higher than 3.5 m/s3) in beach volleyball players compared to those of players on stable flooring in indoor. While beach volleyball blocker and defender positions showed no significant difference in parameters between each other, they differed in all parameters when compared to player positions in indoor volleyball. Indoor blocker and libero reached higher loads than setter, outside and opposite positions in various parameters. Factors that influence external load include the larger relative court areas covered by each player in beach volleyball, complexity of players’ roles, and game strategy. This data adds to the knowledge of elite match demands in female volleyball. Specified agility-drill distances and times are essential for training optimization and must be supported by scientific observation. Researchers, coaches, and conditioning specialists should find this helpful for achieving a higher degree of training regulation.
... Dynamic balance abilities, in addition to relying on solid limb strength to support the torso, crucially depend, in addition to relying on solid limb strength to support the torso, crucially depend on athletes' proprioceptive capacities and spatial positioning and adjustment skills.Improvements in these abilities are lacking in traditional strength training. In contrast, core stability training encompasses diverse stimuli targeting young athletes in different planes, action patterns, and equipment variations[32]. Enhanced athlete reactions and adaptations to varying stimuli under different conditions genuinely enhance dynamic balance capabilities in the training and competition processes of young basketball players. ...
Background
Teenage male basketball players often struggle to adapt to high-intensity physical confrontations. This leads to decreased shooting accuracy and inadequate defensive capabilities.
Methods
This study primarily assessed the effects of a 10-week core stability training program compared to traditional strength training on the balance abilities of teenage male basketball players. Three balance assessment indicators were selected: dominant-side closed-eye single-leg stance, eight-point star excursion balance test, and core endurance test in four directions.
Results
The results showed that: (1) there were significant differences in the scores of both groups in the closed-eye single-leg stance test before and after training (p < 0.01), (2) in the eight-point star excursion balance test, except for no significant difference in the scores in direction C when using the left foot for support before and after training in the experimental group (p > 0.05), the scores when using both feet for support in other directions showed significant differences (p < 0.05) or highly significant differences (p < 0.01) before and after training; (3) in the core endurance test in four directions, there were no significant differences in the scores of the control group before and after training (p > 0.05), while significant differences existed in the scores of the experimental group before and after training (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
Core stability training significantly enhanced the balance abilities of teenage basketball players and proved to be superior to traditional strength training in improving balance capabilities.
... If mechanical tension is reduced, then it may also follow that the overload stimulus could be diminished, too. It is also reported that unstable exercise does not allow sufficient loading to induce strength (and growth) adaptations and that exercise performance improvement could even be diminished in healthy, trained clients 49 . Interestingly, a study conducted by Medrano and colleagues showed that stable deadlifts elicit higher production of maximum strength and muscle activity when compared to unstable deadlifts 50 . ...
Instability Functional Training (IFT) has been a popular form of program design in personal training certifications, and thus, widely accepted among trainers and coaches when creating programs for their clients. Training philosophies around this exercise style have been plotted in various directions, ranging from mainstream advocacy to vehement opposition. It is common practice for personal trainers to utilize unstable training and blanket all clients into this methodology in specific and non-specific exercise programs. The research does support its viability in clinical rehabilitation settings; however, it may not benefit a healthier population and may even undermine their goals. We ask trainers and coaches to consider their current position on the validity of IFT and to examine the evidence when programming it for the general public whose primary goal is to improve how they look (e.g., lose fat mass and increase lean body mass). Therefore, this article aims to help identify the merit of instability functional training, objectively review the current literature and recommend a practical approach for trainers and coaches when designing general exercise programs for clients with aesthetic goals.
... Esta demanda adicional que implica la función estabilizadora, podría ser la razón por la cual algunos estudios reportan que el entrenamiento de fuerza realizado sobre superficies inestables presenta menor transferencia al sprint y al salto. Cressey et al. (2007) trabajando con deportistas jóvenes entrenados encontraron que, tras 10 semanas de intervención, la realización de estocadas dinámicas en superficies inestables (discos de goma inflables) redundó de las cargas, las micro y macro pausas, los ejercicios seleccionados y las características de los sujetos entrenados (Bompa, 2004). En cuanto a la selección de los ejercicios, también son varios los factores que hacen que los mismos tengan un buen potencial de transferencia a gestos como saltar o desplazarse a máxima velocidad. ...
Sprint speed and vertical jumping ability are fundamental requirements to reach high performance in soccer. There is controversy about the type of resistance exercise (bilateral or unilateral) that allows greater transfer to these gestures. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of strength training using squats vs lunges on vertical jump speed and 20-meter linear sprint in youth soccer players. Seventy-nine subjects randomly divided into three groups participated in the study: lunge training (GE) (n = 28; age = 16.5 ± 1.2 years); squat training (GS) (n = 24; age = 16.3 ± 1.4 years) and control group (GC) (n = 27; age = 16.5 ± 1.2 years). GE and GS performed strength training twice a week during 12 weeks. Before and after the intervention, all subjects were tested for maximum speed at CMJ and linear sprint of 20m. All three groups significantly improved performance (p < .05) in the 20m sprint, with the improvement being significantly greater in the experimental groups compared to GC (p < .05), with no differences between the former. No significant improvement in maximum speed at CMJ was verified for either group. Both bilateral and predominantly unilateral strength training appear to be beneficial for the improvement of sprint speed performance in youth soccer players, with no significant differences between them.
... Esta demanda adicional que implica la función estabilizadora, podría ser la razón por la cual algunos estudios reportan que el entrenamiento de fuerza realizado sobre superficies inestables presenta menor transferencia al sprint y al salto. Cressey et al. (2007) trabajando con deportistas jóvenes entrenados encontraron que, tras 10 semanas de intervención, la realización de estocadas dinámicas en superficies inestables (discos de goma inflables) redundó de las cargas, las micro y macro pausas, los ejercicios seleccionados y las características de los sujetos entrenados (Bompa, 2004). En cuanto a la selección de los ejercicios, también son varios los factores que hacen que los mismos tengan un buen potencial de transferencia a gestos como saltar o desplazarse a máxima velocidad. ...
