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Effects of Sprint and Plyometric Training on Muscle Function and Athletic Performance
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of sprint training on muscle function and dynamic athletic performance and to compare them with the training effects induced by standard plyometric training. Male physical education students were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 groups: sprint group (SG; n = 30), plyometric group (PG; n = 30), or control group (CG; n = 33). Maximal isometric squat strength, squat- and countermovement jump (SJ and CMJ) height and power, drop jump performance from 30-cm height, and 3 athletic performance tests (standing long jump, 20-m sprint, and 20-yard shuttle run) were measured prior to and after 10 weeks of training. Both experimental groups trained 3 days a week; SG performed maximal sprints over distances of 10-50 m, whereas PG performed bounce-type hurdle jumps and drop jumps. Participants in the CG group maintained their daily physical activities for the duration of the study. Both SG and PG significantly improved drop jump performance (15.6 and 14.2%), SJ and CMJ height ( approximately 10 and 6%), and standing long jump distance (3.2 and 2.8%), whereas the respective effect sizes (ES) were moderate to high and ranged between 0.4 and 1.1. In addition, SG also improved isometric squat strength (10%; ES = 0.4) and SJ and CMJ power (4%; ES = 0.4, and 7%; ES = 0.4), as well as sprint (3.1%; ES = 0.9) and agility (4.3%; ES = 1.1) performance. We conclude that short-term sprint training produces similar or even greater training effects in muscle function and athletic performance than does conventional plyometric training. This study provides support for the use of sprint training as an applicable training method of improving explosive performance of athletes in general.
... Following a standardized warm-up (5 minutes stretching exercises, 5 minutes ballistic movements and 5 CMVJ trials), participants began crouching with a knee joint angle of about 90°, with no arm swing and then jumped up to reach maximum height. Each participant performed the test three times with a 3-minute break, and the best value of the three measurements was used for analysis (Markovic et al., 2007). The reliability coefficient (ICC) for repeated measurements at CMVJ was 0.95. ...
... The significant improvements observed in the CMVJ, 20m sprint, Illinois COD, Yo-Yo IR1, and MKD across all training groups after 6 weeks were in accordance with previous research demonstrating the notable effects of various forms of sprint interval training on performance adaptations in soccer players (Arazi et al., 2017;Kunz et al., 2019;Lee et al., 2020;Boullosa et al., 2022;Arslan et al., 2020;Clemente et al., 2021;Yan et al., 2022;Li and Xue, 2024) by improvements in neuromuscular properties (Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000;Markovic et al., 2007), including intermuscular coordination and firing rate of alpha motor neuron . Additionally, gains in muscletendon mechanical properties (Clemente et al., 2021), activation of fast-twitch muscle fibers (Arslan et al., 2020), and improvements in vertical and horizontal acceleration (Markovic et al., 2007) likely contribute to the observed improvements in CMVJ, 20-m sprint, and Illinois COD performance. ...
... The significant improvements observed in the CMVJ, 20m sprint, Illinois COD, Yo-Yo IR1, and MKD across all training groups after 6 weeks were in accordance with previous research demonstrating the notable effects of various forms of sprint interval training on performance adaptations in soccer players (Arazi et al., 2017;Kunz et al., 2019;Lee et al., 2020;Boullosa et al., 2022;Arslan et al., 2020;Clemente et al., 2021;Yan et al., 2022;Li and Xue, 2024) by improvements in neuromuscular properties (Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000;Markovic et al., 2007), including intermuscular coordination and firing rate of alpha motor neuron . Additionally, gains in muscletendon mechanical properties (Clemente et al., 2021), activation of fast-twitch muscle fibers (Arslan et al., 2020), and improvements in vertical and horizontal acceleration (Markovic et al., 2007) likely contribute to the observed improvements in CMVJ, 20-m sprint, and Illinois COD performance. The observed increase in running economy and musculotendinous stiffness (Yan et al., 2022), promoting enhanced recovery during sSIT, may lead to adaptive changes in Yo-Yo IR1. ...
The study aimed to evaluate the effects of varying frequencies (1 vs. 2 vs. 3) of short sprint interval training (sSIT) on young male soccer players' physical performance and physiological parameters. Forty young male soccer players were randomly assigned to four experimental groups engaging in 36 trials sSIT for a duration of 6 weeks as follows: once weekly (1sSIT = 4 sets of 9 × 5 sec all-out runs), twice weekly (2sSIT = 2 sets of 9 × 5 sec all-out runs), and three times weekly (3sSIT = 2 sets of 6 × 5 sec all-out runs), or an active control group which continued their soccer practice routines. Before and after the 6-week training period, physical performance (countermovement vertical jump, 20-m sprint, Illinois change of direction, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 [Yo-Yo IR 1] and kicking distance) and physiological parameters (cardiorespiratory fitness, peak and average power output) were evaluated. All sSIT groups demonstrated significant (p < 0.01) and small to very large training effects (i.e., effect size) on measured parameters. More importantly, a comparison of inter-individual variability in the adaptive changes revealed that the 3sSIT group results in lower residuals in changes in cardiorespiratory fitness and anaerobic power, coupled with lower coefficient of variations in the mean group changes and perceived exertion throughout the training period. The findings indicate that incorporating one, two, or three weekly sessions of sSIT into routine soccer training can lead to similar enhancements in soccer players' physiological and performance adaptations. More importantly, higher training frequencies result in more homogenized adaptations among team members by reducing inter-individual variability in the magnitude of the adaptive responses.
... The programming variables included were: training frequency (continuous, linear: sessions per week), program duration (continuous, linear: number of weeks), sprint modality (categorical: straight-line, 180° shuttle or multidirectional), sets per session (continuous, linear), repetitions per set (continuous, linear), repetition distance (continuous, linear) and weekly training volume (continuous, linear). Where continuous RST programming variables were altered across a study's intervention, the average value was used in our analyses [3,13,14,16,[26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. For example, if six repetitions per set were applied in week 1, but eight repetitions per set were applied in week 2, the average number of repetitions across the intervention was set at seven per set. ...
... Therefore, it would seem that most adaptations to RST occur in the first 6 weeks of a RST program and then plateaux [52,65]. Furthermore, longer program durations (10-12 weeks) that were employed in three studies [28,34,66] did not provide any meaningful benefits on physical performance and are often not feasible in practice given the condensed and concurrent training demands of many sports. ...
... It was common to alter the number of sets per session across the training program, which usually involved an initial period of a lower number of sets per session, corresponding with lower training volumes, and progression to a higher number of sets and greater training volumes [3,13,14,16,27,28,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37]68]. The current evidence demonstrates that two and three sets are effective at achieving the established benefits of RST, but one set may be insufficient. ...
Background
Repeated-sprint training (RST) is a common training method for enhancing physical fitness in athletes. To advance RST prescription, it is important to understand the effects of programming variables on physical fitness and physiological adaptation.
Objectives
This study (1) quantifies the pooled effects of running RST on changes in 10 and 20 m sprint time, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1) distance, repeated-sprint ability (RSA), countermovement jump (CMJ) height and change of direction (COD) ability in athletes, and (2) examines the moderating effects of program duration, training frequency, weekly volume, sprint modality, repetition distance, number of repetitions per set and number of sets per session on changes in these outcome measures.
Methods
Pubmed, SPORTDiscus and Scopus databases were searched for original research articles up to 04 July 2023, investigating RST in healthy, able-bodied athletes, between 14 and 35 years of age, and a performance calibre of trained or above. RST interventions were limited to repeated, maximal running (land-based) sprints of ≤ 10 s duration, with ≤ 60 s recovery, performed for 2–12 weeks. A Downs and Black checklist was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Eligible data were analysed using multi-level mixed-effects meta-analysis, with standardised mean changes determined for all outcomes. Standardised effects [Hedges G (G)] were evaluated based on coverage of their confidence (compatibility) intervals (CI) using a strength and conditioning specific reference value of G = 0.25 to declare an improvement (i.e. G > 0.25) or impairment (i.e. G < − 0.25) in outcome measures. Applying the same analysis, the effects of programming variables were then evaluated against a reference RST program, consisting of three sets of 6 × 30 m straight-line sprints performed twice per week for 6 weeks (1200 m weekly volume).
Results
40 publications were included in our investigation, with data from 48 RST groups (541 athletes) and 19 active control groups (213 athletes). Across all studies, the effects of RST were compatible with improvements in VO2max (G 0.56, 90% CI 0.32–0.80), YYIR1 distance (G 0.61, 90% CI 0.43–0.79), RSA decrement (G − 0.61, 90% CI − 0.85 to − 0.37), linear sprint times (10 m: G − 0.35, 90% CI − 0.48 to − 0.22; 20 m: G − 0.48, 90% CI − 0.69 to − 0.27), RSA average time (G − 0.34, 90% CI − 0.49 to − 0.18), CMJ height (G 0.26, 90% CI 0.13–0.39) and COD ability (G − 0.32, 90% CI − 0.52 to − 0.12). Compared with the reference RST program, the effects of manipulating training frequency (+ 1 session per week), program duration (+ 1 extra training week), RST volume (+ 200 m per week), number of reps (+ 2 per set), number of sets per session (+ 1 set) or rep distance (+ 10 m per rep) were either non-substantial or comparable with an impairment in at least one outcome measure per programming variable.
Conclusions
Running-based RST improves speed, intermittent running performance, VO2max, RSA, COD ability and CMJ height in trained athletes. Performing three sets of 6 × 30 m sprints, twice per week for 6 weeks is effective for enhancing physical fitness and physiological adaptation. Additionally, since our findings do not provide conclusive support for the manipulation of RST variables, further work is needed to better understand how programming factors can be manipulated to augment training-induced adaptations.
Study Registration
Open Science Framework registration https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RVNDW.
... Even though there is compelling evidence that improvements in squat strength correspond to improvements in vertical jump performance, more research is needed to fully Squat and Sprint Performance. Running speed and more importantly the ability to accelerate during sprinting based activities are critical components for success in performance-based improvements (132). This ability is a critical attribute that encompasses performance in numerous individual and team sports (25,30,55,58,69). ...
... Strong correlations have been reported between GRF magnitude, impulse, and the ability to accelerate and achieve higher velocities during sprinting actions (99,199). During the acceleration phase of sprinting, it is evident that athletes must accelerate their center of mass (CoM), through an explosive concentric force production, generated by both the knee and the hip extensor muscles (46,59,61,132,205). Thus, expression of high concentric forces and power is required to generate high velocities during this time frame (143). ...
Stone, MH, and Haff, GG. The use of free weight squats in sports: a narrative review-squatting movements, adaptation, and sports performance: physiological. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): 1494-1508, 2024-The squat and its variants can provide numerous benefits including positively affecting sports performance and injury prevention, injury severity reduction, and rehabilitation. The positive benefits of squat are likely the result of training-induced neural alterations and mechanical and morphological adaptations in tendons, skeletal muscles, and bones, resulting in increased tissue stiffness and cross-sectional area (CSA). Although direct evidence is lacking, structural adaptations can also be expected to occur in ligaments. These adaptations are thought to beneficially increase force transmission and mechanical resistance (e.g., resistance to mechanical strain) and reduce the likelihood and severity of injuries. Adaptations such as these, also likely play an important role in rehabilitation, particularly for injuries that require restricted use or immobilization of body parts and thus lead to a consequential reduction in the CSA and alterations in the mechanical properties of tendons, skeletal muscles, and ligaments. Both volume and particularly intensity (e.g., levels of loading used) of training seem to be important for the mechanical and morphological adaptations for at least skeletal muscles, tendons, and bones. Therefore, the training intensity and volume used for the squat and its variations should progressively become greater while adhering to the concept of periodization and recognized training principles.
... However, we have observed it to be an effective indicator of sports performance by the grip strength test only in the group of female athletes. In the cited study (Markovic et al., 2007), successful taekwondo players have greater explosive leg power than less successful ones, and their aerobic endurance and lateral agility are signi cantly higher. Moreover, they run faster and have a considerably higher anaerobic threshold than their less successful counterparts. ...
... We also identi ed height index as an important factor that signi cantly impacted the success of both male and female athletes' performances. Generally, in the cited research (Markovic et al., 2007),which examined the physical characteristics along with psychological characteristics that make an elite taekwondo athlete more successful, con rmed these ndings. They noted that these physical characteristics included high speed, explosive power, anaerobic power, agility, lower fat percentage, and height. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper was analyzing the performance of elite taekwondo athletes with machine learning approaches through achieving three objectives: (1) clustering the performance of elite taekwondo athletes into four clusters of excellent to poor performance, (2) determining the most effective physical characteristics for performance in this sport, and (3) predicting their medal-winning in the world competitions.
Design/methodology/approach
Descriptive and predictive models were employed based on the National Olympic Academy dataset of Iranian taekwondo athletes’ physical fitness and anthropometric records which were collected during 1996–2019.
Findings
In the female (999 records) and male (1560 records) datasets, SOM-kmeans and SOM-spectral clustering algorithms (with average test efficiency of Silhouette as 80%, 79% and Davies-Bouldin as 20%, 34%) were applied and 4 clusters have been obtained based on different physical functions of taekwondo athletes and the number of medals allocated in each cluster. Semi-supervised learning model using the CPLE-Learning algorithm in both female and male datasets demonstrated the possibility of winning medals in the competitions. The accuracy of predicting gold, silver and bronze medals in female dataset were 68%, 59% and 73%, and in the male dataset have been found 58%, 61% and 54%, respectively.
Originality/value
The results indicate that machine learning algorithms’ ability in sports performance analysis provides valuable information for the management of taekwondo athletes and better planning to prepare them physically.
... Markovic ve ark. (2007) tarafından gerçekleştirilen bir araştırmaya 93 erkek öğrenci katılmıştır ve pliometrik antrenmanların sürat yeteneklerinin geliştirilmesinde etkili bir yöntem olduğu ifade edilmiştir (Marković, Jukić, Milanović, & Metikos, 2007). Arslan (2004) tarafından yapılan bir çalışma da, pliometrik çalışmaların diğer antrenman programlarıyla kombine edilmesi, sürat yeteneğinin artışını desteklediğini belirtmiştir (Arslan, 2004). ...
The combination of small-sided games and jump training exercises is widely used to improve various performance factors in athletes. This study is a research conducted on young amateur female volleyball players to determine which performance characteristics are enhanced by combining small-sided games with jump rope and plyometric training in volleyball, as well as to examine whether jump rope training can be an alternative to plyometric training. A total of 16 volunteer athletes participated in the study, with 8 participants assigned to the jump rope group and 8 participants assigned to the plyometric training group. Before the study, all participants' pre-test values for speed, agility, balance, vertical jump, reactive strength index, hamstring/quadriceps ratio, isokinetic knee joint measurements (at 60°s⁻¹ and 180°s⁻¹), and ankle strength (at 30°s⁻¹ and 120°s⁻¹) were determined through the necessary measurements. Both groups participated in small-sided games twice a week. The first group engaged in jump rope training in addition to smallsided games for 4 weeks, twice a week. The second group participated in plyometric training during the same duration and schedule. Following the 4-week period, all participants' aforementioned values were re-evaluated through post-test measurements. Due to the normal distribution of all variables, a mixed ANOVA test was conducted. When comparing the initial and final test measurements of all participants, significant improvements were observed in speed, agility, balance, vertical jump, hamstring/quadriceps ratio, and some isokinetic strength data, except for the reactive strength index (p<0.05). Upon examining the measurements between groups, it was found that the effect on performance values among participants was significantly different across all measurement parameters (p<0.05). In conclusion, jump rope and plyometric training contributed positively to certain performance factors of the participants, albeit to varying degrees. Based on the obtained results, jump rope training has been identified as an alternative to plyometric training.
