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Effect of the combination of organic and inorganic filters on the Sun Protection Factor (SPF) determined by in vitro method

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Céline Couteau at Nantes Université
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This paper describes the effect on Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of the combination of inorganic and organic filters in sunscreen products as determined by an in vitro method. O/W emulsions containing inorganic filters, such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, combined with 18 EU-authorized UV-B organic filters were tested. SPF measurements were carried out using a spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating sphere. This study observed a synergic effect when titanium dioxide was combined with either anisotriazine or octyldimethylPABA. The combination of zinc oxide with 11 UV-B organic filters also exhibited a similar synergy; however, the measured SPF was systematically lower than the protection factor achieved with titanium dioxide.
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International Journal of Pharmaceutics 340 (2007) 1–5
Rapid communication
Effect of the combination of organic and inorganic filters on the Sun
Protection Factor (SPF) determined by in vitro method
S. El-Boury, C. Couteau, L. Boulande, E. Paparis, L.J.M. Coiffard∗
Universit´e de Nantes, Nantes Atlantique Universit´es, LPiC, SMAB, EA2160, Faculty of Pharmacy, 1 rue G. Veil - BP 53508, Nantes F-44000, France
Received 22 March 2007; received in revised form 10 May 2007; accepted 12 May 2007
Available online 26 May 2007
Abstract
This paper describes the effect on Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of the combination of inorganic and organic filters in sunscreen products
as determined by an in vitro method. O/W emulsions containing inorganic filters, such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, combined with 18
EU-authorized UV-B organic filters were tested. SPF measurements were carried out using a spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating
sphere.
This study observed a synergic effect when titanium dioxide was combined with either anisotriazine or octyldimethylPABA. The combination of
zinc oxide with 11 UV-B organic filters also exhibited a similar synergy; however, the measured SPF was systematically lower than the protection
factor achieved with titanium dioxide.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Inorganic; Organic; Filter; Combination; Synergy; SPF in vitro
1. Introduction
UV constitutes about 10% of the total solar radiation. There
are two categories of UV radiation: UV-A and UV-B. UV-A
(320–400 nm) has lower energy than UV-B, however, it pene-
trates more deeply and does not burn skin as easily. The 95% of
UV radiation is UV-A. UV-B (290–320 nm) radiation has higher
energy and penetrates only the outer skin layers, but induces skin
burns more easily (Hoffman et al., 2000). UV radiation has both
positive and negative effects. Positive effects of UV radiation
include warmth, light, photosynthesis in plants and vitamin D
synthesis in the skin (UV light converts a cholesterol derivative
into previtamin D3) (Holick et al., 1980). Overexposure to UV
radiation is the primary environmental risk factor in the devel-
opment of UV-related adverse health conditions, which include
diseases of the eye (Sliney, 2001), immune suppression (Norval,
2006) and skin cancers. Exposure to UV radiation appears to be
the most important environmental factor in the development of
skin cancer (Hussein, 2005). The increase in skin cancer has
resulted from an increased outdoor leisure time and a decrease
∗Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 2 40 41 28 73; fax: +33 2 40 41 29 87.
E-mail address: laurence.coiffard@univ-nantes.fr (L.J.M. Coiffard).
in the amount of protective clothing worn outdoors (Vanquerp
et al., 1999; Marks, 1999; Couteau et al., 2001; Morison, 2003).