La velocidad de sprint y la capacidad de salto vertical son requisitos fundamentales para alcanzar el alto rendimiento en fútbol. Existe controversia sobre el tipo de ejercicio de fuerza (bilateral o unilateral) que permite mayor transferencia a estos gestos. El objetivo del presente estudio fue comparar el efecto del entrenamiento de fuerza utilizando sentadillas vs estocadas sobre la velocidad de salto vertical y el sprint lineal en 20 metros en jugadores de fútbol juvenil. Participaron en el estudio 79 sujetos divididos aleatoriamente en tres grupos: entrenamiento con estocadas (GE) (n = 28; edad = 16,5 ± 1,2 años); entrenamiento con sentadillas (GS) (n = 24; edad = 16,3 ± 1,4 años) y grupo control (GC) (n = 27; edad = 16,5 ± 1,2 años). GE y GS realizaron entrenamiento de fuerza dos veces por semana. Previo y posterior a la intervención, todos los sujetos fueron testeados en velocidad máxima en CMJ y sprint lineal de 20m. Todos los grupos mejoraron significativamente el rendimiento (p < ,05) en el sprint en 20 m, verificándose una diferencia significativa entre los grupos experimentales y GC (p < ,05), sin diferencias entre los primeros. No se verificó una mejora significativa en la velocidad máxima en CMJ para ninguno de los grupos. Tanto el entrenamiento de fuerza bilateral como predominantemente unilateral parecen ser beneficiosos para la mejora del rendimiento en velocidad de desplazamiento horizontal en jugadores de fútbol de categoría juvenil.
... However, in terms of adaptations in strength and power, the results are less clear. In general, most studies have used resistance training regimen (with machines or free-weight) and found that USSE and traditional exercise prescription have almost similar effects on adaptations in strength and power of lower-body muscles (Cressey, West, Tiberio, Kraemer, & Maresh, 2007;Eckardt, 2016;Prieske et al., 2016). In fact, USSE may have some advantages in improving mobility (Pirauá et al., 2019) and trunk strength performance (Hoshikawa et al., 2013;Kibele & Behm, 2009;Granacher et al., 2014) in adolescents and seniors. ...
Although unstable strength training has gained popularity among athletes and the recreational population, there is scarce data regarding the applicability of this type of exercise program in school settings. The aim of the study was to investigate whether the implementation of an unstable surface strength exercise program in physical education would contribute to the improvement of physical fitness in 14-years students. A sample of 220 adolescents (112 girls) was randomly assigned to either the EXP (calisthenics exercise under unstable conditions) or the CON group (prescribed physical education strength exercise program). Before and after the 12- week period, upper-body isometric and repetitive strength were accessed using 4 motor tests. In addition, skinfold thickness (ST) was determined in subscapular, pectoral, and abdominal areas. Both groups improved strength performance (p < 0.01), with greater increase in EXP compared to CON for all motor tests (p < 0.01, ES = 0.21 – 0.45). Both groups decreased total, subscapular and abdominal ST (p < 0.05), with no significant effect of group. Unstable surface strength exercises are effective in improving physical abilities and should be included in the regular physical education curriculum.
... However, one study showed the YBT to be significantly correlated with change of direction speed performance in young elite soccer players [35] Another study showed moderate associations between DBP (YBT) and speed performance (10 m and 30 m) in prepubescent soccer players [10]. In addition, it was demonstrated that balance training on both stable and unstable surfaces can lead to improvements in linear speed performance (40-Yard-sprint) [36]. Finally, the authors affirm that the activities requiring explosive power, such as change of direction movement, may reflect the ability to managing a better-balanced posture during fast actions [37]. ...
The ability to maintain a stable single-leg balance stance during a fast change of direction movement is a fundamental aspect both for improving sport-specific skills and for prevention strategies. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the associations between multidirectional speed performance (MDS), dynamic balance performance (DBP), and chronological age in young and uninjured soccer players. In addition, it was examined whether chronological age and balance can predict variance in speed performance. One-hundred forty-six young male soccer players (age range 11–19) performed the y-balance test (YBT) and the lower extremity functional test (LEFT). Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple regression analysis were executed. The analyses were carried out on the further variables: for the DBP, the YBT composite score % (CS dominant leg/CS non-dominant leg) and limb symmetry index % (LSI) were used; for the MDS, the LEFT time in seconds (s) was used. Findings revealed LEFT scores to have a significant association with chronological age (p = 0.000), CS dominant (p = 0.019) and LSI (p = 0.044) of the YBT. In addition, CS dominant and chronological age explained the variance of the LEFT by 44%, regardless of LSI. To conclude, MDS revealed a strong association with DBP of the dominant side but a small association with LSI. In addition, a small association was found between quick LEFT times and older players. Finally, MDS variance can be predicted from DBP of the dominant side and chronological age in young soccer players. The tests used in this study could be useful screening tools for the detection of performance deficits, the implementation of prevention training programs, and the optimization of selection strategies in soccer academies.
... Spor yapılan alanlardaki bu farklılıklar sportif performansı da herhangi bir biçimde pozitif ya da negatif olarak etkilemektedir. İlgili alan yazına bakıldığında son zamanlarda farklı zeminlerde spor yapan sporcularla ilgili olarak yapılan araştırmalar sınırlılık göstermektedir (7,11,12,13). Tüm bu bilgiler doğrultusunda; bu araştırmada farklı saha zeminlerinin profesyonel erkek futbolcuların çeviklik performanslarına olan etkisini incelemek amaçlandı. ...