... With reference to (Markovic, Jukic, Milanovic, & Metikos, 2007), it is stated that plyometric training is effective training and it is suggested to add a plyometric program to the usual training for 8 weeks without making the athletes train longer also the researchers thought that this might be helpful to improve their explosive movements. Explosive power is the ability to use a lot of muscle strength very quickly often used in anaerobic activities (Wang, X., et al., 2023). ...
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of plyometric training on explosive strength & speed performance of long jumpers. Various studies suggest that plyometric training improves explosive strength and speed performance. However, the effectiveness of plyometric training depends upon several factors. Integrating plyometric training program aims to provide a comprehensive approach to performance enhancement. Based on their training, Seven male jumpers were divided into 2 groups: a plyometric training group (n=7), a weight training group and a control group (n=7). The program was designed to implement in starting phase of competitive season, where aim to maintaining peak performance and minimizing risk of injuries. The objectives of the study were to determine the effect of plyometric training on explosive strength and speed performance of Long Jumpers. Subjects in each of the training group trained five days per week, whereas control subjects did as usual/traditional training. The data was analyzed by a paired sample t-test. The results showed that all the training treatment of Strength test found elicited significant difference in mean compression while (P<0.05) and the compression of mean in speed test was also found significant difference and (P<0.05) respectively. The findings of this study reveal a significant improvement on both speed and strength performance. The researchers proved that the addition of plyometric training in a routine/traditional training program was more effective in improving of sprint and explosive strength performance. Researchers strongly recommend that athletics coaches implement plyometric training in training schedule to enhance the performance of their athletes.
... 24 In the present study we observed from 4 to 10 weeks, which is consistent with what is reported in the literature from 4 to 12 weeks respectively. 24,25 The evaluation and control of the training process in sports become fundamental to understand the evolution of physical condition and motor skills. 26 In this review it was verified that the 1RM was the one used in 5 investigations and 01 the PSE scale. ...
Explosive strength is fundamental in the performance of athletes. The objective is to identify the criteria used for the prescription of Explosive Strength Training (EST) and to verify the changes it produces in futsal players. A systematic review of studies analyzing the criteria used for the prescription of explosive strength training was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE and Scielo, considering the period between 2017 and 2023. The search strategy used the terms: players, Futsal, Futsal training, strength, physical exercise, explosive strength, intervention, experimental study. Data extraction included: year of publication, country, sample, protocol performed (content and activity developed, duration, intensity, frequency, total weeks). A total of six studies were identified. Fifty percent of the studies were developed in Brazil, the others in Italy, Spain and Portugal. Five studies applied a training of 2 sessions per week and one indicated 2-3 sessions. Three studies describe the training sessions (study 1: 15-30 minutes, study 2: 20-25 minutes, study 3: 1 hour). Five studies used 1RM and one study used subjective perception of exertion (PSE). The contents of the interventions were varied, from squats with weights, accelerations and decelerations, leg press, leg extension, plyometrics. The training criteria for explosive strength were: intensity controlled by a 1RM, frequency of 2 to 3 sessions per week, duration of 15 to 30 minutes per session and the training contents were varied. These results suggest positive changes in CMJ, increasing explosive strength from ∼2.0 to 4.6 cm (5.8 to 13.7%). These findings highlight the need to develop a more standardized protocol to optimize the benefits of explosive strength training in this athletic population.
... Plyometrics has been proven effective not only in sports but also in daily functional life, but there is less evidence of the same in terms of power and agility [8]. Prior studies have indicated that plyometric training is useful in improving leg extensor power, strength, and high potential dynamic movements significantly, accentuating the vertical jumping ability [9]. The plyometric program develops explosiveness, that is, to use strength as quickly and vigorously as possible, and this covers the gap between strength and velocity so the athlete can maximize power production [10]. ...
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are widespread, particularly in sports that involve rapid changes in direction, such as badminton, and it incapacitates an athlete severely and for a long time. ACL reconstruction followed by a structured rehabilitation program is essential for returning to peak performance. Plyometric training, known for enhancing explosive power and agility, is increasingly incorporated in post-ACL reconstruction rehabilitation for athletes. This case report presents the rehabilitation of a 19-year-old female badminton player operated for ACL reconstruction through the inculcation of plyometric training in the later phase to optimize better performance outcomes. The athlete demonstrated significant improvements in knee stability, strength, and functional performance. Plyometric exercises played a crucial role in restoring explosive power and agility, essential for competitive badminton, thereby facilitating a successful return to sport.
... Athletes can improve the effectiveness of their nervous system's activation of the proper motor units by regularly engaging in high-intensity drills [49]. This improves performance overall by causing muscles to contract more quickly and forcefully [50], [51]. Through these activities, neuromuscular synchrony is also improved. ...
The objectives of this study are to determine whether there is any interaction between agility and athletic performance skills and plyometric training, ladder drill, and agility training; how different these effects are from one another; and how different the effects of low and high agility are from one another. The experimental methodology employed in this work uses a factorial analysis in 2x2. A population of 40 athletes, aged 15 to 17, were selected for the research sample using ordinal pairing. Devices that measure agility using the Illinois Agility Test. The following are the study's findings: The post-test indicates a significant value of p < 0.05, indicating that the plyometric training technique, ladder drill, affects athletic performance skills (p > 0.05). Because the significance value indicates p of 0.006 < 0.05, there is a significant difference between the effects of low and high agility on athletic performance skills (p < 0.05). There is a significant (p > 0.05) interaction between agility (high and low), ladder drill training techniques, and plyometric training methods of athletic performance skills (p < 0.05). The findings indicate that following training, there is a relationship between agility and athletic performance abilities. According to the study, there is a connection between agility (high and low) and athletic performance skills, and agility has a major impact on athletic performance. Training techniques such as plyometric training and ladder drills are also related to agility. Applying the ladder drill and plyometric training techniques affects athletes' performance abilities. It has been demonstrated that doing plyometric and ladder drills may enhance one's athlete's performance ability.
... Some studies suggest that plyometric training, as opposed to traditional resistance training, may result in higher lower limb explosive strength following activation (Hughes et al., 2016;Bridgeman et al., 2017). Plyometric training utilizes the stretchshortening cycle (SSC) principle to improve neuromuscular function and is commonly used to enhance lower limb strength (Hakkinen et al., 1985;Fatouros et al., 2000;Markovic et al., 2007), explosiveness, and other muscle functions (Brown et al., 1986;Matavulj et al., 2001;Salonikidis and Zafeiridis, 2008;Stanley, 2017). Experimental evidence indicates that plyometric training also promotes neuromuscular adaptations and increases muscle strength (Witzke and Snow, 2000;Kato et al., 2006). ...
Objective
This meta-analysis examines the impact of different combinations of plyometric training (complexity, training volume, and rest intervals) on immediate vertical jump and sprint performance in athletes.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted in four databases, and Cochrane guidelines were used to evaluate the quality of included studies. Review Manager 5.4 software was employed to analyze outcome measures. Nineteen randomized controlled trials involving 293 participants were included.
Results
Single plyometric training-induced post-activation potentiation (PAP) had a slight positive effect on vertical jump performance [SMD = −0.24, 95% CI (−0.38, −0.1), P = 0.0009]. Optimal results were observed with rest intervals of 0.3–4 min (SMD = 0.30, P = 0.0008). Sprint performance showed slight improvement [SMD = 0.27, 95% CI (0.03, 0.52), P = 0.03]. Complex plyometric training had a moderate effect on vertical jump performance [SMD = 0.58, 95% CI (−0.86, −0.23), P = 0.002], with the best outcomes seen with rest intervals exceeding 8 min (SMD = 0.77). Sprint performance also improved significantly [SMD = 0.8, 95% CI (0.01, 1.59), P = 0.05]. Single-session plyometric training did not significantly enhance vertical jump performance [SMD = −0.19, 95% CI (−0.41, −0.02), P = 0.07], but had a notable effect on sprint performance [SMD = 0.8, 95% CI (0.01, 1.59), P = 0.05], particularly with rest intervals exceeding 8 min (SMD = 0.77). Multiple-session plyometric training improved vertical jump (SMD = 0.43, 95% CI [0.01, 1.59), P = 0.00001 < 0.05], with optimal effects observed at rest intervals of 5–7 min (SMD = 0.64). Sprint performance also improved [SMD = 0.46, 95% CI (0.01, 0.81), P = 0.01 < 0.05].
Conclusion
Plyometric training as an activation method has significant enhancing effects, depending on training complexity, volume, and rest intervals.
... In female soccer players, it has been shown that PL training provides a sufficient stimulus to improve explosive actions (Ozbar et al., 2014;Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2016;Rubley et al., 2011). PL includes jumping exercises using the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) muscle action, this is a capacity of the Musculotendinous and nervous system that produces maximum force in the shortest amount of time during a rapid transition from an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction of the muscle (Markovic et al., 2007;Markovic & Mikulic, 2010). It is important to mention that most of the lower-body movements in football are performed unilaterally. ...
El objetivo de este estudio es determinar la influencia del entrenamiento combinado a corto plazo de pliometría (PL), velocidad y cambio de dirección (COD) dentro de la práctica regular del fútbol en los saltos, la velocidad y el cambio de dirección de jugadoras de fútbol durante la temporada. Veintitrés sujetos fueron asignados al azar a PL + velocidad + COD (COMB) o al grupo de control (GC). Los sujetos realizaron 2 sesiones por semana durante 6 semanas. Antes y después del entrenamiento, se analizaron los saltos con contramovimiento (CMJ), salto con contramovimiento con brazos (CMJA), sprints de 10 metros (m) - 20 metros y pruebas L-RUN. El análisis dentro del grupo mostró mejoras sustanciales en CMJ (tamaño del efecto [ES] = 0.92), sprint de 20 m (ES: <0.001), L-run (ES: <0.001). El análisis entre grupos mostró mejoras significativas en el sprint de 20 metros (p ≤ 0.001). No se observaron mejoras significativas en CMJ (p ≤ 0.95); CMJA (p ≤ 0.61); sprint de 10 m (p ≤ 0.23); L-Run (p ≤ 0.24) en los grupos experimentales en comparación con el GC. La sustitución de algunos ejercicios de fútbol de baja intensidad con ejercicios de PL combinados con sprints y COD, durante el calentamiento, podría ser una opción posible para optimizar el rendimiento en sprint. Palabras clave: agilidad, salto vertical, velocidad, aceleración, jugadora de fútbol, pliometría, fuerza. Abstract. The objective of this study is to determine the influence of short-term combined plyometrics (PL), speed and change of direction (COD) training (6 weeks) within regular soccer practice on the jumping, speed and COD of female soccer players during the season. Twenty-three subjects were randomly assigned to PL+ speed + COD (COMB), or control group (CG). Subjects performed 2 sessions per week for 6 weeks. Before and after training contramovement jump (CMJ), contramovement jump with arms (CMJA), 10 metres (m) - 20m sprint and L-RUN tests were analysed. Within-group analysis showed substantial improvements in CMJ (effect size [ES] = 0.92), 20m sprint (ES: <0.001), L-run (ES: <0.001). Between-group analysis showed significant improvements in 20m sprint (p ≤ 0.001). No significant improvements in CMJ (p ≤ 0.95); CMJA (p ≤ 0.61); 10m sprint (p ≤ 0.23); L-Run (p ≤ 0.24) in experimental groups in comparison to CG. The replacement of some low-intensity football drills with PLexercises combined with sprints and COD, during warm-up may be a possible option to optimise sprint performance. Keywords: agility, vertical jump, speed, acceleration, soccer player, plyometrics, strength
... The goals of plyometric-strength workouts are to improve the neuromuscular efficiency of the human movement system overall, eccentric strength, dynamic joint stabilization, and rate of force output (Mola & Adane, 2020). Markovic et al. (2007) found that maximal speed and explosiveness are used when performing plyometric power exercises. ...
Background. Plyometric training, which consists of exercises that involve rapid and repetitive muscle stretching and contraction, has become increasingly popular for its potential in sports conditioning. Objectives. The primary objective of this study was to examine the principles of plyometric training and to assess how it influences the physiological parameters of football players. Materials and methods. This study involved 30 male football players aged 18 to 24, actively engaged in national-level competition. The participants were randomly divided into two groups: the experimental group (n = 15) and the control group (n = 15), with 15 players in each group. The selected physiological parameters for assessment included aerobic capacity, blood pressure, and pulse rate. Aerobic capacity was measured using Cooper’s 12-minute run/walk test, blood pressure was assessed with a sphygmomanometer, and pulse rate was measured using the radial artery method. The six-week plyometric training program, conducted five days a week, involved 60-minute sessions. The experimental group underwent the plyometric training program, while the control group did not engage in any specific exercises. Pre- and post-test scores were analyzed statistically using descriptive statistics and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The significance level was set at a confidence level of 0.05. Results. The findings indicate a notable enhancement in physiological parameters among participants in the experimental group as opposed to the control group. The implementation of the plyometric training program proved to be effective in elevating the aerobic capacity, blood pressure, and pulse rate of the football players. Conclusions. The study concludes that a six-week plyometric training program significantly enhances the physiological parameters of football players, including aerobic capacity, blood pressure, and pulse rate. Further research should be conducted to examine the long-term effects and optimal duration of plyometric training, as well as the underlying physiological mechanisms, in order to gain a deeper understanding of its effectiveness and applications in sports conditioning.
... Information regarding the effects of agility training on muscle function and athletic performance is generally lacking. Few studies showed significant improvements in sprint performance as a result of short-term sprint training (Callister et al., 1988;Young et al., 2001;2002;Markovic et al., 2007), supporting our findings and the well-known principle of training specificity (Sale, 1992). When it comes to training it would be best to implement agility training at beginning of training session or beginning of the main part of training because nervous system is ready stimulus of that type (Bompa, 1999). ...
Propose of this study was to determine effects of agility training on athletic power performance. Eighty healthy college-age men (age 19 ± 1.1 years; body mass 77.2 ± 7.1 kg; height 180.1 ± 7.1 cm; body fat percentage 10.8 6 1.6) participated in this study. Subjects were assigned randomly to 2 experimental groups (EG) and 1 control group (CG). The EG groups were required to perform 3 sessions per week on alternate days (i.e., on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) for 10 weeks. There were no statistical significant differences between CG and EG in initial measurement, also there were no differences found between CG in initial and final measurement. The main result of this study is associated with the aglity training–induced changes in athletic power performance.