Sun Protection Factor (SPF) is the universal indicator for
describing the efficiency of sunscreen products. It is the ratio
of the least amount of ultraviolet energy required to produce a
minimal erythema on sunscreen protected skin to the amount of
energy required to produce the same erythema on unprotected
skin (FDA, 1978). In this way, SPF indicates the ability of a sun-
screen product to reduce UV-induced erythema. It is measured
by both in vivo (Colipa method) and in vitro methods (Groves et
al., 1979). It is recommended to use sunscreen products with an
SPF of 15 or higher. This paper describes the study of the effect
of the combination of organic and inorganic UV filter substances
on the SPF of topically applied sunscreen formulations, using
an in vitro method.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Tables 1 and 2 present the filters (organic and inorganic) and
their characteristics. Dimethicone (Abil®WE 09) was obtained
from Goldschmidt (Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France). Cetiol®
HE, stearic acid, glycerin, parabens and triethanolamin (TEA)
0378-5173/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.05.047
2S. El-Boury et al. / International Journal of Pharmaceutics 340 (2007) 1–5
Table 1
Characteristics of the organic sunscreens investigated
INCI name Suppliers λmax (nm) Solubility Maximum concentration
authorized (%)
PABA Merck, Fontenay sous Bois, France 290.0 Hydrosoluble 5
Homosalate Merck, Fontenay sous Bois, France 306.0 Liposoluble 10
Oxybenzone BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 287.5 Liposoluble 10
Phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic acid Merck, Fontenay sous Bois, France 305.5 Hydrosoluble after
neutralisation with NaOH
8
Octocrylene BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 304.0 Liposoluble 10
Octylmethoxycinnamate BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 310.0 Liposoluble 10
PEG-25 PABA BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 307.0 Hydrosoluble 10
Isoamyl p-methoxycinnamate Symrise, Neuilly sur Seine, Paris 310.0 Liposoluble 10
Octyltriazone BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 314.5 Liposoluble 5
Diethylhexylbutamidotriazone Cr´
eations couleur, Dreux, France 310.5 Liposoluble 10
4-Methylbenzylidene camphor Merck, Fontenay sous Bois, France 301.0 Liposoluble 4
3-Benzylidene camphor Unipex, Rueil Malmaison, France 291.05 Liposoluble 2
Octylsalicylate Alzo, Helsinki, Finland 306.0 Liposoluble 5
OctyldimethylPABA Merck, Fontenay sous Bois, France 312.0 Liposoluble 8
Benzophenone-5 BASF, Levallois-Perret, France 287.5 Hydrosoluble 5
Methylene bis-benzotriazolyl
tetramethylbutylphenol
Ciba, Grenzach-Wyhlen, Germany 305.5 Hydrosoluble 10
Anisotriazine Ciba, Grenzach-Wyhlen, Germany 310.0 Liposoluble 10
Polysilicone 15 Roche, Fontenay sous Bois, France 312.5 Liposoluble 10
Table 2
Characteristics of the inorganic sunscreens investigated
INCI Name (Trade name) Suppliers Solubility Maximum concentration
authorized (%)
Titanium dioxide, hydrated silica, aluminium hydroxide,
dimethicone/methicone copolymer (T-Lite SFS)
BASF, Levallois-Perret, France Liposoluble 25
Zinc oxide, diphenyl capryl methicone (Z-Cote Max) BASF, Levallois-Perret, France Liposoluble –
were purchased from Cooper (Melun, France). Xanthan gum
(Keltrol®BT) was obtained from Kelco (Lille Skensved, Den-
mark). Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) plates were purchased
from Helioscience (Creil, France). Powder-free latex finger cots
were obtained from Cooper (Melun, France).
2.2. Preparation of sunscreen creams
Each O/W emulsion was prepared in the laboratory by com-
bining organic and inorganic filters, in the highest EU-authorized
concentration, to a basic formula (Table 3) were manufactured by
the authors. Hydrophilic-phase and oil-phase were heated sepa-
rately to between 78 and 82 ◦C, until the ingredients of each part
were solubilized. Next, the oily preparation was added slowly to
the hydrophilic preparation with constant stirring (Yellow line
OST basic mixer, IKA, Staufen, Germany). It was necessary to
continue stirring until the resulting emulsion was cooled to room
temperature (20 ◦C). In addition, sunscreen agents were incor-
porated at various concentrations into this emulsion. A filterless
cream was used as a blank (Couteau et al., in press-a,b).
2.3. Study of effectiveness
Thirty milligrams of precisely weighed product were spread
across the entire surface (25 cm2) of a polymethylmethacry-
late (PMMA) plates using a cot-coated finger. Plates have both
a smooth and a rough surface. The roughness was measured
between 5 and 10␮. After spreading, 15 mg of the product
remained on the finger cot. The SPF of the creams was then
measured in vitro. Three plates were prepared for each product
to be tested and nine measurements were performed on each
plate. Transmission measurements between 290 and 400 nm
Table 3
Composition of the emulsion
Ingredients Percent by weight
Abil®WE 09 (polyglyceryl-4 isostearate;
cetyl PEG/PPG-10/1 dimethicone; hexyl
laurate)
5
Paraffin oil 12
Cetiol®HE (PEG-7 glyceryl cocoate) 5
Butylhydroxytoluene 0.01
Stearic acid 5
Eumulgin®B1 (Ceteareth-12) 1.5
Eumulgin®B2 (Ceteareth-20) 1.5
Glycerine 4
Sodium propylparaben 0.05
Sodium methylparaben 0.1
Keltrol®BT (xanthan gum) 0.9
TEA 0.3
Distilled water qsp 100.0
S. El-Boury et al. / International Journal of Pharmaceutics 340 (2007) 1–5 3
Table 4
Combination of UV-B filters and titanium dioxide
Filter (INCI name) SPF (filter) (mean ±S.D.) SPF (filter + titanium
dioxide combination)
(mean ±S.D.)