... However, all these investigations reported improvements in the activation of the lumbopelvic muscles in UST protocols, except for one investigation where the results were similar (Saeterbakken & Fimland, 2013). Research of pooled results shows that training on instability surfaces can attenuate physiological adaptations (Cressey, West, Tiberio, Kraemer, & Maresh, 2007), mainly reducing the ability to generate force and power (Behm & Anderson, 2006;Chulvi-Medrano et al., 2010). Also, the disturbances generated by training on unstable surfaces do not affect untrained people in the same magnitude as in highly trained athletes, generating fewer effects in this population (Wahl & Behm, 2008). ...
Effects of 8-weeks of stable vs unstable surface destabilizing training on shot outcome in elite golfers Efectos de 8 semanas de entrenamiento desestabilizador en superficies estables vs inestables sobre el resultado de los golpes en golfistas de élite Abstract. Purpose: This research aimed to compare the effect of two intervention programs using stable or unstable surfaces on speed and hitting distance in golf stroke/swing. Methods: Twenty-five elite golfers (19.20 ± 1.77 years, height = 181.12 ± 4 cm, body mass = 75.35 ± 5.83; kg, BMI = 22.71 ± 1.76 kg.m2, handicap: 2.49 ± 2.56) were randomly assigned to two different 8-week training programs based on unstable surface (n = 12) or stable surface training (n=13). Measurements of carry distance and club head speed were performed using the Trackman Golf® system, with each participant executing five swings and obtaining the average and best distance. Results: No significant changes (p< 0.05) in the club head speed or carry distance were found after the intervention in the stable surface or the unstable surface training group. Conclusions: The proposed intervention using instability surfaces does not provide any additional benefit to training on stable surfaces in the specific performance of the stroke in elite golfers.
... Moreover, after ten weeks of proprioceptive training on an unstable platform they have noted improvement in a 40-yard test (between 1.8 and 3.9%), also plyometric tests analysis found improvements in Squat jump and Counter movement jumps for the experimental group. Another group of researchers were reported similar results [35], there was no significant change in 20-meter dash after ten weeks of proprioceptive training, but improvements in the jump of those athletes who had included proprioceptive training on unstable platforms in their training routines have been found. ...
The purpose of this research is to identify, through longitudinal study, the qualitative effects of both prescribed and modified physical education syllabus, on the motor abilities of the students of each syllabus, and to offer the recommendations for improving syllabus. All tests were conducted on a sample of 122 respondents, first and second year students attending secondary schools. Sixty-three respondents were participants of the experimental group and 59 were participants of the control group. For assessing the basic motor abilities of the students, the standard motor tests were used. Data was analyzed using the application statistics program SPSS 20.0. The results showed that a significant difference in progress was found in 40-meter dash from a standing start, 60-meter dash from a standing start, double foot tapping, squat, standing long jump, standing triple jump among the groups, while a significant difference was not found in six remaining tests among the groups. These findings give the competent authorities who are in charge of creating teaching syllabus in Serbia better working knowledge and suggestions for developing even better teaching syllabus by following contemporary trends.
... Unstable surfaces (inflatable discs, wobble or balance boards, foam tubes, and high-and low-density foam platforms…) reduce and modify the person's foot contact with the floor/ground [8]. Consequently, postural control on such surfaces increases the demand of proprioceptive inputs to expand the information about the characteristics of the support surface, in order to perform the adequate motor responses [9]. ...
Background
Although the effects of balance training on unstable surfaces have been widely studied, the impact of exposure to an unstable surface in static balance throughout childhood has not been described to date.
Research question
How does postural stability vary between sexes in children 6 to 12 years of age during single leg static support on unstable surface? What are the normative values of center of mass acceleration in the mentioned age range during such test?
Is the postural stability on an unstable surface in the postural control of children aged 6-12 years during static single-leg stance. Secondarily, the normative acceleration values of the gravity centre, recorded during such tests and throughout the mentioned age range, were also provided.
Methods
Descriptive, transversal study conducted with a total of 316 school children (girls = 158). The analysed variables were the mean and maximum values obtained in each of the three body axes and their root mean square during static single-leg support test on an unstable surface (a mat).
Findings
Accelerations decreased in magnitude with the increasing age of the participants. The highest accelerometric values were recorded in the medio-lateral axis in both sexes and throughout the entire age range studied. Between sexes, the greatest differences were obtained between 8 and 11 year-olds. The regression models revealed significant values about the influence of sex on the accelerometric variables (girls were more likely to obtain less accelerations in postural adjustments with increasing age).
Interpretation
Boys depend more on somatoaesthetic information, whereas girls would use more visual and vestibular information. In the age range of 8-11 years, the postural control system is significantly different between sexes regarding the hierarchy of the efferent information of the available postural control subsystems. Moreover, the reactions of straightening and postural control on single-leg stance are, fundamentally, flexion-extension movements.
... Discrepancies can be mainly observed in acute and/or adaptive changes in muscle strength and power, as well as electromyographic (EMG) muscle activity in response to exercises performed under unstable conditions [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. For instance, one of the former studies revealed that unstable surface training using inflatable balance discs attenuates an improvement in athlete's performance [19]. The authors suggest that unstable surface training would be the best utilized in the upper body, which typically 2 of 11 operates in an open-chain fashion in the majority of sporting movements. ...
Featured Application
Though both the long-term and acute effect of instability resistance exercises on lower and upper body muscle power and strength has been widely investigated, the cross-transfer effect of these exercises on power produced during traditional resistance exercises on stable surfaces has yet to be fully examined. Our study revealed no cross effect of instability resistance training on power outputs under stable conditions. This confirms and complies with the principle for specificity of training. If one is aiming to specifically improve strength at high contraction velocities then unstable surfaces should not be included in resistance training.