... Agility is a crucial skill-related component in most field sports (35). It is an essential motor skill for handball and other sports Table 4 Physiotherapy evidence database (PEDro) scale ratings.* ...
Akbar, S, Kim Geok, S, Bashir, M, Jazaily Bin Mohd, NN, Luo, S, and He, S. Effects of different exercise training on physical fitness and technical skills in handball players. A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This review aimed to assess the effects of exercise training on handball players' performance. A thorough search was conducted in 5 online databases (ProQuest, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus), as well as on Google Scholar and other gray literature references starting on April 11, 2022. The methodological quality of the included research was evaluated using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale. This systematic review includes 16 studies. Eight studies received "excellent" ratings (≥6 points), 5 received "good" ratings (5 points), and 3 received "moderate" ratings (4 points). The findings showed that the most frequently examined performance factors in exercise training intervention strategies with handball players were balance (n = 5), agility (n = 8), speed (n = 9), and jumping performance (n = 10). Muscular strength (n = 4), shooting and dribbling skill (n = 3), and muscular endurance (n = 4) were the second most frequently investigated performance factors. Regarding speed and agility, exercise training considerably improved the physical fitness of handball players. However, evidence related to muscular strength, shooting ability, and dribbling skills was limited. To achieve the optimum standard, handball players must have strong physical and physiological qualities. Meanwhile, no evidence was found related to the impacts of exercise training on power, endurance, flexibility, body composition, cardiovascular fitness, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Regarding limitations, there is a need for more research with solid evidence to determine the impacts of exercise training interventions on athletes' performance in handball.
... In contrast to this outcome, Ramirez-Campillo et al. found that performing drop jumping exercises twice a week for seven weeks did not statistically improve speed performance (Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014). Moreover, Markovic et al. (2007) did not discover a speed enhancement in the 20-meter sprint. There are a number of reasons for the differences in results between the current and earlier research, but one that we have discovered may be related to the kind of plyometric training that was employed. ...
Plyometric training (PT) can be performed in a variety type of exercises involving the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) in lower limbs. Numerous research has examined the impact of plyometric exercise on various sport performances in various populations over the past few decades. The objective of this research is to analyse the effect of combined plyometric exercises on strength, speed, and power in student-athletes. Thirty-three student athletes were classified into three experimental groups and were given six weeks of respected training specific to their group: CS (continue board jump + skater hops), TI (tuck jump + ins and outs), and ST (standard conventional training). Pretest and posttest measures on strength, power, and speed were obtained. Data analysis was done using Wilcoxon signed rank and Kruskall-Wallis test to examine group differences. Follow up test was done using Mann-Whitney whenever a statistically significant different was identified between groups. It was found that strength increased significantly after PT was done for six weeks (p=0.000), with CS showed highest improvement. Between-group difference was only found in strength which were between CS-TI (p=0.000) and ST-TI (p=0.020) pairs. Based on these findings, it was concluded that combined plyometric trainings done in six weeks were able to improve strength, power, and speed in student-athletes. Keywords: Physical performance; plyometric training; power; speed; strength; stretch-shortening cycle
... In young soccer players, it has been shown that PL provides a sufficient stimulus to improve explosive actions (Chelly et al., 2010;Diallo et al., 2001;Kotzamanidis et al., 2005;Meylan & Malatesta, 2009;Wong et al., 2010). PL includes jumping exercises using the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) muscle action, this is a capacity of the Musculotendinous and nervous system that produces maximum force in the shortest amount of time during a rapid transition from an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction of the muscle (Markovic et al., 2007;Markovic & Mikulic, 2010). It is important to mention that most of the lower-body movements in football are performed unilaterally. ...
El objetivo de este estudio es determinar la influencia del entrenamiento pliométrico a corto plazo o del entrenamiento combinado (6 semanas) dentro de la práctica regular de fútbol en los saltos y las acciones de cambio de dirección de jóvenes jugadores de fútbol durante la temporada. Treinta jugadores fueron asignados al azar a tres grupos: pliometría (PL), pliometría + velocidad + cambio de dirección (COD) (COMB1) o PL + velocidad + COD + fuerza (COMB2). Todos los jugadores entrenaron 3 veces por semana y los grupos experimentales cambiaron el calentamiento táctico típico por un programa propuesto de pliometría o entrenamiento combinado durante 20 minutos (2 días por semana) durante 6 semanas. Antes y después del entrenamiento, se analizaron los saltos con contramovimiento con brazos libres (CMJA) y las pruebas L-RUN. El análisis dentro de los grupos mostró mejoras significativas en CMJA (ES: 0.73;1.27;1.16) en COMB1, COMB2 y PL, mientras que COMB1 y COMB2 también mostraron mejoras significativas en las pruebas COD (ES: 3.75; 2.15). El análisis entre grupos mostró mejoras significativas mayores en las variables de COD (p ≤ 0.001; p ≤ 0.001) en los grupos experimentales en comparación con PL. Finalmente, COMB1 y COMB2 no mostraron mejoras significativas en L-Run (p ≤0.234). La sustitución de algunos ejercicios de fútbol de baja intensidad con pliometría combinada con fuerza, sprints y COD durante el calentamiento podría ser una opción posible para optimizar la capacidad de salto y cambio de dirección durante el entrenamiento de fútbol en temporada. Palabras clave: agilidad, salto vertical, velocidad, aceleración, jugador de fútbol, pliometría, fuerza. Abstract. The objective of this study is to determine the influence of short-term plyometric or combined training (6 weeks) within regular soccer practice on the jumping and change of direction actions of young soccer players during the season. Thirty players were randomly assigned to three groups: plyometrics (PL), plyometrics + speed + Change of direction (COD) (COMB1), or PL + speed + COD + strength (COMB2). All players trained soccer 3 times per week and the experimental groups change the typical tactical warm up with a proposed PL or combined training program for 20 minutes (2 days per weeks) for 6 weeks. Before, after training, free-arm countermovement jump (CMJA) and L-RUN tests were analysed. Within-group analysis showed substantial improvements in CMJA (ES: 0.73;1.27;1.16) in COMB1, COMB2 and PL while COMB1 and COMB2 also showed substantial enhancements in COD tests (ES: 3.75; 2.15). Between-group analysis showed substantially greater improvements in COD variables (p ≤ 0.001; p ≤ 0.001) in experimental groups in comparison to PL. Finally, COMB1 and COMB2 showed no significant enhancements in L-Run (p ≤0.234). The replacement of some low-intensity football drills with PL combined with strength, sprints and COD. during warm-up may be a possible option to optimise jumping and change of direction ability during in-season football training. Keywords: agility, vertical jump, speed, acceleration, soccer player, plyometrics, strength.
... In previous studies, Markovic et al. [34] conducted a study with 93 male students, divided into sprint, plyometric, and control groups. The study found statistically significant increases in values in the sprint and plyometric groups. ...
Background and Study Aim. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a 6-week plyometric training program on agility, vertical jump, squat jump, and speed performance in soccer players. Material and Methods. A total of 26 male soccer players actively playing for Ankara Batıkent Kartal Sports Club participated in the study as volunteers. The players had an average age of 15.04 ± 0.16 years, an average height of 172.48 ± 5.14 cm, and an average body weight of 62.65 ± 0.38 kg. Data on the players' gender, age, body weight (kg), height (cm), body mass index (BMI), agility, vertical jump (cm), squat jump, and 30 m speed were obtained. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 25 software. The normality of the data was examined using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Paired samples t-test was used to determine within-group differences, and independent samples t-test was used to determine differences between groups. A statistical significance level of p < 0.05 was considered for all evaluations. Results. The plyometric training program was effective in improving agility, vertical jump, squat jump, and speed performance in the experimental group. There was a significant difference in agility and 30 m speed values in the pre-test and post-test evaluations of the Control group, but no difference was observed in vertical jump and squat jump values. Additionally, in the pre-test and post-test comparison between the experimental and control groups, a significant difference was observed in agility, vertical jump, and squat jump values. However, no significant difference was found in 30 m speed values. Conclusions. That plyometric training program is effective in improving agility, vertical jump, squat jump, and 30 m speed values.
... In young soccer players, it has been shown that PL provides a sufficient stimulus to improve explosive actions (Chelly et al., 2010;Diallo et al., 2001;Kotzamanidis et al., 2005;Meylan & Malatesta, 2009;Wong et al., 2010). PL includes jumping exercises using the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) muscle action, this is a capacity of the Musculotendinous and nervous system that produces maximum force in the shortest amount of time during a rapid transition from an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction of the muscle (Markovic et al., 2007;Markovic & Mikulic, 2010). It is important to mention that most of the lower-body movements in football are performed unilaterally. ...
The objective of this study was to determine the influence of short-term plyometric or combined training (6 weeks) within regular soccer practice on the jumping and change of direction actions of young soccer players during the season. Thirty players were randomly assigned to three groups: plyometrics (PL), plyometrics + speed + Change of direction (COD) (COMB1), or PL + speed + COD + strength (COMB2). All players trained soccer 3 times per week and the experimental groups change the typical tactical warm up with a proposed PL or combined training program for 20 minutes (2 days per weeks) for 6 weeks. Before, after training, free-arm countermovement jump (CMJA) and L-RUN tests were analysed. Within-group analysis showed substantial improvements in CMJA (ES: 0.73;1.27;1.16) in COMB1, COMB2 and PL while COMB1 and COMB2 also showed substantial enhancements in COD tests (ES: 3.75; 2.15). Between-group analysis showed substantially greater improvements in COD variables (p ≤ 0.001; p ≤ 0.001) in experimental groups in comparison to PL. Finally, COMB1 and COMB2 showed no significant enhancements in L-Run (p ≤0.234). The replacement of some low-intensity football drills with PL combined with strength, sprints and COD during warm-up may optimize jumping and change of direction ability during in-season football training.
... The current research was conducted under the moderate intensity training and the results are shown and supported by existing research. This type of training has been associated with improvements in anaerobic capacity, which is essential for explosive efforts like sprinting and rapid changes in direction [31,32] . Circuit training incorporates a variety of exercises targeting different muscle groups. ...
This study investigates the impact of circuit training on sprint agility and explosive power, with a focus on motion and action velocity. The research explores the interplay between strength and speed training, particularly in male subjects, aiming to discern the effects of intrasession sequencing on speed, explosive strength, and power development. The study involves 30 boys aged 14 to 17, utilizing circuit training (CT) with an experimental group and a control group. The results demonstrate significant improvements in the experimental group's 50m dash and explosive power, highlighting the efficacy of CT in enhancing sprinting capabilities and explosiveness. The findings contribute valuable insights into the nuanced correlation between intrasession sequencing and physiological adaptations in concurrent strength and speed training for males. The study emphasizes the potential benefits of incorporating CT into fitness and training programs to enhance speed and explosive power. Introduction The key characteristic of circuit training is the successive performance of many anaerobic exercises usually with little or no rest in between aiming at producing cardiovascular training effects [1, 2]. It is widely embraced due to its time efficiency and use of lighter loads in the program [3]. Commonly, the settings of the group exercise embrace the free-weight circuit weight training classes, designating an increase in aerobic capacity, body composition, as well as muscular strength and endurance [4, 5]. The speed, flexibility, skill, endurance, and strength are all among the basic elements of fitness in any sport [6]. For the elite athletes, development for each component interrelates as part of the competition preparation [7]. In athletics especially, in the field sports reliant on the short distance running speed, speed and acceleration are pivotal qualities [8, 9]. Maximal speed actions classifies into maximal speed, acceleration or sprint-agility [10]. Agility-defined as the ability of fast change in direction and to begin and stop quickly assumes his significance in the context [11]. More specifically, there can be muscle fatigue resulting from repeated exposure to movements during any given match and hence the need for muscular endurance exercises as an additive within the strength training program of a player [12, 13]. The stride frequency, stride length, speed endurance, and movement efficiency were some of the physical components that determined running speed [14, 15]. Traditional methods in increasing sprint performance were general, velocity-specific, and movement-specific strength training [16]. The repetition number is a crucial variable, impacting the number of repetitions achievable at a given intensity [17]. This variable is intrinsic to the repetition continuum wherein magnitude and loading dictates the spectrum of repetitions, hence this dictates the associated outcomes on strength development [18]. In this context, the present study aims to delve into how much sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance can be improved through motion and action velocity-focused circuit training [19]. Other than this, a notable purpose of the paper is to explore how variation in velocity while exercising in a resistance training bout under accepted loading conditions can affect repetition range especially when speed is largely decreased for exercise.
... These results align with other studies indicating that athletes with greater performance in Olympic movements perform better in the 20-m sprint (p < 0.01) and over longer distances, so it is reasonable to assume that these results can be extrapolated to athletes whose disciplines require power, strength, and speed [36]. In contrast, studies such as those by Marković et al. (2007) [53]and Booth and Orr (2016) [54]did not observe significant improvements in 36-m sprints (p > 0.05) when comparing training with Olympic lifts, traditional strength training, and agility and speed training, which could differ from those obtained in the present study when using a different Olympic lifting program than the one proposed, since it involves very high loads, in addition to evaluating a much longer sprint distance. ...
Improving performance and promoting sustainability in women's handball are key objectives to maximize the potential of female players and ensure the long-term viability of the sport. In this context, training with Olympic movements and their derivatives improves the development of strength, power, and speed, which are determinants of performance in team sports. The aim of this study was to determine if training with Olympic movements produces significant improvements in jumping, throwing, sprinting, and change of direction performance in women handball players. Twenty-one female handball players participated in the study (10 for the control group and 11 for the intervention group). Age ranged from 15 to 17 years. All participants performed four assessment tests (Abalakov Test, throw test, 20-meter Sprint and V-Cut Test) to determine jump height, throwing speed, running speed, and change of direction ability. Measurements were carried out before and after the intervention. For six weeks, the control group performed the strength work established by the club twice a week while the intervention group additionally performed training with Olympic movements. Significant differences (p <0.05) were found between the pre and post measurement of the control group and the intervention group in jump height, throwing speed and running speed, being higher in the intervention group. For the change of direction, no significant differences were found. Between groups, significant differences were observed at the end of the intervention for jump height and running speed. The conclusion of this study was that, by training with Olympic movements, in addition to regular training, could produce greater improvements in jumping performance, throwing speed and running speed in female handball players.
... These results align with other studies indicating that athletes with better performance in Olympic movements perform better in the 20 m sprint (p < 0.01) and over longer distances, so it is reasonable to assume that these results can be extrapolated to athletes whose disciplines require power, strength, and speed [37]. In contrast, studies such as those by Marković et al. (2007) [57] and Booth and Orr (2016) [58] did not observe significant improvements in 36 m sprints (p > 0.05) when comparing training with Olympic lifts, traditional strength training, and agility and speed training. Their results may differ from those obtained in the present study due to using a different Olympic lifting program than the one proposed, which involved very high loads, in addition to evaluating a much longer sprint distance. ...