Increase or decrease of SPF
compared to predicted SPF
(SPF units)
PABA 5.48 ±0.62 41.04 ±6.05 –
Homosalate 4.25 ±0.96 38.09 ±3.27 −4
Oxybenzone 5.10 ±0.57 39.07 ±4.11 −4
Phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic
acid
13.39 ±1.60 49.37 ±11.07 –
Octocrylene 9.40 ±1.42 43.42 ±3.79 –
Octylmethoxycinnamate 12.09 ±1.20 53.12 ±4.69 –
PEG-25 PABA 4.09 ±0.56 35.87 ±3.08 −6
Isoamyl p-methoxycinnamate 13.49 ±1.90 52.84 ±5.85 –
Octyltriazone 12.54 ±2.15 36.57 ±3.67 −14
Diethylhexylbutamidotriazone 10.73 ±1.44 47.27 ±3.89 –
4-Methylbenzylidene camphor 6.44 ±0.88 43.38 ±2.99 –
3-Benzylidene camphor 2.84 ±0.47 33.47 ±4.03 −7
Octylsalicylate 2.89 ±0.37 38.81 ±4.13 −
OctyldimethylPABA 8.98 ±0.81 53.55 ±4.07 +7
Benzophenone-5 5.59 ±0.88 35.77 ±3.61 −7
Methylene
bisbenzotriazolyltetramethyl
butylphenol
6.68 ±1.80 19.50 ±4.03 −25
Anisotriazine 29.63 ±4.19 73.06 ±4.96 +6
Polysilicone 15 4.25 ±0.95 38.77 ±4.32 –
were carried out using a spectrophotometer equipped with an
integrating sphere (UV Transmittance Analyzer UV1000S, Lab-
sphere, North Sutton, US). The SPF were carried out according
to the following equation:
SPF =400
290EλSλΔλ
400
290EλSλTλΔλ
(1)
where Eλis CIE erythemal spectral effectiveness, Sλis solar
spectral irradiance and Tλis spectral transmittance of the
sample (Ferrero et al., 2003; Villalobos-Hernandez and M¨
uller-
Goymann, 2007).
3. Results and discussion
The SPF of the cream containing 25% titanium dioxide or
25% zinc oxide was, respectively, 37.65 ±3.90 and 7.14 ±1.22.
Table 5
Combination of UV-B filters and zinc oxide
Filter (INCI name) SPF (filter) (mean ±S.D.) SPF (filter +zinc oxide
combination)
(mean ±S.D.)
Increase or decrease of SPF
compared to predicted SPF
(SPF units)
PABA 5.48 ±0.62 10.94 ±1.22 –
Homosalate 4.25 ±0.96 11.94 ±2.25 –
Oxybenzone 5.10 ±0.57 13.42 ±1.61 –
Phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic
acid
13.39 ±1.60 24.76 ±3.82 +4
Octocrylene 9.40 ±1.42 25.74 ±2.57 +9
Octylmethoxycinnamate 12.09 ±1.20 26.63 ±2.98 +7
PEG-25 PABA 4.09 ±0.56 15.06 ±3.18 +4
Isoamyl p-methoxycinnamate 13.49 ±1.90 29.07 ±3.56 +8
Octyltriazone 12.54 ±2.15 25.88 ±2.94 +6
Diethylhexylbutamidotriazone 10.73 ±1.44 49.28 ±4.37 +31
4-Methylbenzylidene camphor 6.44 ±0.88 15.16 ±2.06 –
3-Benzylidene camphor 2.84 ±0.47 12.72 ±1.77 +3
Octylsalicylate 2.89 ±0.37 9.08 ±1.40 –
OctyldimethylPABA 8.98 ±0.81 28.51 ±2.94 +12
Benzophenone-5 5.59 ±0.88 15.28 ±1.42 +3
Methylene bis-benzotriazolyltetra
methyl butylphenol
6.68 ±1.80 12.92 ±1.90 –
Anisotriazine 29.63 ±4.19 36.89 ±3.29 –
Polysilicone 15 4.25 ±0.95 15.55 ±1.37 +4
4S. El-Boury et al. / International Journal of Pharmaceutics 340 (2007) 1–5
Fig. 1. Decrease of effectiveness (%) for the combination between titanium
dioxide and methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBTP),
octyltriazone (OT), benzophenone-5 (BZ-5), 3-benzylidene camphor (3-BC),
PEG-25 PABA, benzophenone-3 (BZ-3) and homosalate (HMS).
We noted a clear superiority of TiO2over ZnO in terms of effec-
tiveness. A previous study established that SPF is a function
of filter concentration (Couteau et al., in press-a,b). There-
fore, by knowing the equation SPF = f(c) for each filter and
each separately added screen, it will be possible to predict
the SPF of sun creams combining both filter and screens.
We expect manufacturers to question the relevance of all of
these combinations, a query that will be answered by this
paper.