Abstract
This study evaluates the effect of 8 weeks of the stable and unstable resistance training on muscle power. Thirty-three healthy men recreationally trained in resistance exercises, randomly assigned into two groups, performed resistance exercises either under stable or unstable conditions for 8 weeks (three sessions per week). Before and after 4 and 8 weeks of the training, they underwent squats and chest presses on either a stable surface or on a BOSU ball and a Swiss ball respectively with increasing weights up to at least 85% 1RM. Results showed significant improvements of mean power during chest presses on a Swiss ball at weights up to 60.7% 1RM after 4 and 8 weeks of the instability resistance training. Mean power increased significantly also during squats on a BOSU ball at weights up to 48.1% 1RM after 4 but not 8 weeks of instability resistance training. However, there were no significant changes in mean power during bench presses and squats on a stable support surface after the same training. These findings indicate that there is no cross effect of instability resistance training on power produced under stable conditions. This confirms and complies with the principle for specificity of training.
... In theory, performing exercises with a suspension trainer should require greater muscle activation, and thus have a greater impact on strength than equivalent exercises performed without suspension conditions (10). Accordingly, the present study aimed to determine the effects of ST versus traditional strength training on explosive strength in prepubescent boys. ...
Marta, C, Alves, AR, Casanova, N, Neiva, HP, Marinho, D, Izquierdo, M, Nunes, C, and Marques, MC. Suspension vs. plyometric training in children's explosive strength. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different training programs, that is, 8 weeks of suspension training (ST) or plyometric training (PT), on measures of strength and power in untrained healthy children. One hundred eighteen children (57 boys and 61 girls) aged 10-11 years (mean ± SD: 10.84 ± 0.46 years) were randomly assigned into PT (19 boys and 22 girls), ST (20 boys and 18 girls), and control (CT) (18 boys and 21 girls; no training program) group. Experimental groups were trained twice a week for 8 weeks. Countermovement jump, standing long jump, medicine ball throw, and 20-m sprint were measured at baseline and after intervention. The results showed a significant group effect on training-induced responses (F = 10.26; p < 0.01; ηp2 = 0.33), with clear improvements from pre- to posttraining in PT and ST. Regardless of training group, no differences were found in boys and girls (F = 0.70; p = 0.62; ηp2 = 0.03). After 8 weeks of training, PT and ST showed increased performances in 1-kg (mean ± CI 95%; 0.18 ± 0.05 and 0.19 ± 0.05 m) and 3-kg (0.12 ± 0.08 and 0.12 ± 0.09 m) medicine ball throws and 20-m sprints (-0.08 ± 0.03 s and -0.04 ± 0.04 s) compared with CT (p < 0.05; d > 0.60). Standing long jump was significantly increased after ST when compared with CT (0.07 ± 0.04 m; p < 0.01; d = 0.88). Plyometric training showed higher improvements than ST in sprint (0.04 ± 0.03; p = 0.01; d = 0.71). It is suggested that 8 weeks of ST or PT seems to be effective to improve strength- and power-related variables in healthy untrained children. These could be considered as alternatives to traditional resistance training and be applied in school-based programs.
In recent years, there has been a shift from traditional resistance training to functional training. Unstable surface (US) methods and equipment have been used in functional training for many years. To eliminate some of the disadvantages of these methods and equipment, unstable load (UL) methods, an alternative method, have begun to be used. In the unstable surface (US) method, instability is between the body and an unstable training surface, while in the unstable load (UL) method, instability is between the body and an unstable load. The deficiencies in force output that occur when training on an unstable surface are one of the main reasons why training on an unstable surface is not recommended in an athletic population. However, it is observed that no increase in the activation level of agonist muscles is observed in trainings performed on unstable surfaces. It is observed that strength loss decreases to a minimum level in unstable load (UL) methods. An increase in the activation of agonist muscles is reported in these methods. The purpose of this review is to define unstable load and ground methods, which are increasingly used by researchers and practitioners and are a current approach in resistance training, from a holistic perspective, to explain the terms and equipment used, and to provide information about their applications. (Extended English summary is at the end of this document) Özet Son yıllarda geleneksel direnç antrenmanlarından fonksiyonel antrenmana doğru bir değişim yaşanmaktadır. Fonksiyonel antrenmanlarda stabil olmayan zemin (SOZ) yöntemleri ve ekipmanları uzun yıllardır kullanılmaktadır. Bu yöntem ve ekipmanların birtakım dezavantajlarını ortadan kaldırmak adına alternatif bir yöntem olan stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yöntemleri kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Stabil olmayan zemin (SOZ) yönteminde instabilite vücut ile instabil bir antrenman yüzeyi arasında iken stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yönteminde ise instabilite, vücut ile instabil bir yük arasındadır. Stabil olmayan bir yüzeyde antrenman yaparken oluşan kuvvet çıkışındaki eksiklikler, atletik bir popülasyonda stabil olmayan bir yüzeyde antrenmanın tavsiye edilmemesinin ana nedenlerinden biridir. Bununla birlikte stabil olmayan zeminlerde yapılan antrenmanlarda agonist kasların aktivasyon seviyesinde bir artış gözlemlenmediği görülmektedir. Stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yöntemlerinde kuvvet kaybının minimuma seviyeye düştüğü görülmektedir. Bu yöntemlerde agonist kasların aktivasyonunda bir artış olduğu rapor edilmektedir. Bu derlemenin amacı, araştırmacılar ve uygulayıcılar tarafından kullanımı gün geçtikçe artan ve direnç antrenmanlarında güncel bir yaklaşım olan stabil olmayan yük ve zemin yöntemlerini bütünsel bir bakış açısıyla tanımlamak, kullanımındaki terimleri ve ekipmanları açıklamak ve uygulamaları hakkında bilgi vermektir.
Linear sprinting and turning actions are frequently performed in a soccer game, linked with crucial game moments. A comprehensive and systematic search in linear speed and change of direction (COD) ability assessment procedures in elite soccer is needed. The aims of the systematic review are (1) to identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess linear speed and COD ability of elite male soccer players, (2) to provide normative values for the most common tests of linear speed and COD ability, and (3) to report the reliability values of the identified linear speed and COD tests. For linear speed testing, sprint distances ranged from 5-50 m, with 10 m (72 studies), 20 m (54 studies), 5 m (46 studies), and 30 m (46 studies) being the most frequently assessed. For COD testing, the zig-zag test (14 studies), the agility T-test (11 studies), and the 505 COD test (8 studies) represented the most frequently performed tests. Distances shorter than 30 m prevailed in linear speed testing. COD tests employed a wide range of distances, modes of travel, angles, and number of turns, with no gold-standard protocol being evident. Standardized methods are imperative for accurate benchmarking and transferability of the results.