Improving women’s handball through increased performance and sustainability is crucial. Strength training, especially with Olympic movements, develops strength, power, and speed, key factors for success in team sports. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the impact of Olympic movements on performance variables such as jumps, throws, sprints, and changes of direction, and additionally, to promote a more sustainable and holistic approach to overall health and wellbeing. Twenty-one women handball players were divided into two groups (the experimental group (EG) [n = 11; age: 15.91 ± 0.70 years; BMI: 21.37] and the control group (CG) [n = 10; age: 15.60 ± 0.52; BMI: 22.31]). All participants performed four assessment tests to determine jump height (Abalakov test), throwing speed (throw test), running speed (20 m sprint) and change of direction ability (V-cut test). Measurements were carried out before and after the intervention. For six weeks, the control group performed the strength work established by the club twice a week while the intervention group additionally performed training with Olympic movements. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between the pre and post measurement of the control group and the intervention group in jump height, throwing speed, and running speed, being higher in the intervention group. For change of direction, no significant differences were found. Between groups, significant differences were observed at the end of the intervention for jump height and running speed. The conclusion of this study is that the experimental group achieved greater improvements in jumping performance, throwing speed, and running speed in women handball players.
... The par�cipant was instructed to jump as far as possible from the marked line with both feet, his hands free to swing. The distance from the star�ng to the landing point at the heel contact was measured in cen�meters with 1 cm measurement precision (Markovic et al., 2007). ...
Pošto su fizičke sposobnosti bitne za dobro zdravlje i uspešnost policijskih službenika, one predstavljaju i jedan od glavnih faktora prilikom upisa na policijske akademije. Međutim, njihova povezanost sa akademskim uspehom i efikasnošću studiranja još uvek nije jasno utvrđena, posebno kod žena. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je da se ispita povezanost fizičkih sposobnosti sa akademskim uspehom predstavljenim prosečnom ocenom (GPA) i efikasnošću studiranja predstavljenim vremenom diplomiranja kod žena koje su bile kandidatkinje za studije na Kriminalističko-policijskom Univerzitetu. Analizirane su fizičke sposobnosti 40 kandidatkinja za prijem na Kriminalističko-policijski Univerzitet, a njihov studijski uspeh i efikasnost su dobijeni nakon diplomiranja. Za ispitivanje povezanosti fizičkih sposobnosti sa GPA i vremenom diplomiranja korištene su korelacija i regresiona analiza. Rezultati su pokazali da je GPA bio povezan sa repetitivnom snagom gornjih ekstremiteta i testom fleksije/ekstenzije celog tela (WBCE). Može se zaključiti da su studentkinje sa bolje razvijenim fizičkim sposobnostima imale veće šanse za povoljniji akademski ishod. Posledično, moglo bi se reći da studentkinje policijskog univerziteta koje imaju bolje razvijenu kulturu fizičkog vežbanja imaju veće šanse za povoljniji akademski ishod. Rezultati ovog istraživanja mogu se koristiti kao temelj za buduća istraživanja koja bi ispitala povezanost fizičkih sposobnosti i uspeha u policijskim poslovima. To bi pomoglo u identifikaciji najboljih pojedinaca za taj posao i u razvoju novih programa selekcije, obrazovanja i vežbanja za policijske službenike.
... The age of the runners ranged from 25 to 35 years of age. The sample was similar to the characteristics of the subjects in related studies (Markovic et al.,2007) (Sporri et .,2018). (All the subjects volunteered to participate in this study with written informed consent. ...
Objective: Marathon runners require a pre-training program to improve cardiovascular endurance, strength, and energy to complete the long run. The most important objective was to determine the effect of an aquatic pre-participation training program for improving the running performance of middle-aged marathon runners. Method: The study was conducted among 100 recreational male and female runners (aged 25 to 35 years)fulfilling the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The subjects were randomly divided into two equal groups, the control group (n=50) and the experimental group (n=50) by using SPSS software. 6 weeks of aquatic training was conducted for the experimental group for 5 days per week (Monday to Friday) while the control group underwent swimming. The scores were statistically examined by paired ‘t-test. Results: Results showed that there was a significant reduction in pain in both groups with p-value
... Nel caso, non si disponesse di sufficiente tempo a disposizione per allenare la potenza e la forza reattiva, elastica ed esplosiva con la pliometria, una ricerca (Markovic G, 2007) ha sancito che, l'allenamento dello sprint breve (10-50m), nell'arco di 10 settimane, induce dei miglioramenti prestativi simili o, in alcuni casi migliori nei ragazzi, rispetto all'allenamento pliometrico estensivo ed intensivo, inoltre la pliometria deve essere allenata sia verticalmente che orizzontalmente, dato che, un ulteriore studio condotto sempre su dei giovani calciatori (Ramírez-Campillo R, 2014), non ha riscontrato miglioramenti significativi nello sprint, al termine di un mesociclo con soli mezzi pliometrici verticali, allo stesso tempo, raddoppiare il volume dei mezzi pliometrici orizzontali non ha portato benefici (Yanci J, 2016). ...
Il giuoco del Calcio è lo Sport più rappresentativo, amato e praticato in Italia, e anche il più
conosciuto al mondo. A comprovare la sua importanza nella penisola oltre che al legame
radicato nella vita e nella cultura degli italiani, vi è anche da considerare l’aspetto economico
e l’indotto che questo sport crea con un giro di affari che ne fa una delle principali aziende
nostrane. Winston Churchill disse “Gli italiani perdono le partite di calcio come se fossero
guerre e perdono le guerre come se fossero partite di calcio.”
Per gli italiani, una partita di Calcio è proprio come una guerra, poiché al suo interno, tra la
squadra di calcio, i suoi calciatori e tifosi sono presenti tutti i valori culturali, tipici di un
conflitto tra stati, ovvero differenze sociali, religiose, politiche ed etniche che ampliano il tifo.
Quando non sono presenti tutti questi elementi, possono essere sufficienti anche un modico
numero di isolati di distanza per avere un “derby del quartiere”.
La federazione sportiva che ha il compito di organizzare il Calcio in Italia è la FIGC, Federazione
Italiana Giuoco Calcio, associazione riconosciuta, con personalità giuridica, federata al
Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano, la sola accreditata allo scopo di promuovere e curare
in Italia il gioco del Calcio, del Futsal e del Beach Soccer.
La FIGC è la Federazione Sportiva Nazionale con più tesserati e associazioni o società affiliate,
con circa 1,4 milioni di tesserati tra calciatori, tecnici, arbitri e dirigenti, tra cui 833.000 sono
calciatori tesserati nel Settore Giovanile Scolastico (Gravina G, 2020), circa il 20% della
popolazione italiana maschile tra i 5 e i 16 anni è un calciatore mentre, un italiano su 60 è un
tesserato FIGC.
Ma come deve essere allenato il 20% della popolazione tra i 5 e i 16 anni?
Il futuro del Calcio deve apprendere la corretta tecnica calcistica, tattica individuale e
collettiva e sviluppare le capacità motorie in base alla loro età e considerando lo sviluppo
biologico di ogni singolo bambino e ragazzo, perché è nella scuola calcio che si costruisce “la
casa”, mentre nel settore giovanile, si può soltanto più “arredarla”, con dei miglioramenti
limitati.
Nella scuola calcio viene appresa la prevalenza del lavoro tecnico e motorio, dal settore
giovanile si può soltanto concludere il lavoro iniziato nel periodo della scuola calcio, questo
perché, ogni annata deve essere stimolata diversamente, dopo aver terminato le “fasi
sensibili”, le possibilità di recuperare il lavoro non svolto nelle categorie non agonistiche e,
specialmente, di ottenere dei progressi simili è pressoché uguale a zero.
Una moltitudine di motivazioni mi hanno motivato nella scelta di analizzare questo tema, la
motivazione principale è il mio amore incondizionato per “l’allenare”, in qualsiasi categoria,
dall’attività di base, fino alle ultime categorie del settore giovanile e la prima squadra.
Nei capitoli successivi illustrerò il “modello del giovane calciatore” e il suo sviluppo biologico
e come, secondo la più recente e confermata letteratura scientifica, devono essere allenate
nella scuola calcio e nel settore giovanile gli schemi motori di base, delle abilità tecniche
calcistiche, delle capacità coordinative e condizionali in base allo sviluppo del ragazzo.
In conclusione, sostengo fermamente che questa tematica meriti una notevole meticolosità,
per poter creare dei futuri calciatori dilettanti con degli standards più elevati, dato che tra
essi, per esperienza personale, un numero consistente effettua il passaggio dalla scuola calcio
alla categoria “Giovanissimi” senza aver nemmeno consolidato gli schemi motori di base,
oppure, sotto l’aspetto tecnico, ci sono molti giocatori della categoria “Juniores” che non
riescono a trovare un posto in prima squadra, per delle carenze basilari nelle abilità tecniche,
come il tiro dal piede debole o più semplicemente il passaggio di precisione.
... This squat jump exercise has a slightly longer amortization phase, so the resulting energy production is a bit wasted, resulting in not too much explosive power. If the amortization phase is prolonged, it will hinder the stretch reflex and a lot of energy production will be wasted (Markovic., 2007). ...
This study aims to describe the implications and responses of fighters on the use of Squat Jump exercises in learning pencak silat. The research design in this study is quantitative. This research involved martial arts fighters aged 14-17 years at the Persinas Asad Pencak Silat College as research subjects. The data were obtained through martial arts, in this study the researcher carried out several stages to analyze the data, namely the pre-test and post-test. The results of the study show that the use of squat jump exercises is effective in the process of practising pencak silat because fighters get something different by using squat jump exercises. The squat jump exercise is also used to provide input to fighters to get good leg muscle power. According to fighters, squat jump training is a training model that invites fighters to further increase leg muscle power. In addition, fighters can also provide more power when kicking pencak silat.
... However, the results on jump height and sprint performance are contradictory. For instance, Markovic, Jukic, Milanovic & Metikos (2007) showed that 10 weeks of plyometric training increased squat jump and countermovement jump height and power, but the 20-m sprint remained unchanged while Chelly et al. (2010), reported significant improvements in sprint velocity (at 5m and between 35 -40m) and jump height, following 16 weeks of plyometric training. Despite the fact that performance tests (jump height and sprint) involved different direction force production (vertical vs horizontal, respectively), the training protocols of both studies were just composed of exercises with vertical component predominance (hurdle jumps). ...
Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar o efeito de 8 semanas de treino pliométrico na capacidade de salto, de velocidade e de agilidade de jovens futebolistas. O treino foi aplicado 2 vezes por semana, seguindo um modelo de periodização linear, com aumento progressivo do volume de treino [volume total por sessão: 45 a 88 contactos]. A amostra foi constituída por 18 jovens jogadores de futebol masculino (15,6 ± 0,5 anos de idade; 1,77 ± 5,4 m de estatura; 65,8 ± 7,6 Kg de massa corporal). Estes foram divididos em dois grupos: (i) grupo treino pliométrico (PlyoG; n = 10) e; (ii) grupo controlo (CG; n = 8). A performance durante as tarefas de: (i) saltos verticais [Squat Jump (SJ) e Countermovement Jump (CMJ)]; (ii) velocidade aos 10 e 20 m; (iii) agili[1]dade (Illinois Agility Run Test) foi avaliada antes (PRE), à 4ª semana (MID) e no final do protocolo (POS). Após 8 semanas de treino, verificou-se uma intera[1]ção grupo*tempo significativa para todas as variáveis estudadas (P < 0,05). O PlyoG aumentou significativamente a sua capacidade de salto (SJ: +11,3%, P < 0,001; CMJ: +11,2%; P < 0,0001) e diminuiu significativamente o tempo no teste de velocidade aos 10m e 20m (- 4,78% e - 5,78 %, respetivamente; P < 0,05) e no teste de agilidade (-8,11%, P < 0,0001). Após 4 semanas de treino já foi possível verificar alterações significativas de performance nas tarefas de salto, velocidade e agilidade (melhorias entre 4,01 % a 6,27%). No CG, não foram verificadas alterações de performance ao longo das 8 semanas de trei[1]no. Este estudo permitiu concluir que o treino progressivo de pliometria induz ganhos significativos de performance motora em atividades de explosividade fundamentais para o sucesso no futebol. Foi também possível incluir o treino de pliometria nas sessões normais de treino sem necessidade de aumentar ao tempo ou número de sessões de treino. Este aspeto é de particular relevância durante a época competitiva.
... All groups significantly enhanced the CODS and linear sprint performance, and the respective ESs were moderate to high (Fig 4G and 4H). Although some authors have reported no effect of PJT on 20 m sprint [47] and the CODS [48,49] records, our findings add consistently to previous works showing that sprint ability and the CODS performance improved [21,23] following 6 weeks of PJT using a CLS approach. These improvements might be attributed to increased muscle strength, particularly back squat strength, as it is highly correlated to sprint [50] and CODS [51]. ...
The optimal intra-set rest for cluster sets (CLS) during plyometric-jump training (PJT) to improve physical fitness remains unclear. The objective of this quasi-experimental study was to compare the effects of PJT with traditional (TRS) vs. CLS structures, using different intra-set rests, on the physical fitness of healthy participants. Forty-seven recreationally active young men performed 3–5 sets of 10–12 repetitions of upper- and lower-body PJT exercises twice a week for six weeks using different set configurations: TRS group (no intra-set rest), and the CLS10, CLS20 and CLS30 groups with 10, 20 and 30 s of intra-set rest, respectively, while the total rest period was equated. Pretest-posttest measurements were carried out 48 h before and after the intervention and the rating of fatigue (ROF) was also assessed using a numerical scale (0–10 points) 20 min after the first and last (i.e., 12th) session. There was no significant difference in the mean energy intake between groups (p > 0.05). The repeated measures ANOVA revealed that all groups showed similar improvements (p < 0.05) in body mass, body mass index, fat-free mass, one repetition maximum (dynamic strength) and repetitions to failure (muscular endurance) in back squat and chest press, handgrip strength, standing long jump, 20 m sprint, 9-m shuttle run (change of direction speed), and ROF. Of note, the ROF was lower for the CLS20 and CLS30 groups, independent from the training effect. The physical fitness of recreationally active young men improved after 6 weeks of PJT involving intra-set rest intervals of 0 s, 10 s, 20 s, or 30 s. However, an intra-set rest of 20 s and 30 s seems to induce lower exercise-induced fatigue perception.
... Rey et al. (2017 explain this by the lack of speed training specificity, which stimulates predominantly horizontal force, which is not sufficient to improve force production in the vertical direction. In contrast, Markovic et al. (2007) and Chaouachi et al. (2014) reported significant improvement in the CMJ test after 6-and 10-week speed training with direction change -SJ (p < 0.01). The difference in results may be due to the training frequency, since in our study the experimental group had speed training only 1 time per week and in the above mentioned studies it was 2-3 times per week. ...