The effect of the combinations was evaluated statistically
by a Student’s t-test (N= 27; p< 0.05) (Tables 4 and 5). A
combination was considered relevant if the SPF of the cream
combining filter and screen was higher or equal to the SPF
obtained separately, filter only or screen only. On the other
hand, we considered a combination to be irrelevant if the SPF
of the combination remains inferior to the expected result. In
9 out of 18 trials, the creams formulated with TiO2revealed
a purely additive effect. Seven creams turned out to be less
promising than predicted (with a loss of SPF compared to
predicted results between 4 and 25) (Fig. 1). We found two
synergistic combinations worth noting: the cream formulated
with TiO2and anisotriazine resulted in a SPF value of about
70 (an increase of 6 SPF units). The second interesting com-
bination was obtained with octyldimethylPABA (an SPF about
55). The increase was about 7 SPF units. So it is possible to
predict the SPF of all the combinations between the various
molecules.
In a large majority of the cases (11 out of 18), a combina-
tion with zinc oxide was more promising because it generated
more synergy (Fig. 2). In terms of an increase in SPF protection,
two combinations are particularly worth mentioning: the com-
bination with diethylhexylbutamidotriazone (an increase of 31
SPF units) and the combination with octyldimethylPABA (an
increase of 12 SPF units).
The formulated creams made with zinc oxide turned out
to be more reliable than those made with titanium dioxide in
the sense that there was no unexpected loss of SPF compared
with the predicted results. It will be necessary, however, to
Fig. 2. Increase of effectiveness (%) for the combination between zinc oxide
and diethylhexylbutamidotriazone (DHBT), octyldimethylPABA (OD-PABA),
octocrylene (OCT), isoamyl p-methoxycinnamate (IMC), octylmethoxycin-
namate (OMC), polysilicone-15 (P-15), PEG-25 PABA, octyltriazone (OT),
3-benzylidene camphor (3-BC), phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic acid (PBSA) and
benzophenone-5 (BZ-5).
further investigate the use of titanium dioxide because high
SPF (70 for example) products can be created with it; these
high values cannot be attained with zinc oxide (maximum
SPF of 49). By referencing Tables 4 and 5 of this paper as
well as the linear curves (SPF = f(c)) established in an ear-
lier study (Couteau et al., in press-a,b), it is possible to select
filter–screen combinations in function of a desired protection
level.
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... In a complementary study, Baby and coworkers expanded upon the research to determine the in vitro anti-UVA I efficacy of the previously described photoprotectors [82]. The anti-UVA I efficacy was assessed through diffuse reflectance spectrophotometry with an integrating sphere, followed by mathematical treatment [83,84]. The outcomes indicated that formulations containing octyl p-methoxycinnamate at 3.5% w/w and benzophenone-3 at 1.0% w/w, and formulations with octyl p-methoxycinnamate at 7.0% w/w and benzophenone-3 at 2.0% w/wrepresenting a twofold increase in filter concentration-did not provide a directly proportional escalation in anti-UVA I protection. ...
... The outcomes indicated that formulations containing octyl p-methoxycinnamate at 3.5% w/w and benzophenone-3 at 1.0% w/w, and formulations with octyl p-methoxycinnamate at 7.0% w/w and benzophenone-3 at 2.0% w/wrepresenting a twofold increase in filter concentration-did not provide a directly proportional escalation in anti-UVA I protection. This observation persisted despite a substantial increase in SPF from 7.34 ± 0.24 to 14.63 ± 2.05 [14], a finding also supported by other studies that established that the SPF value is directly dependent on the concentration of filters utilized [84,85]. Contrastingly, Baby and coworkers found that increasing the proportion of UV filters did not inherently result in a proportional enhancement in protection against UVA radiation [82]. ...
Would be Rutin a Feasible Strategy for Environmental-Friendly Photoprotective Samples? A Review from Stability to Skin Permeability and Efficacy in Sunscreen Systems
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
Rutin, a flavonoid compound found in various plants, has gained attention for its potential applications in the cosmetic industry due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential photoprotective properties. Our review explored the use of rutin (rutoside, 3-O-rutinoside-quercetin) in cosmetics/dermocosmetics, focusing on its physicochemical properties and stability, cutaneous permeability, and efficacy in sunscreen systems, involving in vitro tests and the current state of clinical trials. Rutin's ability to scavenge free radicals, prevent peroxidation, and reduce vascular fragility makes this flavonoid a promising ingredient for photoprotection. Studies have shown that rutin can enhance the sun protection factor (SPF) of sunscreen formulations, especially when combined with organic UV filters. The encapsulation of rutin in nanostructures has also been investigated to improve its applicability. Overall, rutin shows potential as a safe and effective ingredient in cosmetic/dermocosmetic formulations, offering protection against the harmful effects of UV radiation and oxidative stress on the skin.