The recent rise in professionalisation and institutionalisation of competitive surfing has resulted in a dramatic increase in the use of alternative training modalities. These are often employed in an attempt to increase exposure to surf-like activities when appropriate ocean conditions are not available. It is commonly accepted that practice sessions should be grounded in theory, with training content informed by a clear scientific rationale. Despite this, research is yet to offer surfing coaches and surfers effective strategies to assist in implementing appropriate ‘off water’ training modalities. It is widely accepted that integrating a representative learning design is crucial towards the transfer of performance to competition environments. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to promote representative learning design (RLD) as a contemporary, principled framework that can underpin the creation of surfing training design and performance. Examples of constraints relevant to surfing are considered, and the efficacy and rationale of popular training methods are challenged. Finally, practical implications and coaching tools to underpin the implementation of representative learning design in surf training are provided.
Background
Strength and power represent two crucial physical qualities for the attainment of a high level of performance considering the frequency and the importance of explosive actions occurring during elite soccer match-play. Evaluation of strength and power is a multifaceted concept involving a vast array of tests and outcome variables. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and systematic search of strength and power assessment procedures in elite soccer has yet to be undertaken.
Objectives
The aims of this systematic review were to: (1) identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess strength and power of elite male soccer players; (2) provide normative values for the most common tests of strength and power across different playing levels; and (3) report the reliability values of these strength and power tests.
Methods
A systematic review of the academic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and OVID for studies published until August 2023 was conducted, following the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: (1) were original research studies, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and written in English language; (2) had the primary aim to assess strength and/or power; (3) players were male and older than 17 years of age (i.e., mean age of the group); and (4) their playing level was defined as “professional”, “international” or “elite”.
Results
Regarding strength testing, 115 studies and 29 different tests were identified. The three most frequent strength tests were the knee extensor isokinetic strength test (58 studies), the knee flexor isokinetic strength test (55 studies) and the Nordic hamstring strength test (13 studies). In terms of power testing, 127 studies with 31 different tests were included. The three most frequent power tests were the countermovement jump with hands fixed on hips (99 studies), the squat jump (48 studies) and the vertical jump with arm swing (29 studies).
Conclusions
The wide range of different tests and outcome variables identified in this systematic review highlights the large diversity in the employed testing procedures. The establishment of a hybrid testing approach, combining standardised and widely accepted tests for establishing normative standards and enabling comparisons across different contexts, with flexible context-specific testing batteries, has the potential to maximise the impact of testing information for practitioners. In addition, the limited reporting of reliability data across studies highlights the need for practitioners to establish their own reliability measure within their specific contexts, informing the selection of certain tests and outcome variables.
Introduction: This study aimed to investigate the impact of a 10-week Core Stability Training (CST) compared to Traditional Strength Training (TST) on the balance abilities of adolescent male basketball players.
Methods: Subjects (age: 15.70 ± 0.75, height: 178.4 ± 8.31, weight: 66.55 ± 8.34) were randomly assigned to either the Core Stability Training group or the Traditional Strength Training group. Three selected balance assessment indicators included the Single-leg Standing with Eyes Closed Test, Star Excursion Balance Test, and Core Four-Direction Endurance Test.
Results: 1) The scores were significantly different in both groups before and after the Single-leg Standing with Eyes Closed Test; (p < 0.01, d = 1.692, d = 1.837); 2) In the Star Excursion Balance Test, the scores of the experimental group showed significant difference (p < 0.05) or highly significant difference (p < 0.01) with an average effect size of (d = 1.727) when the left or right foot supported in the other directions before and after the training. However, there was no significant difference in scores in the c direction when the left foot supported (p > 0.05, d = 0.954); 3) In the Core Four-Direction Endurance Test, there were no significant differences in scores for the control group before and after training (p > 0.05, d = 0.567), while the experimental group showed significant differences in scores before and after training (p < 0.05, d = 1.889).
Discussion: Both CST and TST were effective in enhancing the balance abilities of adolescent basketball players. CST, in particular, demonstrated improvements in dynamic balance and agility across multiple planes. Basketball coaches are encouraged to consider incorporating CST training programs into their overall training plans for optimal balance enhancement.
Çalışmanın amacını, sportif performans esnasında sporcularda meydana gelen
yumuşak doku yaralanmalarının genetik yapılarının incelenmesi oluşturmaktadır.
Yumuşak dokuların yapısal orijinlerini etkileyerek sportif performansın aksamadan sürdürülmesine etki ettiği düşünülen ve üzerinde sıklıkla çalışılan COL1A1,
COL5A1, ELN ve GDF5 gen ve varyantları bulunmaktadır. Derlememiz, günümüze kadar Google Akademik, Pubmed, Pubmed Central, Researchgate, Medline
Plus, Genecards ve NCBI veri tabanlarından elde edilen verilerin bir araya getirilerek özetlenmesi çalışmalarını içermektedir. Çalışmamızdan elde edilen verilerin;
sporcuları uygun spor branşlarına yönlendirmede, hâli hazırda yapılan yetenek taramalarının güvenirliliğinin artırılmasında, kas, tendon, ligament gibi yumuşak dokularda oluşan hasarların niteliği ve iyileşme süreçlerinin belirlenmesinde önemli
bir kılavuz olacağı düşüncesindeyiz. Sonuç olarak; spor yaralanmalarında genetik faktörlerin önemli bir belirteç olduğu fakat çevresel faktörlerinde en az genetik
faktörler kadar önemli olduğu kanaatindeyiz.