This study aimed at investigating the efficacy of a 6-week combined plyometric and speed training program focusing on developing the speed-strength abilities of U14 soccer players. The study was conducted under the conditions of a two-group parallel experiment. Experimental groups I. and II. (EG I. and II.) consisted of youth soccer players (n = 20 and 18) in the top German and Slovak leagues, respectively. To obtain data, we performed 6 tests: squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ), 10-m sprint test, 20-m sprint test, and 505 agility test. EG I. players completed a 6-week experimental period, including two training sessions per week using plyometrics and short sprints, while EG II. players underwent the same experimental period without plyometrics and short sprints. Both groups completed an identical training program to develop their speed skills. Compared to the results of the EG II. group, the values of all tests were significantly more increased in the EG I. group: the SJ (p < 0.00001), CMJ (p < 0.00001), DJ (p < 0.00001), 10-m sprint test (p = 0.00122), 20-m sprint test (p = 0.00027), and 505 agility test (p = 0.00062). The results of the combined plyometric and speed program demonstrated higher efficacy in developing selected speed and strength parameters compared to the speed program without strength training. In summary, our study showed the necessity of using plyometric and sprint drills alongside game-specific training in soccer.
... These adaptations include enhanced motor unit recruitment and synchronization, improved intermuscular coordination, increased muscle fiber activation and force production, enhanced stretch-shortening cycle utilization, and improved proprioception and reactive capabilities. These neuromuscular adaptations can result in increased power output, greater force absorption and production during explosive movements, improved movement efficiency, and enhanced overall athletic performance (Fatouros et al., 2000;Chimera et al., 2004;Markovic et al., 2007). ...
Aim: The aim of this paper is to determine the effect of 6 weeks of plyometric training on speed, explosive power, pre-planned agility, and reactive agility in young tennis players.
Methods: The participants in this study included 35 male tennis players (age 12.14 ± 1.3 years, height 157.35 ± 9.53 cm and body mass 45.84 ± 8.43 kg at the beginning of the experiment). The biological age was calculated and determined for all participants. 18 of the participants were randomly assigned to the control group, and 17 were assigned to the experimental group. Running speed (sprints at 5, 10, and 20 m), change of direction speed (4 × 10, 20 yards, t-test, TENCODS), reactive agility (TENRAG), and explosive power (long jump, single leg triple jump, countermovement jump, squat jump, and single leg countermovement jump) were all tested. The Mixed model (2 × 2) ANOVA was used to determine the interactions and influence of a training program on test results. Furthermore, Bonferroni post hoc test was performed on variables with significant time*group interactions.
Results: The results of this research indicate that an experimental training program affected results in a set time period, i.e. 5 out of total 15 variables showed significant improvement after experimental protocol when final testing was conducted. The experimental group showed significantly improved results in the 5 m sprint test in the final testing phase compared to the initial testing phase, this was also the case in comparison to the control group in both measurements. Furthermore, the experimental group showed significant improvement in the single leg countermovement jump in the final test, as well as in comparison to the control group in both measurements. The change of direction speed and reactive agility test also exhibited significant improvement in the final testing phase of the experimental group.
Conclusion: The results of this research indicated that a 6-week program dominated by plyometric training can have a significant effect on the improvement of specific motor abilities within younger competitive categories. These results offer valuable insights for coaches in designing diverse tennis-specific scenarios to enhance overall performance, particularly focusing on the neuromuscular fitness of their players.
... Morfološke karakteristike i motoričke sposobnosti međusobno su usko povezane i utiču na realizaciju motoričkih zadataka u rukometu (Živković et al., 2010). Preko morfološke strukture ispoljavaju se motoričke sposobnosti pa se ova dva prostora posmatraju integralno i paralelno istražuju (Zaciorski, 1975;Marković, et al., 2007). Pod morfološkim karakteristikama antropološkog statusa čoveka najčešće se podrazumeva određen sistem osnovnih antropometrijskih latentnih dimenzija. ...
Postizanju vrhunskog uspeha u rukometu doprinosi mnogo različitih antropoloških parametara. Morfološke karakteristike i eksplozivna snaga su se kroz naučni i praktični rad pokazali kao jedni od najvažnijih pokazatelja uspešnosti. U skladu s tim, cilj ovog istraživanja je sagledavanju strukture morfoloških karakteristika i eksplozivne snage rukometaša, kao i uticaju posmatranih morfoloških karakteristika na eksplozivnu snagu. Uzorak ispitanika činio je 21 rukometaš seniorskog uzrasta, starosti od 20 do 33 ± 0,5 godina. Uzorak mernih instrumenata sastojao se od 21 varijable za procenu morfoloških karakteristika i tri varijable za procenu eksplozivne snage. Kako bi se utvrdila struktura morfoloških karakteristika i eksplozivne snage primenjena je faktorska analiza, dok je uticaj izolovanih faktora morfoloških karakteristika na izolovani faktor eksplozivne snage testiran primenom linearne regresije. Statistička analiza izvršena je u okviru programskog paketa SPSS 20. Rezultati su pokazali da je prostor morfoloških karakteristika rukometaša dominantno definisan varijablama koje su odgovorne za masu tela, voluminoznost i potkožno masno tkivo, dok je prostor eksplozivne snage definisan testom skoka u dalj iz mesta. Takođe utvrđeno je da prvi izolovani morfološki faktor ostvaruje najveće negativne projekcije na izolovani faktor eksplozivne snage, što je rezultat koji je očekivan, obzirom da je ovaj faktor definisan varijablama cirkularne dimenzionalnosti i adipoznosti, odnosno latentnim dimenzijama odgovornim za masu tela, voluminoznost i potkožno masno tkivo.
... Research demonstrated sprint training significantly improves skeletal muscle power output; maximal 10, 20, and 30 m sprint speed; and linear acceleration [6,9,10,12]. Taylor et al. [6] proposed that improvements in skeletal muscle power and sprint speed likely resulted from enhancements in contractile properties and further adaptations to the lower-limb extensor muscles via the repeated production of rapid high-force contractions associated with sprint training [10,[13][14][15]. ...
Field lacrosse requires sudden directional changes and rapid acceleration/deceleration. The capacity to perform these skills is dependent on explosive muscle force production. Limited research exists on the potential of sprint interval training (SIT) to impact explosive muscle force production in field lacrosse players. The purpose of this study is to examine SIT, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, on the rate of torque development (RTD), contractile impulse, and muscle function in female high school field lacrosse players (n = 12; 16 ± 1 yrs.). SIT was performed three times per week, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, for 12 weeks. Right lower-limb muscle performance was assessed pre-, mid-, and post-SIT training via isometric and isokinetic concentric knee extensor contractions. Outcomes included RTD (Nm·s−1), contractile impulse (Nm·s), and peak torque (Nm). RTD for the first 50 ms of contraction improved by 42% by midseason and remained elevated at postseason (p = 0.004, effect size (ES) = −577.3 to 66.5). Contractile impulse demonstrated a training effect across 0–50 ms (42%, p = 0.004, ES = −1.4 to 0.4), 0–100 ms (33%, p = 0.018, ES = 3.1 to 0.9), and 0–200 ms (22%, p = 0.031, ES = −7.8 to 1.6). Isometric (0 rad·s−1) and concentric (3.1 rad·s−1) strength increased by 20% (p = 0.002, ES = −60.8 to −20.8) and 9% (p = 0.038, ES = −18.2 to 0.0) from SIT and field-lacrosse-specific training, respectively (p < 0.05). SIT, concurrent to field-lacrosse-specific training, enhanced lower-limb skeletal muscle performance, which may enable greater sport-specific gains.
... Previous research has shown that plyometric and explosive training, or "plyospecific" training, can improve physical attributes, such as strength, power, and agility. Evidence for this is presented in the studies of [1][2][3][4][5], supporting the claim that plyometric and explosive training can improve athletes' physical attributes, including strength, power, and agility. Plyospecific training can be defined as tennis-specific physical training that consists of short forward, backward, and sideways sprints (3-5 m) performed in combination with plyometric training for speed, strength, and agility. ...
Physical fitness is a crucial component of tennis performance, and improving agility and lateral movement can give young tennis players a competitive edge. By training with plyospecific exercises, which focus on explosive movements and plyometric exercises, junior players can improve their speed, power, and reaction time on the court. The paper aimed to evaluate the effects and benefits of a 10-week physical training program on the agility of junior tennis players, using the results of seven agility tests, applying statistical t-tests for paired and independent samples, and the difference-indifferences approach. In order to achieve this, a sample of 48 U16 male Portuguese tennis junior players was used. The empirical results indicated that the training program had a positive impact on the agility of the tennis players. Specifically, the results showed improvements in the T-test performance on both the right and left sides, as well as improvements in the Edgren test scores on the left and right sides. Additionally, there was an increase in the average number of lateral and forward movements, suggesting enhanced agility among the players. These findings highlight the effectiveness of the training program in improving agility-related skills and performance in tennis. Coaches can incorporate similar training methods and exercises to improve their players' agility , leading to better performance on the court.
... They involve quick muscle stretching followed by focus or shortening of the same muscle and connective tissue. When combined with a periodic strengthtraining program, plyometric exercise has been shown to improve the ability to jump higher and faster (vertical jump), as well as the strength and coordination of one's legs and muscles (joint awareness, and proprioception) have all been demonstrated to benefit from this exercise [3]. ...
Background:
Plyometric training involves dynamic activities such as hopping, jumping, skipping, and bounding, and is used to improve dynamic muscle performance. The study aims to determine the effects of a 3-week plyometric training program on the explosive strength (standing broad jump [SBJ]), speed (30-meter sprint), and agility (t-test) of badminton players.
Methods:
The study recruited 102 eligible subjects who were randomly divided into two groups (51 per group). Both groups were initially tested for agility, speed, and strength. Thereafter, the experimental group underwent the plyometric exercise program twice per week for 3 weeks with a 2-day recovery period in between sessions. During the 3 weeks, the control group continued its routine exercise without plyometric training. After 3 weeks, the study tested both groups for agility, speed, and strength.
Results:
The agility of the experimental group after plyometric training (pre = 10.51±0.35 vs. post = 9.74±0.39 s) was significantly improved [t (100) = 9.941, p < 0.001] compared with the control group (10.65±0.29 vs. 10.53±0.33 s). Performance in terms of speed was significantly increased [t (100) = 4.675, p < 0.001] for the experimental group (pre = 4.58±0.35 vs. post = 4.06±0.45 s) compared with the control group (pre = 4.62±0.29 vs. post = 4.47±0.34 s). The experimental group (pre = 181.17±6.05 vs. post = 178.30±5.97 s) exhibited a substantial improvement [t (100) = 4.95, p < 0.001] in terms of explosive power compared with that of the control group (pre = 183.02±3.89 vs. post = 183.88±3.91 s).
Conclusion:
The findings emphasize the benefits of plyometric training in increasing the performance level required during movements in badminton. Plyometrics can help badminton players enhance their agility, speed, and explosive power.
... Vertical jump performance assessment are commonly used to evaluate the efficacy of a given exercise intervention (e.g., plyometric training) (26). Additionally, improvements in vertical jump height may directly impact sport-specific outcomes (e.g., rebound in basketball) (27). ...
We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of caffeine's effects on vertical jumping performance in females, with subgroup analyses for potential moderators, including phase of the menstrual cycle, testing time of day, caffeine dose, and test type. Fifteen studies were included in the review (n = 197). Their data were pooled in a random-effects meta-analysis of effect sizes (Hedges' g). In the main meta-analysis, we found an ergogenic effect of caffeine on jumping performance (g: 0.28). An ergogenic effect of caffeine on jumping performance was found when the testing was carried out in the luteal phase (g: 0.24), follicular phase (g: 0.52), luteal or follicular phase (g: 0.31), and when the phase was not specified (g: 0.21). The test for subgroup differences indicated that the ergogenic effects of caffeine were significantly greater in the follicular phase compared to all other conditions. An ergogenic effect of caffeine on jumping performance was found when the testing was carried out in the morning (g: 0.38), evening (g: 0.19), mixed morning or evening (g: 0.38), and when time was not specified (g: 0.32), with no subgroup differences. An ergogenic effect of caffeine on jumping performance was found when the dose was ≤3 mg/kg (g: 0.21), or >3 mg/kg (g: 0.37), with no subgroup differences. An ergogenic effect of caffeine on jumping performance was found in the countermovement jump test (g: 0.26) and squat jump test (g: 0.35), with no subgroup differences. In summary, caffeine ingestion is ergogenic for vertical jumping performance in females, and it seems that the magnitude of these effects is the largest in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
El objetivo fue estudiar los métodos más accesibles, baratos y válidos para la cuantificación de la altura y del tiempo de contacto
(TC) del salto vertical drop jump (DJ). Metodología: La investigación fue constituida por 2 grupos, 17 deportistas de
alto rendimiento (G1), (edad: 21,8 ± 2,6 años) y 16 deportistas
de iniciación deportiva (G2), (edad: 13,5 ± 2,2 años). Fueron
ejecutados tres saltos DJ con intervalos de 30” entre ellos en
la alfombra de contacto (AC), simultáneamente grabados con
un iphone 8 en el plan frontal, en que fue mensurado el TC y la
altura del salto en la aplicación My jump2 (MJ2) y con un
smartphone samsung en el plan lateral para la cuantificación
del TC y el tiempo de vuelo en el software kinovea® (Sk)
(por dos evaluadores distintos),para la posterior cuantificación de la altura del salto. Para el análisis de los datos fue utilizado solamente el mayor salto, cuantificado por la AC. Fue utilizado el coeficiente de correlación inter-clase (ICC),
la correlación de Pearson (r) y los gráficos de Bland-Altaman para testar la confiabilidad, correlación y concordancia de los métodos evaluados con la AC. Resultados: Las correlaciones y confiabilidades para la altura del salto en el G1 y G2 fueron casi
perfectas (r=1; ICC=1; IC=1- 1; p<0,001). El TC en el G1 (r=698-963; ICC=677-964) y en el G2 (r=485-995; ICC=273-
993) presentaran variaciones. Conclusión: El MJ2 y SK son
confiables para mensurar la altura del salto
BACKGROUND: In sports science, optimizing athletic performance is pursued through an emerging approach that combined light-loaded squat (LLS) training and plyometric jump training (PJT), targeting strength, power, and neuromuscular adaptations, particularly beneficial for the dynamic demands of youth soccer. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a combined LLS training and PJT program on athletic performance and balance in youth soccer players.
METHODS: Thirty-two male players were randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental group (EG: N.=16; age: 18.56±0.51 years; body mass: 66.87±4.99 kg; height: 1.78±0.07 m) and a control group (CG: N.=16; age: 18.68±0.47 years; body mass: 67.93±4.58 kg; height: 1.77±0.07 m) from the same U19 team of a professional club voluntarily participated in the study. Squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), horizontal jump (HJ), drop jump (DJ), 30 m sprint (30 mS), change of direction ability (4×5 m sprint test [S 4×5 m]) and static balance (the stork balance) performance tests were carried out in the week before and the week after the 8 weeks with combined LLS and PJT period. The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for all tests.