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... In 2007 some research groups started to publish in vitro SPF results, e.g., the Coiffard/Couteau group at the University of Nantes, F, who developed their own in vitro method based on PMMA plates and a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere [23][24][25][26]. They specifically tested mineral sunscreens and concluded that the SPF in vitro of ZnO-containing sunscreens is always lower than the in vivo value (label) [24]: ...
Sun-protection factor of zinc-oxide sunscreens: SPFin vitro too low compared to SPFin vivo—a brief review
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Sunscreens are mainly characterized by their sun-protection factor (SPF), which is measured according to the in vivo gold standard ISO 24444. Although the SPF concept is simple, SPF values are difficult to measure, due to the rather high variability caused by the complex interaction of light and skin. For half a century, there have been attempts to correlate the costly and ethically controversial in vivo procedure with a non-invasive (in vitro) method. After decades of development, alternative non-invasive SPF methods are expected to become available as ISO standards in early 2025. In particular, sunscreen manufacturers who use zinc oxide (ZnO) in higher concentrations (conc.) (10–25%) in their formulations, are concerned that these new in vitro methods would not confirm the SPF-values on their labels that have been determined in vivo , according to ISO 24444. This brief review reveals that sunscreen formulations with high conc. of ZnO often yield SPF in vitro values that are lower than the SPF in vivo values. This can be explained by the fact that in vitro methods have been developed for conventional emulsions products with organic UV filters, but not for highly concentrated ZnO-alone sunscreens. Fortunately, there seems to be a fix for this problem. There is a difference in density between ordinary emulsions with organic filters (density of the residual oil phase ~ 1.0 g/ml) and highly concentrated ZnO-alone formulations (~ 1.3–1.7 g/ml). As the application of current standards is weight-based, this makes the film on the PMMA plate much thinner, which is likely to lead to lower SPF in vitro values. Preliminary experiments show that using the same volume on the PMMA plates instead of the same weight as organic UV filters gives a much better correlation between in vitro and in vivo SPF results. A recent evaluation of three samples of highly concentrated ZnO sunscreens by the Dutch NVWA seems to confirm these findings. Further experimental evidence is required to fully understand this phenomenon and to adapt the in vitro method for higher conc. ZnO formulations accordingly.
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... Molecular and Heterogeneous filters may be found in both natural and synthetic sunscreens. Sunscreens with chemical ingredients absorb the most energetic wavelengths of the sun's rays [39]. while reflecting and scattering the lower-energy ones. ...
From Rays to Protection: How Sun Exposure Affects Our Skin and the Importance of Sunscreen
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Exposure to sunlight is essential for the synthesis of vitamin D, which plays a vital role in maintaining bone health and immune function. However, excessive sun exposure can lead to various detrimental effects on the skin, including sunburn, premature aging, and an increased risk of skin cancer. To mitigate these risks, the use of sunscreen has become a widely recommended preventive measure. This study article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of sun exposure on the skin and the importance of sunscreen as a protective measure. We explore the mechanisms by which ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun interacts with the skin and discuss the adverse consequences of prolonged exposure. Understanding the effects of sun exposure on the skin and the importance of sunscreen is crucial for maintaining healthy skin and preventing sun-related damage. Sunscreen, when used correctly and in conjunction with other sun-protective measures, is a valuable tool for minimizing the risks associated with excessive sun exposure.
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... This has led the FDA to inform that the sunscreens containing these organic UV filters cannot be considered safe [10,11]. However, a mixture of organic chemicals-based sunscreens with inorganic ones as potential candidates in the USA is a broad-spectrum of UVB/UVA sunscreens [34,35]. This combination makes the absorption spectrum broad and ideal to meet the FDA requirements, which are absent in individual relatively narrow organic chemical-based sunscreens [34]. ...
Recent developments in tuning the efficacy of different types of sunscreens
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2023
  • BIOPROC BIOSYST ENG
Due to recent global warming threats, the changes in the atmosphere have caused significant ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure, primarily emitted by the sun, which creates more awareness of photoprotection. Sunscreen development has been a convenient and crucial approach to photoprotection against ultraviolet radiation. Due to high demand, upgrading the quality of sunscreen products and certifying methods are necessary to guarantee the safety of commercial sunscreen products for use. Sunscreen products should have a satisfactory amount of sun protection factor (SPF), ultraviolet A protection factor, as well as the photostability of the sunscreens for them to be considered effective and safe for use. A rigorous study on the effectiveness of the sunscreen components and their safety standards is essential for the productive use and further improvement of the available sunscreen materials. This article summarizes the effects and issues, protective measures of sunscreen usage, and its components, mainly ultraviolet filters.