وهدفت الدراسة إلى : وضع تمرينات وقائية خاصة لتطوير التوازن الديناميكي للأطراف السفلى لدى لاعبي كرة القدم الشباب بأعمار تحت 19 سنة. والتعرف على تأثير التمرينات الوقائية في تطوير بعض انواع القوة للوقاية من تمزق عضلات الفخذ الخلفية لدى لاعبي كرة القدم الشباب بأعمار تحت 19 سنة . كما استخدم الباحث المنهج التجريبي بتصميم المجموعتين المستقلتين الضابطة والتجريبية ذات الاختبارين القبلي والبعدي لملائمته طبيعة ومشكلة البحث . وقام الباحث بتحديد مجتمع البحث وهم اللاعبين الشباب في محافظة بغداد بأعمار تحت 19 سنة للموسم الرياضي 2018-2019، واختيرت العينة بالطريقة العشوائية وهم شباب نادي المصافي والبالغ عددهم (24) لاعباً ، حيث تم استبعاد 6 لاعبين لغرض اجراء التجارب الاستطلاعية عليهم و2 لاعبين مصابين ، وبلغ العدد النهائي للعينة على 16 لاعباً من نادي المصافي ، وقسموا الى مجموعتين ضابطة وتجريبية وبواقع (8) لاعبين في كل مجموعة ويشكلون نسبة (66.33% ) من مجتمع البحث . الاستنتاجات : توصل الباحث الى عدة استنتاجات أهمها : إن التمرينات الوقائية الموضوعة من قبل الباحث ساهمت في تطوير متغيرات الدراسة لدى افراد عينة البحث. ظهور فروق معنوية بين نتائج الاختبارات القبلية والبعدية للمجموعة التجريبية ولصالح الاختبار البعدي في متغيرات التوازن الديناميكي للاطراف السفلى اليمين – اليسار.
Meta-analysis, Resistance training, Dose-response.
Background
One of the most sought-after skills for performance in team sports is change of direction. Training the physical qualities of strength, speed, and power has been used to improve change of direction. These qualities of change of direction have been studied extensively for the last 20 years, and their influence is still questioned. Additionally, it is currently unknown how moderating training variables affect COD performance.
Objective
This study examines the impact of strength, power, and speed training on change of direction performance.
Method
Following the PRISMA guidelines, a meta-analysis was conducted. Electronic databases were searched for studies conducted from 1991 to April 2021. All studies identified for inclusion were peer-reviewed and published in English and Spanish and used an athlete population as participants. For all analyses, a significance level is set at p < 0.05.
Results
Sixty-six articles were included in this meta-analysis. Two hundred fifty-one effect sizes were calculated, representing 2056 participants aged between 12 and 25 years. The global effect size (ES) for each quality is reported and Cochran's Q test: Strength (N = 48) ES: 0.844 Q = 77.63 (95%CI: 0.65;1.07); Speed (N = 17) ES: 0.70 Q = 5.69 (CI95% = 0.35;1.05); Power (N = 49) ES: 0.85 Q = 47.58 (CI95% = 0.64;1.06); Agility (N = 57) ES: 1.05 Q = 79.63 (CI95% = 0.86;1.24); Combined training (N = 13) ES: 0.51 Q = 13.79 (CI95% = 0.14;0.93), and the Control Group (N = 67) ES: 0.53 Q = 47.40 (IC95% = −0.12;0.23), all ES were statistically significant except control group. The ANOVA-LIKE presented a statistically significant difference between physical qualities and the control group (Sig = 0.000 Q = 69.18).
Conclusion
The training of strength, speed, power, and agility, are effective training methods for improving change of direction ability. Each of these qualities has one or more moderating variables that influencing its development.
SPOR BİLİMLERİNE KURAMSAL BAKIŞ (MIYOKINLER, GENETIK, DENGE, STABILIZASYON, ANALIZ, KARAR VERME, DUYGU DÜZENLEME)
The design of equestrian arenas can be challenged by time constraints and specific restrictions at a venue but are nonetheless a critical element to the success and sustainability of equestrian sport. The equestrian arenas for the 2012 Olympic Games were an example of a temporary arena constructed on a raised platform and supported by struts, a design unprecedented for equestrian activities. This study assessed the developmental stages of the Olympic surfaces from 2011 to the actual event in 2012 and aimed to confirm that accelerations and forces experienced by horses were comparable to those on solid ground. Assessment took place at i) the Olympic test-event; ii) a developmental mock-up arena and iii) the Olympic venue in 2012. A Clegg impact hammer measured peak vertical deceleration and an Orono Biomechanical Surface Tester quantified peak load and peak loading rate. General Linear Models using the arena's structural features as explanatory variables highlighted surface heterogeneity. Peak vertical deceleration (P < .0001) and peak load (P < .0001) were significantly higher and peak loading rate was significantly lower (P < .0001) following iterative testing and modifications to the arena. Data were comparable with surfaces on solid ground by the final testing at the 2012 Olympic Games. Findings highlighted the importance of testing surfaces throughout their development and demonstrated the impact that surface composition, time elapsed since installation, water management, and type of construction have on surface functional properties, with relevance to future temporary arena initiatives.
BACKGROUND: Currently, unstable push-ups are used to increase the activation of the muscles in the upper extremities and core muscles if compared to conventional push-ups. The aim was to examine the effects of different unstable push-ups on the electromyographic activity and coactivation of the core muscles. In addition, ascent and descent push-up phases were analyzed.
METHODS: Twelve physically active men (age: 23.7±3.0 years old; body mass: 71.7±8.7 kg; height: 1.73±0.06 m; Body Mass Index: 23.9±2.4 kg/m2) carried out conventional and unstable push-up exercises (balance trainer, balance discs and suspended training) while electromyography signals of pectoralis major (PM), rectus abdominis (RA), external oblique (EO), longissimus (LS) and lumbar multifidus (LM) were assessed. The percentage of the maximum voluntary isometric contraction for all muscles was calculated.