RESULTS: The results of this study show that the EG had significantly greater improvements than the CG in all tests (all P<0.001). Also, EG experienced higher performance between preintervention and post intervention measures (all P<0.05). There was no significant difference between the two groups in the 4×5mS performance (P>0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that coaches may be advised to use the combined LLS and PJT since it is as effective as traditional methods and perfect for sports and activities requiring fast, explosive movements during the in-season period than regular training.
Reaktif kuvvet indeksi (RKİ), patlayıcı kuvvet gerektiren spor branşlarında pliometrik antrenman yükünün ve yoğunluğunun belirlenmesi için kullanılmaktadır. Sporcuların yıllık programları içerisinde üst ekstremite pliometrik antrenmanları uygulanmasına rağmen RKİ çalışmalarına rastlanmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, üst ekstremitenin baskın olarak kullanıldığı boks sporunda şınav ve sıçrama teknikleriyle oluşturulan alt ve üst ekstremite reaktif kuvvet indekslerinin belirlenmesi ve aralarındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya, 18-35 yaş aralığında (yaş:20,9±4,83; boy:1,76±.072; VKİ:22,42±2,39), en az 4 yıllık boks geçmişi olan 20 lisanslı erkek boksör katılmıştır. Boksörlerin RKİ değerleri; derinlik şınav (10 cm, 15 cm, 20 cm) ve derinlik sıçrama (30 cm, 45 cm, 60 cm), patlayıcı şınav, çök-sıçra hareketleri sırasında belirlenmiştir. Alt ve üst ekstremite RKİ değerleri kuvvet platformu (TekScan, Matscan, model 3150, Boston, USA) kullanılarak ölçülmüştür. Kuvvet platformundan elde edilen sıçrama yükseklikleri ve temas süreleri kullanılarak RKİ hesaplaması yapılmıştır. Sınav ve sıçrama hareketleri sırasında elde edilen alt ve üst ekstremite RKİ değerleri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişkiye rastlanmamıştır (p>0.05). Çök-sıçra ve derinlik sıçrama karşılaştırdığında ise, teknikler sırasında oluşturulan RKİ değerleri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark bulunmuştur (p0,05). Boksörler hızlı ve etkili yumruk atmak için, yer tepki kuvvetinden faydalanarak oluşturdukları gücü gövde vasıtasıyla üst ektremitelere aktarırlar. Bu çalışmada alt ve üst ekstremite RKİ değerleri arasında ilişki bulunmaması, üst ekstremiteyle kuvvet oluştururken gövdenin de önemli rolünün olmasından kaynaklanmış olabilir. Bunun yanında, farklı şınav teknikleri ve farklı sıçrama tekniklerinin RKİ değerlerinin değişken olmasının, düzenlenecek pliometrik antrenmanların yükünün ve yoğunluğunun belirlenmesine ışık tutacağı düşünülmektedir.
Aim To evaluate the effect of a 12-week physical training regime comprising five components – speed, power, agility, reaction, quickness – on young football players’ performance in terms of their capacity to move quickly in different phases.
Methods The football players were randomly divided into an experimental group (n = 12) and a control group (n = 12). The rapid change of direction mobility was systematically investigated by using outdoor tests, the Illinois 505 Agility Test, the Square Pace Test, the Nebraska Agility Test, and the T-Shape Agility Test.
Results With the intervention of training, considerable improvements were detected in all indicators, with the SPARQ training approach outperforming.
Conclusion The combined results indicate that SPARQ training can deliver favourable efficiency in terms of enhancing the agility of young football players.
The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of plyometric training on speed and strength of sedentary college men. It had to tested out on students divided by two groups experimental and control group each consisted of 15 students. It was hypothesized that there would be significant changes in the effect of plyometric training on speed and strength of sedentary college men. The experimental group under went the plyometric training for a period of twelve weeks, whereas the control group did not invole in any strenuous physical activity during the course of study. However both the groups were permitted to go their routine curriculum. The study was formulated as a random group design. The subjects were tested at the beginning (pre-test) and at the end of the experimental period (post-test) was taken after a twelve weeks. With the help of ANCOVA was used for statistical analyzed. The result shows that experimental group showed remarkable increases in the speed and strength than the control group.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of high-intensity plyometric training (HIPT) on some parameters in elite soccer players in the U17. Volunteer soccer players were randomly divided into two groups according to their positions: the regular training (RT) group (age: 16.71 ± 0.47 years; stature: 163.46 ± 3.31 cm; body weight: 61.04 ± 1.59 kg) and the HIPT group (age: 16.64 ± 0.50 years; stature: 165.60 ± 3.03 cm; body weight: 59.76 ± 1.92 kg), and each group included five defenders, five midfielders, and four attackers. While the RT group did only routine soccer training, the HIPT group performed high-intensity plyometric training three days a week in addition to routine soccer training. In the study, body weight, stature, sprint (10 m, 30 m, and 40 m), jump (standing long jump, right and left-limb triple hop) and 5-0-5 change of direction speed test measurements of the soccer players were taken. Skewness and Kurtosis values obtained from the pre-test and post-test measurements were calculated to test whether the normality assumption of the study was met. A mixed measure two-way ANOVA test was used to determine the difference between the pre-test and post-test. The significance was set as p < 0.05. The results indicated that 8-week high- intensity plyometric training provided more improvement in measured performance parameters than routine soccer training. As a result, when the data obtained is examined, it can be said that HIPT had better values in sprint, jump, and change of direction parameters, so plyometric training was more beneficial for anaerobic parameters than routine soccer training in children. It is recommended that the trainers make their plans considering these results.
Adolescent physical fitness serves not merely as a current barometer of well-being but as a significant prognosticator of future health trajectories. Amidst the tumult of socioeconomic metamorphoses and pronounced lifestyle transitions enveloping China—mirroring global trends—the imperative to elucidate the present landscape of adolescent physical fitness intensifies. Moreover, discerning the myriad determinants underpinning it becomes paramount. In this context, our research endeavored to meticulously delineate the physical fitness milieu of adolescents residing in Shandong Province, systematically unpacking the multifarious influencers thereof. The insights garnered herein furnish an empirical foundation, primed to guide the sculpting of calibrated interventions, targeting the enhancement of health in this pivotal population cohort. In an extensive evaluative survey conducted in 2023 concerning the physical fitness of Shandong's student populace, a cohort of 33,211 adolescents aged 12 to 15 years was delineated utilizing a stratified random cluster sampling technique. This exercise meticulously quantified the physical fitness indices across diverse gender, age, and household registration classifications, subsequently computing the concomitant qualified rates. Employing multivariable logistic regression analysis, this investigation delved into the determinants modulating the adolescents' physical fitness qualified rate. For 2023, the aggregate fitness qualified rate stood at 91.94 % for the adolescents aged 12 ∼ 15 in Shandong Province. Gender-wise, female adolescents registered a qualified rate of 92.25 %, marginally eclipsing their male peers at 91.63 % (P < 0.05). An age-related trend in qualified rates was discernible, with marked variations across different age bands (P < 0.05): 91.37 % for 12-year-olds, 91.79 % for 13-year-olds, 91.81 % for 14-year-olds, and a zenith of 92.87 % for 15-year-olds. A geographical dichotomy emerged wherein rural adolescents distinctly outperformed their urban counterparts, notching up a 92.28 % qualified rate versus 91.64 % in urban settings (P < 0.05). The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that after adjusting for gender, age, and household registration characteristics, adolescents had a lower odds of failing the physical fitness tests whose parents both liked physical exercises, whose parents supported children’s participation in physical exercise, who participated in physical exercise sessions 3 ∼ 5 times per week or more than 5 times per week, who exercised for 0.5 ∼ 1 h each time or more than 1 h each time, who engaged in moderate intensity physical exercise, who slept 6 ∼ 8 h per day or more than 8 h per day, who consumed breakfast 3 ∼ 6 times per week or daily. On the other hand, adolescents had a higher odds of failing the physical fitness tests who always exposed to passive smoking, who spent 1 ∼ 3 h on screen per day or more than 3 h on screen per day, who spent more than 3 h doing homework per day, who consumed fast food 2 ∼ 3 times per week or more than 3 times per week. The physical fitness trajectory of adolescents residing within Shandong Province is tethered to a mosaic of determinants. This underscores the imperative for a synergistic strategy, harmonizing parental, scholastic, and societal vectors, to cultivate the salubrious maturation of this pivotal cohort.
The study concerned with only one aspect of information behaviour the element of seeking and that of a particular samskrit university library users. A small scale pilot study on the sample of Karnataka samskrit university students and the faculty, the study was conducted to obtain insight into the Information-seeking behaviour of students in the getting information from the library. The general motivation behind the investigation was to figure out what their data prerequisites are and decide their familiarity with library administrations accessible to them. Findings show that direction in the utilisation of library assets and administrations is essential
to assist understudies with meeting a portion of their data prerequisites.
The present research work deals with public libraries of chintamani taluk and chikballapura district. It explains location,collections,working hours and library services.the main objectives of the study are it helps readers to know users, and utilisation of library collection and services.
Objectif: L'objectif de cette étude est d'examiner l'efficacité d'un entrainement HIIT sur la condition physique et la performance en escrime. Méthode: Onze sujets ont été répartis au hasard dans un groupe contrôle (CON ; n = 5) et dans un groupe expérimental (HIIT ; n = 6) et ont été testés avant et après 6 semaines d'entrainement (2 entraînements par semaine ajoutés à un entrainement régulier en escrime) : (1) anthropométrie et composition corporelle, (2) test progressivement croissant sur tapis, (3) test de saut en contre-mouvement (CMJ), (4) running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST), (5) test d'endurance musculaire en escrime. Résultats: Dans le groupe contrôle (CON), seule une augmentation de la masse (+1.7% ; p=0.046) a été observée. Dans le groupe expérimental (HIIT), a été observée une augmentation de la masse (+2.8% ; p=0.045), de l'IMC (+2.6% ; p=0.030), de la masse maigre (+4.4%; p=0.004), de la VMA (+6.6%; p=0.003), de la hauteur (+3.1%; p=0.015), de Pmax absolue (+4.8% ; p=0.012) et Pmax relative (+2.0% ; p=0.047) au CMJ, de Pmax absolue (+9.7% ; p=0.009), de Pmoy absolue (+17.2% ; p=0.006) et Pmoy relative (+2.0% ; p=0.047), de Pmin absolue (+25.4% : p=0.001) et Pmin relative (+20.8% ; p=0.004) au RAST et du nombre de fentes total (+8.2% ; p<0.001). Conclusion:L'entrainement par intervalles de haute intensité semble améliorer la condition physique et la performance en escrime et induire plus d'adaptations liées à la performance qu'un entrainement classique.
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 3 different training protocols-plyometric training, weight training, and their combination-on selected parameters of vertical jump performance and leg strength. Forty-one men were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: plyometric training (n = 11), weight training (n = 10), plyometric plus weight training (n = 10), and control (n = 10). Vertical jump, mechanical power, flight time, and maximal leg strength were measured before and after 12 weeks of training. Subjects in each training group trained 3 days per week, whereas control subjects did not participate in any training activity. Data were analyzed by a 2-way (4 [middle dot] 2) analysis of variance (repeated-measures design). Results showed that all training treatments elicited significant (p < 0.05) improvement in all tested variables. However, the combination training group produced improvements in vertical jump performance and leg strength that were significantly greater than improvements in the other 2 training groups (plyometric training and weight training). This study provides support for the use of a combination of traditional and Olympic-style weightlifting exercises and plyometric drills to improve vertical jumping ability and explosive performance in general.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The purpose of this study was to quantify the rate of force development (RFD) and maximum force in isometric, concentric, and stretch-shorten cycle contraction modes and to determine their relationships to sprint running performance. Fifteen athletic subjects performed a series of isometric, concentric, and stretch-shorten cycle RFD tests in an upright squat position using a modified Smith machine positioned over a force platform. The concentric and isometric tests were performed at both 110[degrees] and 150[degrees] knee angles. From the force data recorded, the maximum force, maximum RFD, force at 30 ms, and impulse at 100 ms were used as test variables. Subjects also ran a 30-m indoor sprint from a crouched start. Of the 20 force-time variables calculated, the concentric tests were the only ones significantly correlated to performance and able to effectively discriminate between good and poor performers. Isometric tests were unrelated to dynamic performance. This was suggested to be due to the large neural and mechanical differences between isometric and dynamic muscular actions. The results are strongly supportive of the use of concentric RFD tests but not isometric ones.
(C) 1995 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Understanding of biomechanical factors in sprint running is useful because of their critical value to performance. Some variables measured in distance running are also important in sprint running. Significant factors include: reaction time, technique, electromyographic (EMG) activity, force production, neural factors and muscle structure. Although various methodologies have been used, results are clear and conclusions can be made.
The reaction time of good athletes is short, but it does not correlate with performance levels. Sprint technique has been well analysed during acceleration, constant velocity and deceleration of the velocity curve. At the beginning of the sprint run, it is important to produce great force/ power and generate high velocity in the block and acceleration phases. During the constant-speed phase, the events immediately before and during the braking phase are important in increasing explosive force/power and efficiency of movement in the propulsion phase. There are no research results available regarding force production in the sprint-deceleration phase. The EMG activity pattern of the main sprint muscles is described in the literature, but there is a need for research with highly skilled sprinters to better understand the simultaneous operation of many muscles. Skeletal muscle fibre characteristics are related to the selection of talent and the training-induced effects in sprint running.
Efficient sprint running requires an optimal combination between the examined biomechanical variables and external factors such as footwear, ground and air resistance. Further research work is needed especially in the area of nervous system, muscles and force and power production during sprint running. Combining these with the measurements of sprinting economy and efficiency more knowledge can be achieved in the near future.
Exercise science researchers are familiar with the use of parametric tests to detect significant differences among treatment groups. However, in planning research a question asked with increasing frequency is, "How many participants are needed to detect real and meaningful differences among groups?" In this paper, we provide an overview of the use of alpha, power, and effect size in planning sample sizes that allow tests of real and meaningful differences among groups. Because effect size is the parameter most often missing, we have located meta-analyses in sport and exercise psychology (n = 26), and motor behavior (n = 6). We provide examples and a discussion of how researchers can use these effect sizes along with common estimates of alpha and power to plan for the sample size needed to detect real and meaningful group differences.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two drop jump (DJ) training methods on the strength qualities of the leg extensors and vertical jumping performance. Thirty-five males were allocated to either a control group or one of two training groups, required to perform 72-90 DJ per week for 6 weeks: DJ for maximum rebound height (DJ-H) or DJ for maximum height and minimum ground contact time (DJ-H/t). The subjects were tested before and after the training on leg extensor function for maximum strength and speed-strength under concentric and stretch-shortening cycle muscular actions, and on vertical jumps from a standing position and a run-up. ANOVA with repeated measures showed that a 20% gain in reactive strength (RS) for the DJ-H/t group was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the other groups, however, this did not transfer to vertical jumping performance. The DJ-H group did not achieve a significant training effect. It was concluded that DJ-H/t method was effective for the development of RS, but training with DJ-H was not intense and/or specific enough to stimulate gains in strength qualities of the leg extensors or jumping performance.