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... Sunscreens perform a physical barrier between the skin and the sun's rays by containing specific UV filters (Wood, 2018). These filters are divided into organic, chemical filters, and inorganic, mineral filters (Yuan et al., 2022;El-Boury et al., 2007). Organic filters include benzophenone-3 (oxybenzone), para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), PABA esters, cinnamates, salicylates, camphor derivatives, dibenzoylmethanes and anthranilates (Serpone et al., 2006). ...
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... Due to the deposition of these nanoparticles on the skin, their permeability to the inner layers of the skin and the resulting safety hazards are reduced. Moreover, because of the synergistic effects of the applied UV filters, a safe formulation with appropriate coverage and higher protective performance can be created [44][45][46][47][48]. ...
Nanogel Containing Gamma-Oryzanol-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and TiO2/MBBT: A Synergistic Nanotechnological Approach of Potent Natural Antioxidants and Nanosized UV Filters for Skin Protection
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2023
The human skin is a recurring target of external aggressions, such as UV radiation, leading to exacerbation of the aging process and the occurrence of skin diseases, such as cancer. Hence, preventive measures should be taken to protect it against these aggressions, consequently decreasing the chance of disease development. In the present study, a topical xanthan gum nanogel containing gamma-oryzanol-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and nanosized UV filters TiO2 and methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBT) was developed to assess their synergistic potential in having multifunctional skin beneficial properties. The developed NLCs contained the natural-based solid lipids shea butter and beeswax, liquid lipid carrot seed oil, and the potent antioxidant gamma-oryzanol, with an optimum particle size for topical application (<150 nm), good homogeneity (PDI = 0.216), high zeta potential (−34.9 mV), suitable pH value (6), good physical stability, high encapsulation efficiency (90%), and controlled release. The final formulation, a nanogel containing the developed NLCs and the nano UV filters, showed high long-term storage stability and high photoprotection ability (SPF = 34) and resulted in no skin irritation or sensitization (rat model). Hence, the developed formulation showed good skin protection and compatibility, demonstrating promise as a new platform for the future generation of natural-based cosmeceuticals.
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... Facing the limitations of natural UV actives, there is an urgent need of defining strategies for the preparation of sunscreen products with higher UVA/UVB ratio and excellent antioxidant activity against UVA damage, together with an adequate topical biodistribution kinetics. One of the most well-studied strategies is the development of nanotechnological formulations [17] of combining plant-derived actives with significant UVA protection with synthetic UV filters [101,102]. ...
The Impact of Flavonoid-Loaded Nanoparticles in the UV Protection and Safety Profile of Topical Sunscreens
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2023
Excessive UV radiation exposure is harmful to skin cells since sunburn is accompanied by oxidative burst, leading to a rapid increase in skin cancer. However, the insufficient UV photoprotection of approved sunscreens and the negative impact of their compositions on ecosystems and human health makes the utility of sunscreen a questionable recommendation. Therefore, discovering UV filters with significant antioxidant activity and improved topical performance and photostability is an urgent need. Recently, the use of nanosized natural molecules incorporated in sunscreens has been a scientific hot topic, as it has been suggested that they provide a synergistic effect with synthetic UV filters, improving overall SPF and antioxidant activity, higher retention on the epidermis, and less toxicity. The aim of this review was to verify the usefulness of sunscreens incorporating flavonoid-loaded nanoparticles. A literature review was performed, where original and review articles published in the last 6 years were analyzed. Formulations containing nanosized flavonoids with improved UVA photoprotection and safer toxicological profiles, associated or not with synthetic filters, are promising sunscreens and more clinical investigation must be performed to validate these findings.
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Using Melt Extraction Technique to Produce Polypropylene/TiO2-Coated Stainless Steel Wrapped Yarns and Functional Fabrics: Evaluations of UV Resistances and Electromagnetic Shielding
Article
  • Mar 2023
In this study, polypropylene (PP)/titanium dioxide (TiO2) woven fabrics are proposed and made using wrapping, yarn coating, and woven processes. First, stainless steel (SS) wrapped yarns are tested for tenacity to examine the influence of wrapping number, which verifies that the optimal wrapping number is 7 turns/cm. Then, the optimal SS wrapped yarns are coated with PP/TiO2 melts, after which the resulted PP/TiO2-coated yarns with optimal mechanical properties are made into woven fabrics. The mechanical properties, UV transmittance, and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE) and PP/TiO2 woven fabrics are evaluated, thereby examining the influences of the content of TiO2 of and the coiling speed. The test results suggest that increasing TiO2 adversely affects the mechanical properties of PP/TiO2-coated yarns and woven fabrics. UVB causes severe damage to the skin and PP/TiO2 woven fabrics can decrease UVB transmittance to 8.14%. Moreover, PP/TiO2 woven fabrics at lamination angles of 0°/45°/90° have the optimal EMSE of − 38 dB. To sum up, to incorporate PP/TiO2-coated SS wrapped yarns provides PP/TiO2 woven fabrics with UV-shielding ability and electromagnetic shielding response. The resulting functional fabrics are featured by lightweight and flexibility.