RESULTS: For muscle amplitude, suspended push-up caused greater muscular activation of the RA and EO in comparison to the other conditions (P<0.05), and a greater activation of the LS in comparison to conventional and balance disc push-ups (P<0.05). In relation to the push-up phases, only the EO showed a greater electromyographic activation during the ascent phase of suspended push-ups (P<0.05). Regarding muscle coactivation, it was observed that the RA/LM muscular pair showed lower values when the participants performed suspended push-ups in comparison to the conventional push-up.
CONCLUSIONS: Suspended push-ups showed a greater electromyographic activation and a lower coactivation in comparison to unstable surface push-ups. We recommend that sport science professionals and practitioners include, with precaution, suspended push-ups into exercise routines to improve strength in the upper extremities and core balance.
Despite several studies investigating the effect of instability resistance exercises on neuromuscular performance, the force-velocity-power characteristics of muscles involved in lifting tasks and the underlying mechanisms have not been fully explored. This study investigates power-velocity and force-velocity relationships during resistance exercises performed on stable and unstable surfaces with different weights. A group of 63 physically active young men performed chest presses on the bench and Swiss ball, and squats on the firm surface and BOSU ball with weights from 20 kg to at least 85% of one-repetition maximum (1RM). Peak and/or mean values of power, velocity and force were analyzed. Results showed significantly lower peak power and force during chest presses on the Swiss ball as opposed to the bench at lower velocities (147.6W and 176.0N at 1.1m.s⁻¹, 108.7W and 126.4N at 1.3m.s⁻¹, 112.0W and 72.7N at 1.5m.s⁻¹; all at p<0.01). Their values produced at lower velocities were also significantly lower during squats on the BOSU ball when compared to the firm surface (232.2W and 257.1N at 1.1m.s⁻¹, 228.2W and 173.3N at 1.2m.s⁻¹, 245.1W and 156.8N at 1.3m.s⁻¹, 254.5W and 113.5N at 1.4m.s⁻¹; all at p<0.05). These significant differences between power produced during stable and unstable resistance exercises at lower velocities (or at higher loads) have to be taken into account in sports that require production of a high force in a short time. Because of the variable loading patterns under unstable conditions, it is necessary to quantify the optimal exercise load for each individual athlete.
Objectives:
The objective of the study was to compare traditional resistance, instability resistance, and plyometric training methods on measures of athletic performance in healthy subjects.
Methods:
Sixty five healthy, physically active male students were randomly assigned to the following groups: traditional resistance training (RT, n=22), instability training (IT, n=22), and plyometric training (PLY, n=21).Athletic performance parameters were assessed pre- and post-training using chair squat test, standing stork test, shuttle run test, t-test, and vertical jump test.
Results:
General linear univariate model with baseline as covariate (ANCOVA) was used for analyzing the change in outcome from baseline to post-treatment. Statistically significant improvement was observed in all the athletic performance parameters in all three groups after seven weeks of training (p-value<0.05). The highest change in chair squat test was reported for RT compared to IT (p-value<0.001) and PLY (p-value<0.001). The change in standing stork test among the IT group was substantially higher than that among RT (p-value=0.007) but did not significantly differ from that among the PLY (p-value=0.27). No statistically significant difference was observed in post-test values of vertical jump test among three groups. The highest change in t-test and shuttle run test was reported for PLY compared to IT (p-value<0.001) and RT (p-value<0.001).
Conclusions:
Based on the findings of this study, it is suggested that IT and PLY can be included with traditional RT to improve various aspects of athletic performance in healthy physically active individuals. The current study will give an insight to athletes, coaches, and trainers regarding utilization of appropriate training methods in enhancing athletic performance. However, further research is required to establish the effectiveness.
The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of concurrent strength and endurance training (SE) (2 plus 2 days a week) versus strength training only (S) (2 days a week) in men [SE: n=11; 38 (5) years, S: n=16; 37 (5) years] over a training period of 21 weeks. The resistance training program addressed both maximal and explosive strength components. EMG, maximal isometric force, 1 RM strength, and rate of force development (RFD) of the leg extensors, muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris (QF) throughout the lengths of 4/15–12/15 (L
f) of the femur, muscle fibre proportion and areas of types I, IIa, and IIb of the vastus lateralis (VL), and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) were evaluated. No changes occurred in strength during the 1-week control period, while after the 21-week training period increases of 21% (p<0.001) and 22% (p<0.001), and of 22% (p<0.001) and 21% (p<0.001) took place in the 1RM load and maximal isometric force in S and SE, respectively. Increases of 26% (p<0.05) and 29% (p<0.001) occurred in the maximum iEMG of the VL in S and SE, respectively. The CSA of the QF increased throughout the length of the QF (from 4/15 to 12/15 L
f) both in S (p<0.05–0.001) and SE (p<0.01–0.001). The mean fibre areas of types I, IIa and IIb increased after the training both in S (p<0.05 and 0.01) and SE (p<0.05 and p<0.01). S showed an increase in RFD (p<0.01), while no change occurred in SE. The average iEMG of the VL during the first 500 ms of the rapid isometric action increased (p<0.05–0.001) only in S. V̇O2max increased by 18.5% (p<0.001) in SE. The present data do not support the concept of the universal nature of the interference effect in strength development and muscle hypertrophy when strength training is performed concurrently with endurance training, and the training volume is diluted by a longer period of time with a low frequency of training. However, the present results suggest that even the low-frequency concurrent strength and endurance training leads to interference in explosive strength development mediated in part by the limitations of rapid voluntary neural activation of the trained muscles.