Few data exist on the long-term adaptations to heavy resistance training in women. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effect of volume of resistance exercise on the development of physical performance abilities in competitive, collegiate women tennis players. Twenty-four tennis players were matched for tennis ability and randomly placed into one of three groups: a no resistance exercise control group, a periodized multiple-set resistance training group, or a single-set circuit resistance training group. No significant changes in body mass were observed in any of the groups throughout the entire training period. However, significant increases in fat-free mass and decreases in percent body fat were observed in the periodized training group after 4, 6, and 9 months of training. A significant increase in power output was observed after 9 months of training in the periodized training group only. One-repetition maximum strength for the bench press, free-weight shoulder press, and leg press increased significantly after 4, 6, and 9 months of training in the periodized training group, whereas the single-set circuit group increased only after 4 months of training. Significant increases in serve velocity were observed after 4 and 9 months of training in the periodized training group, whereas no significant changes were observed in the single-set circuit group. These data demonstrate that sport-specific resistance training using a periodized multiple-set training method is superior to low-volume single-set resistance exercise protocols in the development of physical abilities in competitive, collegiate women tennis players.
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of external loading on power output during a squat jump on a force platform in athletes specializing in strength and power events (6 elite weight-lifters and 16 volleyball players) and in 20 sedentary individuals. Instantaneous power was computed from time-force curves during vertical jumps with and without an external load (0, 5 or 10 kg worn in a special vest). The jumps were performed from a squat position, without lower limb counter-movement or an arm swing. Peak instantaneous power corresponded to the highest value of instantaneous power during jumping. Average power throughout the push phase of the jump was also calculated. A two-way analysis of variance showed significant interactions between the load and group effects for peak instantaneous power (P< 0.01) and average power (P< 0.001). Peak instantaneous power decreased significantly in sedentary individuals when moderate external loads were added. The peak instantaneous power at 0 kg was greater than that at 5 and 10 kg in the sedentary individuals. In contrast, peak instantaneous power was independent of load in the strength and power athletes. Mean power at 0 kg was significantly lower than at 5 kg in the athletes; at 0 kg it was significantly higher than at 10 kg in the sedentary males and at 5 and 10 kg in the sedentary females. In all groups, the force corresponding to peak instantaneous power increased and the velocity corresponding to peak instantaneous power decreased with external loading. The present results suggest that the effects of external loading on peak instantaneous power are not significant in strength and power athletes provided that the loads do not prevent peak velocity from being higher than the velocity that is optimal for maximal power output.
Although the plyometric training has proved its efficiency, it remains generally unknown whether a limited amount of plyometric training could improve movements in subjects who already demonstrate high level of performance.
Three different training regimens were performed in order to study effects of plyometric training on elite junior basketball players. While control group (CG) participated only in the regular midseason training activity, another two groups performed a limited amount of plyometric training employing drop jumps from the height of either 50 cm (EG-50) or 100 cm (EG-100). The height of the maximal vertical jump (CMJ), as well as the maximal voluntary force (F) and the rate of force development (RFD) of hip and knee extensors were tested prior to and after the training.
An increase in CMJ (4.8 and 5.6 cm in EG-50 and EG-100, respectively), as well as in F of hip extensors and RFD of knee extensors was observed in both experimental groups, while no significant changes were recorded in CG. When the pretest scores were used as a covariate, both experimental groups demonstrated higher increase in CMJ and RFD of knee extensors then CG. However, no differences were observed between EG-50 and EG-100. The multiple correlation between four isometric parameters and CMJ revealed R2=0.29.
A limited amount of plyometric training could improve jumping performance in elite junior basketball players and this improvement could be partly related with an increase in F of hip extensors and RFD of knee extensors. However, neither of the two initial heights of the applied drop jumps proved to be more effective.
We examined the effects of 2 plyometric training programs, equalized for training volume, followed by a 4-week recovery period of no plyometric training on anaerobic power and vertical jump performance. Physically active, college-aged men were randomly assigned to either a 4-week (n = 19, weight = 73.4 +/- 7.5 kg) or a 7-week (n = 19, weight = 80.1 +/- 12.5 kg) program. Vertical jump height, vertical jump power, and anaerobic power via the Margaria staircase test were measured pretraining (PRE), immediately posttraining (POST), and 4 weeks posttraining (POST-4). Vertical jump height decreased in the 4-week group PRE (67.8 +/- 7.9 cm) to POST (65.4 +/- 7.8 cm). Vertical jump height increased from PRE to POST-4 in 4-week (67.8 +/- 7.9 to 69.7 +/- 7.6 cm) and 7-week (64.6 +/- 6.2 to 67.2 +/- 7.6 cm) training programs. Vertical jump power decreased in the 4-week group from PRE (8,660.0 +/- 546.5 W) to POST (8,541.6 +/- 557.4 W) with no change in the 7-week group. Vertical jump power increased PRE to POST-4 in 4-week (8,660.0 +/- 546.5 W to 8,793.6 +/- 541.4 W) and 7-week (8,702.8 +/- 527.4 W to 8,931.5 +/- 537.6 W) training programs. Anaerobic power improved in the 7-week group from PRE (1,121.9 +/- 174.7 W) to POST (1,192.2 +/- 189.1 W) but not the 4-week group. Anaerobic power significantly improved PRE to POST-4 in both groups. There were no significant differences between the 2 training groups. Four-week and 7-week plyometric programs are equally effective for improving vertical jump height, vertical jump power, and anaerobic power when followed by a 4-week recovery period. However, a 4-week program may not be as effective as a 7-week program if the recovery period is not employed.
A new method to measure the leg stiffness in hopping and bouncing, with simple technical equipment and under field conditions, is introduced and validated. The leg stiffness (K (N)) was calculated from only contact and flight times measured by a contact mat. It was compared to the reference stiffness (K (R)) obtained from force platform measurements. Eight subjects performed, first, submaximal hopping movements at different frequencies (1.8 to 4 Hz, by step 0.2 Hz) and, second, maximal hopping. In sub maximal hopping K (N) was significantly correlated with K (R) (r = 0.94; p < 0.001) and the difference between K (N) and K (R) ranged from -7.2 % to 6.9 % (at 1.8 and 3.6 Hz respectively) with a limit of agreement of -1.5 kN x m (-1). In maximal hopping K (N) was also related to K (R) (r = 0.98, p < 0.001) and the inter individual rank order was respected (R = 0.87). It was concluded that the new method could be applied to study extensively intra individual and inter individual variations of leg stiffness in respectively sub maximal and maximal hopping and thus to simplify further investigations in field conditions of the role of stiffness regulation in the optimization of human locomotion.
This study was done to determine which plyometric training technique is best for improving vertical jumping ability, positive energy production, and elastic energy utilization. Data were collected before and after 12 weeks of jump training and were analyzed by ANOVA. Subjects (N = 28) performed jumps under 3 testing conditions-squat jump, countermovement jump, and depth jump-and were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: control, depth jump training, or countermovement jump training. The 12-week program resulted in significant increases in vertical jump height for both training groups. The depth jump group significantly improved their vertical jump height in all 3 jumps. None of the training methods improved utilization of elastic energy. In activities involving dynamic stretch-shorten cycles, drop jump training was superior to countermovement jump training due to neuromuscular specificity. This study provides support for the strength and conditioning professional to include plyometric depth jump training as part of the athlete's overall program for improving vertical jumping ability and concentric contractile performance.
"The objective of this study was to investigate the action of the muscles at the hip and knee joints, with a view to identify those muscles which play a major role in sprinting. Taking, as their hypothesis, that the velocity of a sprinter, running at full speed, is directly related to the velocity of the swing back of the legs - a movement started from the high point of the knee lift down to foot contact and continued during the support phase - the authors use electromyography to trace the possible proportional contribution of the various muscles concerned with extension of the hip and knee joints. They conclude that the muscles mainly responsible for forward propulsion in full speed sprinting are the hamstrings, the glutaeus maximus and the adductor longus. The hamstrings are singled out as the most important contributors to produce highest speed levels."
Sprint (S, n=12) and endurance (E, n=14) training were performed independently and concurrently (C, n=6) for eight weeks to determine adaptive responses to each and their capability. Group S trained three days per week performing six 100m and six 50m sprints at 95 percent maximum speed. Group E ran continuously for 30 minutes at 85 percent HRmax three days per week. Group C trained six days per week, alternating days of sprint and endurance training. Group S improved (p<0.05) 50m and 100m sprint times (2.5 and 4.5 percent, respectively), 30-second run distance (2.5 percent), showed no change (p>0 .05) in 30-minute run distance or [latin capital V with dot above]O2 max, and decreased (p<0.05) average power output 20.9 percent during the 30- to 45-second interval of a 60-second continuous jump test (CJT) Group E improved (p<0.05) 30-minute run distance (12.6 percent), [latin capital V with dot above]O2, max (5.9 percent), and sprint performance (2.2 percent in 50m, 2.5 percent in 100m), but showed no change (p>0.05) in 30-second run distance. Group C showed (p<0.05) improvements of similar magnitude to group E in [latin capital V with dot above]O2, max (7.5 percent) and 30-minute run distance 9.9 percent), and to Group S in 50m (2.4 percent) and l00m (3.5 percent) times and 30-second run distance (3.5 percent). All groups decreased (p<0.05) average power output during the 45- to 60-second interval of the GO-second CJT. Our result sug gest that optimum improvements in performance are specific to the mode of training (sprint or endurance) and are independent of concurrent performance of both modes of exercise.
(C) 1988 National Strength and Conditioning Association
To determine the effects of a sprint-specific plyometrics program on sprint performance, an 8-week training study consisting of 15 training sessions was conducted. Twenty-six male subjects completed the training. A plyometrics group (N = 10) performed sprint-specific plyometric exercises, while a sprint group (N = 7) performed sprints. A control group (N = 9) was included. Subjects performed sprints over 10-and 40-m distances before (Pre) and after (Post) training. For the plyometrics group, significant decreases in times occurred over the 0-10-m (Pre 1.96 +/- 0.10 seconds, Post 1.91 +/- 0.08 seconds, p = 0.001) and 0-40-m (Pre = 5.63 +/- 0.18 seconds, Post = 5.53 +/- 0.20 seconds, p = 0.001) distances, but the improvements in the sprint group were not significant over either the 0-10-m (Pre 1.95 +/- 0.06 seconds, Post 1.93 +/- 0.05 seconds) or 0-40-m distance (Pre 5.62 +/- 0.14 seconds, Post 5.55 +/- 0.10 seconds). The magnitude of the improvements in the plyometrics group was, however, not significantly different from the sprint group. The control group showed no changes in sprint times. There were no significant changes in stride length or frequency, but ground contact time decreased at 37 m by 4.4% in the plyometrics group only. It is concluded that a sprint-specific plyometrics program can improve 40-m sprint performance to the same extent as standard sprint training, possibly by shortening ground contact time.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
We examined changes in muscle power output and fiber characteristics following a 3 d*wkr-1, 8-week plyometric and aerobic exercise program. Male subjects (n = 19) were randomly assigned to either group 1 (plyometric training) or group 2 (plyometric training and aerobic exercise). The plyometric training consisted of vertical jumping, bounding, and depth jumping. Aerobic exercise (at 70% maximum heart rate) was performed for 20 minutes immediately following the plyometric workouts. Muscle biopsy specimens were collected from the musculus vastus lateralis before and after training. Type I and type II fibers were identified and cross-sectional areas calculated. Peak muscle power output, measured using a countermovement vertical jump, significantly increased from pretraining to posttraining for group 1 (2.8%) and group 2 (2.5%). Each group demonstrated a significant increase in fiber area from pretraining to posttraining for type I (group 1, 4.4%; group 2, 6.1%) and type II (group 1, 7.8%; group 2, 6.8%) fibers, but there were no differences between the groups. Following plyometric training, there is an increased power output that may in part be related to muscle fiber size.
(C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
This study was done to determine which plyometric training technique is best for improving vertical jumping ability, positive energy production, and elastic energy utilization. Data were collected before and after 12 weeks of jump training and were analyzed by ANOVA. Subjects (N = 28) performed jumps under 3 testing conditions-squat jump, countermovement jump, and depth jump-and were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: control, depth jump training, or countermovement jump training. The 12-week program resulted in significant increases in vertical jump height for both training groups. The depth jump group significantly improved their vertical jump height in all 3 jumps. None of the training methods improved utilization of elastic energy. In activities involving dynamic stretch-shorten cycles, drop jump training was superior to countermovement jump training due to neuromuscular specificity. This study provides support for the strength and conditioning professional to include plyometric depth jump training as part of the athlete's overall program for improving vertical jumping ability and concentric contractile performance.
Certain strength measures represent specific or independent qualities of neuromuscular performance that can be assessed and trained independently. Strength diagnosis is the process of determining an athlete's level of development in each of these distinct strength qualities. Application of strength diagnosis has the potential to increase training efficiency, reduce injury, and facilitate rehabilitation by determining the relative assets and deficits of strength qualities. More research in this field is required, but several papers allude to the promise of strength diagnosis in making training program design more objective, more individualized, and safer.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of involvement in power lifting, Olympic lifting, and sprinting on strength and power characteristics in the squat movement. A standard one repetition maximum squat test, jump squat tests, and vertical jumps with various loads were performed. The power lifters (PL, n = 8), Olympic lifters (OL, n = 6), and sprinters (S, n = 6) were significantly stronger than the controls (C, n = 8) (p ≤ 0.05). In addition, the OL group was significantly stronger than the S group. The OL group produced significantly higher peak forces, power outputs, velocities, and jump heights in comparison to the PL and C groups for jump trials at various loads. The S group produced higher peak velocities and jump heights in comparison to the PL and C groups for jump trials at various loads. The PL group was significantly higher in peak force and peak power for jump trials at various loads in comparison to the C group. The data indicates that strength and power characteristics are specific to each group and are most likely influenced by the various training protocols utilized.
An alternating cycle of eccentric-concentric contractions in locomotion represents a sequence when storage and utilization of elastic energy takes place. It is possible that this storage capacity and its utilization depends on the imposed stretch loads in activated muscles, and that sex differences may be present in these phenomena. To investigate these assumed differences, subjects from both sexes and of good physical condition performed vertical jumps on the force-platform from the following experimental conditions: squatting jump (SJ) from a static starting position; counter-movement jump (CMJ) from a free standing position and with a preparatory counter-movement; drop jumps (DJ) from the various heights (20 to 100 cm) on to the platform followed immediately by a vertical jump. In all subjects the SJ, in which condition no appreciable storage of elastic energy takes place, produced the lowest height of rise of the whole body center of gravity (C.G.). The stretch load (drop height) influenced the performance so that height of rise of C. of G. increased when the drop height increased from 26 up to 62 cm (males) and from 20 to 50 cm (females). In all jumping conditions the men jumped higher than the women. However, examination of the utilization of elastic energy indicated that in CMJ the female subjects were able to utilize most (congruent to 90%) of the energy produced in the prestretching phase. Similarly, in DJ the overall change in positive energy over SJ condition was higher in women as compared to men. Thus the results suggest that although the leg extensor muscles of the men subjects could sustain much higher stretch loads, the females may be able to utilize a greater portion of the stored elastic energy in jumping activities.