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Photosynthesis of Previtamin D 3 in Human Skin and the Physiologic Consequences
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 1980
Photosynthesis of previtamin D3 can occur throughout the epidermis in the dermis when hypopigmented Caucasian skin is exposed to solar ultraviolet radiation. Once previtamin D3 is formed in the skin, it undergoes a temperature-dependent thermal isomerization that takes at least 3 days to complete. The vitamin D-binding protein preferentially translocates the thermal product, vitamin D3, into the circulation. These processes suggest a unique mechanism for the synthesis, storage, and slow, steady release of vitamin D3 from the skin into the circulation.
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Efficiency of a continuous height distribution model of sunscreen film geometry to predict a realistic sun protection factor
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2003
  • J COSMET SCI
Irregularities in the geometry of sunscreen films spread on rough areas, like skin, is often presented as being the main cause of the degree of UV absorption achieved by the UV filters that are inside. Until now, only the step film, a model invented by O'Neill, was simple enough to calculate UV data close to in vitro experimental data, after determination of a limited number of fraction areas with their corresponding thickness. However, such models are obviously too simple to represent a real situation. In the present work, more complex distributions of film thickness were calculated, with an infinite number of individual heights. Realistic models were achieved via a probability function. The consequences for UV absorption were deduced, and the calculated UV data were compared to experimental in vitro data on sunscreen products measured after being spread on a roughened PMMA substrate. The latter substrate was previously selected for its ability to achieve a good correlation with in vivo SPF. An optimized version of the continuous mathematical model was finally determined in order to achieve UV curves, similar in shape and intensity to the experimental ones. The latter model can be used to predict realistic SPF values.
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In vitro and In vivo methods to define sunscreen protection
Article
  • Dec 1979
  • AUSTRALAS J DERMATOL
The potential ability of nine sunscreen preparations to prevent erythema was assessed by two commonly used in vitro methods—the thin-film technique and the dilute-solution method—as well as by a new in vitro method—the hairless mouse procedure. The study indicates that there are serious deficiencies in these first two methods when their results are compared to those obtained from in vivo testing. These two spectrophotometric methods predicted a much higher decree of effectiveness than was obtained under in-use conditions. The new in vitro method described here that uses the excised epidermis of the hairless mouse gave results comparable to those obtained in human volunteers.
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High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the comparison of the photostability of five sunscreen agents
Article
  • Mar 1999
  • J CHROMATOGR A
Sunscreen agents are commonly used in cosmetic products to filter out noxious radiation in sunlight. A convenient high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method for the quantification of five sunscreens after irradiation has been selected. We used this analytical method to compare the photostability of benzophenone-3, PEG-25 PABA, octyl dimethyl PABA, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor and butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane, at levels in the range of 25-60 microM. The assay was carried out, using a C8 column with a methanol--water mobile phase. The detector was set at a wavelength of 300 nm. The assay was linear with the following limits: 0.2 microgram ml-1 for benzophenone-3, 1 microgram ml-1 for PEG-25 PABA, 0.15 microgram ml-1 for octyl dimethyl PABA, 0.1 microgram ml-1 for methylbenzylidene camphor and 0.05 microgram ml-1 for butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane. The half-lives calculated indicate a very good photostability of the sunscreens studied and permit to classify amongst themselves.
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Photoprotection and prevention of melanoma
Article
  • Jul 1999
This article summarizes the current position on primary prevention of melanoma, including what is the evidence relating sunlight exposure to the development of melanoma, what forms of photoprotection there are and what are their relative values. There have been increasing incidence and mortality rates due to melanoma in most countries where they are being recorded. The initial approach in many countries has been to develop some form of early detection program in an attempt to diagnose and treat at a curable stage the melanomas that are occurring now. Primary prevention of melanoma is the more long term approach to the problem which many countries are now considering and a number are actively pursuing. Recent concern about stratospheric ozone depletion has contributed to the desire for the primary prevention approach. There are epidemiological data associating the risk of melanoma with increased exposure to sunlight in people with fair skin. They show that it is sunlight exposure in childhood and in doses sufficient to cause sunburn remembered many years later, that is particularly associated with risk of melanoma in adulthood. The exact spectrum of radiation in sunlight which is responsible for these tumours is not known, although the ultraviolet range is believed to be most important, particularly UVB but probably also UVA. The approach to photoprotection is a reduction in the overall exposure to sunlight, not just a single component of it. The natural protection of shade, clothing and hats is promoted as the best protection. Sunscreens have assumed a major component of primary prevention programs based on their convenience of use and also on their widespread promotion by those people who have a commercial interest in them. These products protect predominantly in the UVB range for which there is a sun protection factor (SPF) grading, as well as having some activity in the UVA range (for which there is not yet a satisfactory grading method).