The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the effect of unstable and unilateral resistance exercises on trunk muscle activation. Eleven subjects (6 men and 5 women) between 20 and 45 years of age participated. Six trunk exercises, as well as unilateral and bilateral shoulder and chest presses against resistance, were performed on stable (bench) and unstable (Swiss ball) bases. Electromyographic activity of the upper lumbar, lumbosacral erector spinae, and lower-abdominal muscles were monitored. Instability generated greater activation of the lower-abdominal stabilizer musculature (27.9%) with the trunk exercises and all trunk stabilizers (37.7-54.3%) with the chest press. There was no effect of instability on the shoulder press. Unilateral shoulder press produced greater activation of the back stabilizers, and unilateral chest press resulted in higher activation of all trunk stabilizers, when compared with bilateral presses. Regardless of stability, the superman exercise was the most effective trunk-stabilizer exercise for back-stabilizer activation, whereas the side bridge was the optimal exercise for lower-abdominal muscle activation. Thus, the most effective means for trunk strengthening should involve back or abdominal exercises with unstable bases. Furthermore, trunk strengthening can also occur when performing resistance exercises for the limbs, if the exercises are performed unilaterally.
Among sport conditioning coaches, there is considerable discussion regarding the efficiency of training methods that improve lower-body power. Heavy resistance training combined with vertical jump (VJ) training is a well-established training method; however, there is a lack of information about its combination with Olympic weightlifting (WL) exercises. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the short-term effects of heavy resistance training combined with either the VJ or WL program. Thirty-two young men were assigned to 3 groups: WL = 12, VJ = 12, and control = 8. These 32 men participated in an 8-week training study. The WL training program consisted of 3 x 6RM high pull, 4 x 4RM power clean, and 4 x 4RM clean and jerk. The VJ training program consisted of 6 x 4 double-leg hurdle hops, 4 x 4 alternated single-leg hurdle hops, 4 x 4 single-leg hurdle hops, and 4 x 4 40-cm drop jumps. Additionally, both groups performed 4 x 6RM half-squat exercises. Training volume was increased after 4 weeks. Pretesting and posttesting consisted of squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests, 10- and 30-m sprint speeds, an agility test, a half-squat 1RM, and a clean-and-jerk 1RM (only for WL). The WL program significantly increased the 10-m sprint speed (p < 0.05). Both groups, WL and VJ, increased CMJ (p < 0.05), but groups using the WL program increased more than those using the VJ program. On the other hand, the group using the VJ program increased its 1RM half-squat strength more than the WL group (47.8 and 43.7%, respectively). Only the WL group improved in the SJ (9.5%). There were no significant changes in the control group. In conclusion, Olympic WL exercises seemed to produce broader performance improvements than VJ exercises in physically active subjects.
The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between specific performance measures and hockey skating speed. Thirty competitive secondary school and junior hockey players were timed for skating speed. Off-ice measures included a 40-yd (36.9-m) sprint, concentric squat jump, drop jump, 1 repetition maximum leg press, flexibility, and balance ratio (wobble board test). Pearson product moment correlations were used to quantify the relationships between the variables. Electromyographic (EMG) activity of the dominant vastus lateralis and biceps femoris was monitored in 12 of the players while skating, stopping, turning, and performing a change-of-direction drill. Significant correlations (p < 0.005) were found between skating performance and the sprint and balance tests. Further analysis demonstrated significant correlations between balance and players under the age of 19 years (r = -0.65) but not those over 19 years old (r = -0.28). The significant correlations with balance suggested that stability may be associated with skating speed in younger players. The low correlations with drop jumps suggested that short contact time stretch-shortening activities (i.e., low amplitude plyometrics) may not be an important factor. Electromyographic activities illustrated the very high activation levels associated with maximum skating speed.
summary: Balance is an important aspect of athletic and occupational performance, in the elderly, and for injury rehabilitation, where use of a novel domed device can be incorporated to any well rounded program. The use of dynamic, non-dynamic, and core stabilization exercise enhance balance. This article offers exercises to improve balance that are applicable for any exercise professional.
(C) 2005 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a short-term Swiss ball training on core stability and running economy. Eighteen young male athletes (15.5 +/- 1.4 years; 62.5 +/- 4.7 kg; sigma9 skinfolds 78.9 +/- 28.2 mm; VO2max 55.3 +/- 5.7 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) were divided into a control (n = 10) and experimental (n = 8) groups. Athletes were assessed before and after the training program for stature, body mass, core stability, electromyographic activity of the abdominal and back muscles, treadmill VO2max, running economy, and running posture. The experimental group performed 2 Swiss ball training sessions per week for 6 weeks. Data analysis revealed a significant effect of Swiss ball training on core stability in the experimental group (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed for myoelectric activity of the abdominal and back muscles, treadmill VO2max, running economy, or running posture in either group. It appears Swiss ball training may positively affect core stability without concomitant improvements in physical performance in young athletes. Specificity of exercise selection should be considered.
For many sporting activities, initial speed rather than maximal speed would be considered of greater importance to successful performance. The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between strength and power and measures of first-step quickness (5-m time), acceleration (10-m time), and maximal speed (30-m time). The maximal strength (3 repetition maximum [3RM]), power (30-kg jump squat, countermovement, and drop jumps), isokinetic strength measures (hamstring and quadriceps peak torques and ratios at 60 degrees .s(-1) and 300 degrees .s(-1)) and 5-m, 10-m, and 30-m sprint times of 26 part-time and full-time professional rugby league players (age 23.2 +/- 3.3 years) were measured. To examine the importance of the strength and power measures on sprint performance, a correlational approach and a comparison between means of the fastest and slowest players was used. The correlations between the 3RM, drop jump, isokinetic strength measures, and the 3 measures of sport speed were nonsignificant. Correlations between the jump squat (height and relative power output) and countermovement jump height and the 3 speed measures were significant (r = -0.43 to -0.66, p < 0.05). The squat and countermovement jump heights as well as squat jump relative power output were the only variables found to be significantly greater in the fast players. It was suggested that improving the power to weight ratio as well as plyometric training involving countermovement and loaded jump-squat training may be more effective for enhancing sport speed in elite players.