Vertical jumping ability is of importance for good performance in sports such as basketball and volleyball. Coaches are in need of exercises that consume only little time and still help to improve their players’ jumping ability, without involving a high risk of injury. Drop jumping is assumed to satisfy these requirements. This assumption is supported by a review of results of training studies. However, it appears that regular jumping exercises can be just as helpful. The same holds for exercises with weights, provided the subjects have no weight-training history. In fact, for unskilled jumpers who have no weight-training history, the effects of training programmes utilising these different exercises are additive. The most effective, efficient and safe way for a coach to improve the jumping achievement of his athletes may well be to submit them first to a training programme utilising regular jumps, then to a weight-training programme and finally to a drop jump training programme.
In drop jump training programmes themselves, the improvement in jumping height varies greatly among studies. This variation cannot be explained satisfactorily with the information available on subjects and training programmes. Given the current state of knowledge, coaches seem to have no other option than to strictly copy a programme which has proved to be very effective. Obviously there is a need for more systematic research of the relationship between design and effect of drop jump training programmes. The most important variable to be controlled is drop jumping technique. From a review of biomechanical studies of drop jumping, it becomes clear that jumping technique strongly affects the mechanical output of muscles. The biomechanics of 2 techniques are discussed. In the bounce drop jump the downward movement after the drop is reversed as soon as possible into an upward push-off, while in the countermovement drop jump this is done more gradually by increasing the amplitude of the downward movement after landing. It is speculated that the bounce drop jump might trigger improvement of the power output capacity of muscles, whereas the repetition of the countermovement drop jump may help to improve coordination. Future training studies are needed to determine whether drop jumping technique really affects the outcome of the training, and if so, which technique should be preferred. Also, further biomechanical research is needed to determine kinematics and kinetics of other drop jumping techniques, and to trace potential dangers. The author urges for a close cooperation between coaches and scientists in future research.
Seven male elite strength-trained athletes (SA) from different weight categories, six elite sprinters (SPA) and seven elite endurance-trained athletes (EA) volunteered as subjects for examination of their muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), maximal voluntary isometric force, force-time and relaxation-time characteristics of the leg extensor muscles. The SA group demonstrated slightly greater CSA and maximal absolute strength than the SPA group, while the EA group demonstrated the smallest values both in CSA and especially in maximal strength (p less than 0.05). When the maximal forces were related to CSA of the muscles, the mean value for the SA group of 60.8 +/- 10.0 N.cm-2 remained slightly greater than that recorded in the SPA group 55.0 +/- 3.1 N.cm-2 and significantly greater (p less than 0.05) than that recorded in the EA group 49.3 +/- 4.0 N.cm-2. The mean value in the SPA was also significantly greater (p less than 0.05) than that of the EA group. The isometric force-time curves differed between the groups (p less than 0.05-0.01) so that the times taken to produce the same absolute force were the shortest in the SPA group and the longest in the EA group. With force expressed as a percentage of the maximum, the force-time curves showed that the SPA group demonstrated still shorter times to a given value (p less than 0.05), especially at the lower force levels, than the other two groups.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The present study was designed to investigate for vertical jumping the relationships between muscle actions, movement pattern and jumping achievement. Ten skilled jumpers performed jumps with preparatory countermovement. Ground reaction forces and cinematographic data were recorded. In addition, myoelectric activity (EMG) was recorded from seven leg muscles. EMG-signals were rectified and low-pass filtered to obtain EMG-levels. The latter, which were assumed to reflect activation levels, rose to a plateau in the sequence m. semitendinosus, long head of m. biceps femoris, m. gluteus maximus, m. vastus medialis, m. rectus femoris, m. soleus, m. gastrocnemius. It was attempted to link the EMG-pattern to the purpose of the push-off, namely to maximize the effective energy (Ey) of the mass center of the body (MCB). The term Ey designates the sum of the potential energy of MCB and the kinetic energy due to the vertical velocity of MCB. One of the requirements for maximization of Ey is that the mono-articular extensor muscles release as much energy as possible before toe-off occurs. It is argued that this requirement can only be satisfied if the vertical velocity differences between the proximal and distal ends of body segments reach their peaks in a sequence. The sequence that is realized by the pattern of muscular activation is upper body, upper legs, lower legs, feet. Another important requirement is that the mechanical energy released by the muscles is optimally used. This requirement can be satisfied by transportation of energy via the biarticular m. rectus femoris and m. gastrocnemius.
A new procedure was developed for calculating power production during Olympic lifting movements and comparisons were made with a method previously used. The power output of seven superior lifters was determined during selected phases of the snatch, clean, and jerk, from films taken at the 1975 U.S. National Championships. The values obtained depended on the following variables: vertical change in the bar's mechanical energy from the beginning of a force exertion phase until maximum vertical bar velocity was achieved; work done by the athlete in producing horizontal bar movement; and work done in raising the body's center of gravity. Results showed the expected increase in power with increased bodyweight for a given movement. Values for the jerk drive ranged from 2140 watts in the 56 kg class to 4786 watts for a 110 kg lifter. Heavier lifters exceeded published maximal estimates for human power output during brief exertions. More significant was the high degree of consistency in the rate of work done by any given lifter in movements which were very similar with respect to joint action, but competitively had very different objectives. The procedure should prove useful in detecting problems in lifting movements that result in power outputs which are low relative to those measured for biomechanically equivalent exertions.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of high-resistance (HR) and high-velocity (HV) training on the different phases of 100-m sprint performance. Two training groups (HR and HV) were compared with two control groups (RUN and PAS). The HR (N = 22) and HV group (N = 21) trained 3 d.wk-1 for 9 wk: two strength training sessions (HR or HV) and one running session. There was a run control group (RUN, N = 12) that also participated in the running sessions (1 d.wk-1) and a passive control group (PAS, N = 11). Running speed over a 100-m sprint was recorded every 2 m. By means of a principal component analysis on all speed variables, three phases were distinguished: initial acceleration (0-10 m), building-up running speed to a maximum (10-36 m), and maintaining maximum speed in the second part of the run (36-100 m). HV training resulted in improved initial acceleration (P < 0.05 compared with RUN, PAS, and HR), a higher maximum speed (P < 0.05 compared with PAS), and a decreased speed endurance (P < 0.05 compared to RUN and PAS). The HV group improved significantly in total 100 m time (P < 0.05 compared with the RUN and PAS groups). The HR program resulted in an improved initial acceleration phase (P < 0.05 compared with PAS).
This study was performed to determine which of three theoretically optimal resistance training modalities resulted in the greatest enhancement in the performance of a series of dynamic athletic activities. The three training modalities included 1) traditional weight training, 2) plyometric training, and 3) explosive weight training at the load that maximized mechanical power output. Sixty-four previously trained subjects were randomly allocated to four groups that included the above three training modalities and a control group. The experimental groups trained for 10 wk performing either heavy squat lifts, depth jumps, or weighted squat jumps. All subjects were tested prior to training, after 5 wk of training and at the completion of the training period. The test items included 1) 30-m sprint, 2) vertical jumps performed with and without a countermovement, 3) maximal cycle test, 4) isokinetic leg extension test, and 5) a maximal isometric test. The experimental group which trained with the load that maximized mechanical power achieved the best overall results in enhancing dynamic athletic performance recording statistically significant (P < 0.05) improvements on most test items and producing statistically superior results to the two other training modalities on the jumping and isokinetic tests.
Today, it is generally accepted that sprint performance, like endurance performance, can improve considerably with training. Strength training, especially, plays a key role in this process. Sprint performance will be viewed multidimensionally as an initial acceleration phase (0 to 10 m), a phase of maximum running speed (36 to 100 m) and a transition phase in between. Immediately following the start action, the powerful extensions of the hip, knee and ankle joints are the main accelerators of body mass. However, the hamstrings, the m. adductor magnus and the m. gluteus maximus are considered to make the most important contribution in producing the highest levels of speed. Different training methods are proposed to improve the power output of these muscles. Some of them aim for hypertrophy and others for specific adaptations of the nervous system. This includes general (hypertrophy and neuronal activation), velocity specific (speed-strength) and movement specific (sprint associated exercises) strength training. In developing training strategies, the coach has to keep in mind that strength, power and speed are inherently related to one another, because they are all the output of the same functional systems. As heavy resistance training results in a fibre type IIb into fibre type IIa conversion, the coach has to aim for an optimal balance between sprint specific and nonspecific training components. To achieve this they must take into consideration the specific strength training demands of each individual, based on performance capacity in each specific phase of the sprint.
Sprinting, bouncing, and spontaneous landings are associated with a forefoot contact whereas walking, running, and jumping are associated with heel-toe foot placement. Because such foot placement strategies influence landing mechanics or the ensuing performance, the purpose of this work was to compare lower extremity kinematics and kinetics and muscle activation patterns between drop vertical jumps performed with heel-toe (HTL) and forefoot (FFL) landings.
Ten healthy male university students performed two types of drop jump from a 0.4-m high box placed 1.0-m from the center of the force plate. They were instructed to either land first on the ball of the feet without the heels touching the ground during the subsequent vertical jump, i.e., forefoot landing jump (FFL), or to land on the heels followed by depression of the metatarsals, i.e., heel-toe landing jump (HTL). Three successfully performed trials per jump type were included in the analysis. The criteria for selection of the correct jumps was proper foot position at contact as judged from video records and the shape of force-time curve.
The first peak and second peak determined from the vertical force-time curves were 3.4 times greater and 1.4 times lower for HTL compared with those with FFL (P<0.05). In the flexion phase of HTL, the hip and knee joints contributed 40% and 45% to the total torque, whereas during FFL the greatest torque contributions were 37% for both the knee and ankle joints. During the extension phase, the greatest torque contributions to the total torque were 41% and 45% by the knee and ankle joints during HTL and 34% and 55% during FFL. During the flexion phase, power production was 20% greater (P<0.05) in HTL than in FFL, whereas during the extension phase power production was 40% greater in FFL than in HTL. In the flexion phase of HTL the hip and knee joints produced the greatest power, and during the extension phase the knee and ankle joints produced the greatest power. In contrast, during both the flexion and extension phases of FFL, the knee and ankle joints produced the greatest power. The EMG activity of gluteus, vastus lateralis, and plantar flexor muscles was similar between HTL and FFL in most cases except for the greater vastus lateralis EMG activity during precontact phase in HTL than in FFL and the greater gastrocnemius activity in FFL than in HTL.
Foot placement strategy modifies the individual joint contributions to the total power during drop jumping.
Reliability refers to the reproducibility of values of a test, assay or other measurement in repeated trials on the same individuals. Better reliability implies better precision of single measurements and better tracking of changes in measurements in research or practical settings. The main measures of reliability are within-subject random variation, systematic change in the mean, and retest correlation. A simple, adaptable form of within-subject variation is the typical (standard) error of measurement: the standard deviation of an individual's repeated measurements. For many measurements in sports medicine and science, the typical error is best expressed as a coefficient of variation (percentage of the mean). A biased, more limited form of within-subject variation is the limits of agreement: the 95% likely range of change of an individual's measurements between 2 trials. Systematic changes in the mean of a measure between consecutive trials represent such effects as learning, motivation or fatigue; these changes need to be eliminated from estimates of within-subject variation. Retest correlation is difficult to interpret, mainly because its value is sensitive to the heterogeneity of the sample of participants. Uses of reliability include decision-making when monitoring individuals, comparison of tests or equipment, estimation of sample size in experiments and estimation of the magnitude of individual differences in the response to a treatment. Reasonable precision for estimates of reliability requires approximately 50 study participants and at least 3 trials. Studies aimed at assessing variation in reliability between tests or equipment require complex designs and analyses that researchers seldom perform correctly. A wider understanding of reliability and adoption of the typical error as the standard measure of reliability would improve the assessment of tests and equipment in our disciplines.
The purpose of this study was to determine if straight sprint training transferred to agility performance tests that involved various change-of-direction complexities and if agility training transferred to straight sprinting speed. Thirty-six males were tested on a 30-m straight sprint and 6 agility tests with 2-5 changes of direction at various angles. The subjects participated in 2 training sessions per week for 6 weeks using 20-40-m straight sprints (speed) or 20-40-m change-of-direction sprints (3-5 changes of 100 degrees) (agility). After the training period, the subjects were retested, and the speed training resulted in significant improvements (p < 0.05) in straight sprinting speed but limited gains in the agility tests. Generally, the more complex the agility task, the less the transfer from the speed training to the agility task. Conversely, the agility training resulted in significant improvements in the change-of-direction tests (p < 0.05) but no significant improvement (p > 0.05) in straight sprint performance. We concluded that straight speed and agility training methods are specific and produce limited transfer to the other. These findings have implications for the design of speed and agility training and testing protocols.
The effect of 3 warm-up routines on standing broad jump (SBJ) performance was investigated. Thirty-two men and women participated as subjects. Following the determination of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, subjects completed warm-up routines and broad jumps on 4 occasions in a randomized order. Subjects performed SBJ immediately (POST) and 15 min following (POST15) the given warm-up routine. The routines were high force, consisting of high % 1RM, low repetition squats; high power, consisting of low % 1RM, low repetition speed squats; stretching, consisting of static stretches; and no activity, a control condition. Repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) revealed no differences among broad jump performance following any of the warm-up routines (p = 0.157). A strong correlation (R = 0.805) was found between 1RM squat and SBJ. These data indicate that warm-up of any type has little effect on jump performance and that maximum strength is strongly related to jumping ability.
It has been shown that inconsistently applied normalization for body size could be an important methodological problem in testing physical performance in areas such as sports, physical education, ergonomy, or physical medicine and rehabilitation. The aim of this study was to evaluate a part of the recently proposed classification of physical performance tests (Jaric 2003) based on the role of body size in the tested performance. Presuming a normalization method P
n=P/S
b based on an allometric relationship between the tested performance P and a selected index of body size S (P
n performance normalized for body size; b allometric parameter), we specifically hypothesized that: (1) the tests of exertion of external force (e.g., lifting weight, pushing, pulling), (2) tests of rapid movements (jumping, sprinting, kicking) and (3) tests of supporting body weight (chin-ups, squats) would reveal the values of the allometric parameters b=0.67, b=0 and b=−0.33 when body size is expressed as body mass, or b=2, b=0 and b=−1 when body size is expressed as body height, respectively. Male physical education students (n=77) were tested on 18 standard physical performance tests belonging to the aforementioned three groups. The obtained values of the allometric parameters proved to be closely in line with the hypothesized ones. While the finding regarding the tests of exertion of external force (i.e., the tested force should be divided by m
0.67 in order to normalize the force for body size) have been already demonstrated by some authors, the findings related to the tests of rapid movements and, particularly, tests of supporting body weight are novel. Although the normalization methods discussed need further evaluation, a more accurate and consistently applied assessment of the body size-independent indices of the evaluated groups of standard tests could improve the methodology of physical performance testing in general.