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UV Transmission Measurements of Small Skin Specimens with Special Quartz Cuvettes
Article
  • Feb 2000
The penetration of different wavelengths of UV radiation through human skin is of major importance, especially for the determination of photoprotective properties of sunscreens and UV-protective clothes. In this study we present a new method for the measurement of UV transmission through small skin specimens. The transmission measurements were performed by using a UV spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere operating in the wavelength range of 280-390 nm. For the skin samples, special quartz glass cuvettes were developed which allowed measurements for very thin and small skin specimens. Furthermore, the cuvettes prevented dehydration of the specimens and guaranteed, by using an additional diaphragm, that the transmission data were derived solely from the small skin specimen examined. Specimens measuring 8 x 3 mm(2) with a thickness of 0.3 mm (histometric and sonographic control) were taken from the thighs of 10 subjects via shave biopsy. In the UVA range (315-390 nm) we obtained a mean transmission of 4.6% and for the UVB range (280-315 nm) of 0.9%. No significant (p >0.14) difference of UV transmission was found between the individual skin specimens. This new method seems to be well suitable for UV transmission measurements of small skin specimens. As UVA radiation has a much deeper penetration depth and in in vivo situations dermal hemoglobin could have an effect on UV penetration, the present method is better suitable for the investigation of UVB-induced biological adaptation mechanisms and the impact of topical agents on UVB transmission of the epidermis.
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Stripping method to quantify absorption of two sunscreens in human
Article
  • Aug 2001
  • INT J PHARMACEUT
With the aim to know the remanence of two sunscreens, PEG-25 PABA and benzophenone, two cases have been considered: the application of aqueous solution of two filters studied for the application of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions containing the same two filters on the skin of 21 voluntary women. In order to determine the quantity of filter remaining in the stratum corneum after times of application, which vary from 1 to 7 h, a series of six strippings have been carried out. The sunscreen agents were assessed by HPLC. With this study, it has been possible to emphasize the best remanence of benzophenone 4. Moreover, the incorporation of photo-protective agents in a O/W emulsion promotes their penetration, and this is particularly due to benzophenone 4.
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Photoprotection of the eye - UV radiation and sunglasses
Article
  • Dec 2001
  • J PHOTOCH PHOTOBIO B
Although most health scientists now agree that health risks to the skin (e.g., skin cancer) exist from exposure to the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, a scientific consensus has not really been achieved vis-à-vis sunlight and ocular health. A growing number of scientists warn of hazards to the eye if ultraviolet radiation - and perhaps even shorter wavelength visible radiation also - is not filtered by lenses. Despite a substantial literature on the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and intense light upon ocular structures, particularly upon the retina, controversy still surrounds the question of whether the levels of natural and man-made light sources are damaging when encountered under normal viewing conditions. Although scientific evidence accumulates to indicate that chronic exposure conditions may accelerate ageing processes in ocular tissues, the quantitative question of "How much is safe?" remains to be answered conclusively.
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Photoprotection by clothing
Article
  • Feb 2003
Wearing of clothing, hats, and sunglasses to protect from exposure to sunlight should be part of a package of protection. Clothing specifically designed to avoid exposure is now available and recently standards have been published in several countries to measure the degree of protection. The ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is likely to be as ubiquitous in clothing aisles as the sun protection factor (SPF) is now in the sunscreen aisle of your local department store.
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Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer: Molecular mechanisms
Article
  • Apr 2005
Every living organism on the surface of the earth is exposed to the ultraviolet (UV) fraction of the sunlight. This electromagnetic energy has both life-giving and life-endangering effects. UV radiation can damage DNA and thus mutagenize several genes involved in the development of the skin cancer. The presence of typical signature of UV-induced mutations on these genes indicates that the ultraviolet-B part of sunlight is responsible for the evolution of cutaneous carcinogenesis. During this process, variable alterations of the oncogenic, tumor-suppressive, and cell-cycle control signaling pathways occur. These pathways include (a) mutated PTCH (in the mitogenic Sonic Hedgehog pathway) and mutated p53 tumor-suppressor gene in basal cell carcinomas, (b) an activated mitogenic ras pathway and mutated p53 in squamous cell carcinomas, and (c) an activated ras pathway, inactive p16, and p53 tumor suppressors in melanomas. This review presents background information about the skin optics, UV radiation, and molecular events involved in photocarcinogenesis.
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