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Aging & Mental Health, September 2007; 11(5): 477–484
Promoting older adults’ well-being through Internet training and use
N. SHAPIRA, A. BARAK, & I. GAL
University of Haifa, Israel
(Received 13 December 2005; accepted 8 September 2006)
Abstract
The purpose of the current research was to test the psychological impact of learning how to use computers and the Internet
in old age, hypothesizing that such activities would contribute to seniors’ well-being and personal sense of empowerment.
Employing a quasi-experimental research design, we offered a course, conducted in small groups, in computer operation
and Internet browsing to 22 older adults (mean age of 80) who went to day-care centers for the elderly or resided in nursing
homes. A comparison group of 26 participants (similar in all major respects) was engaged in other activities. Both groups
were administered measures of physical functioning, life satisfaction, depression, loneliness and self-control at pre- and
post-intervention four months later. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants who finished
the computer course. ANCOVA was employed for controlling the effects of control variables and pre-intervention
differences on participants who completed the activities. Results showed a significant improvement among participants in
the intervention group in all measures except physical functioning, whereas deterioration in all measures was detected in the
comparison group. Computer and Internet use seems to contribute to older adults’ well-being and sense of empowerment
by affecting their interpersonal interactions, promoting their cognitive functioning and contributing to their experience of
control and independence.
Introduction
Aging is often accompanied by various physical and
mental problems including deteriorating health and
cognitive functioning. These changes contribute to
the development of depression and anxiety disorders
associated with social withdrawal, dependency and
suicide (Levy Cushman, McBride, & Abeles, 1999),
feelings of isolation and loneliness, fears of death,
reduced social ties and a loss of one’s regular social
network and support group (Butler, Lewis, &
Sunderland, 1998). A central aspect of these
phenomena is the feeling of powerlessness, a subjective
experience caused by mental and physical stress, the
loss of economic security, deterioration in the ability
to influence and to make a social or political
difference, greater dependency on others and
increasingly negative attitudes in society toward old
age (Cox, 1988).
The Internet has become an accepted, routine
means of communication for many people, including
older people (Bargh & McKenna, 2004; Pew
Internet & American Life Project, 2005). In addi-
tion, the Internet has created new opportunities for
people in distress when traditional resources are
unreachable or unattainable or require special effort.
These opportunities include online therapy and
counseling (Barak, 2004), online support groups
(Meier, 2004) and health-related information (Cline
& Haynes, 2001). Several unique characteristics of
computers and the Internet can enhance the quality
of life of older people. For instance, Internet-based
communication with other people is convenient and
affordable, thus enabling social needs to be met
more easily and directly. Involvement in various
types of online social or political activism can
contribute to feelings of self-worth. Retrieval of
medical or mental health information, which is
of special value to many seniors, can promote self-
confidence and help reduce anxiety. Online shop-
ping, banking, gaming, donating and learning are
effective ways to overcome physical handicaps.
Overall, then, it seems that the use of computers
and the Internet can empower older people, con-
tribute to their quality of life and help in coping with
this group’s typical mental and physical difficulties.
Aging might then become less difficult as older
people gain greater opportunities to be more
independent, less socially isolated and more
cheerful.
As Internet surfing is a relatively new phenom-
enon, the proportion of older people who indulge
in this activity is small compared to younger
generations. In the US, for instance, a survey
Correspondence: Azy Barak, Department of Education, University of Haifa, Aba Hushi Rd, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905,
Israel. E-mail: azy@construct.haifa.ac.il
ISSN 1360-7863 print/ISSN 1364-6915 online/07/050477–484 ß2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13607860601086546
conducted in 2004 found that 22% of people aged
65 and over used the Internet, compared to 58% of
those aged 50–64, and 75% of those aged 18–49
(Pew Internet & American Life, 2004). This survey
also showed that older people who had the necessary
equipment and skills were usually as capable and
as motivated to use the Internet as were younger
individuals and used the Net for a variety
of purposes, including communicating through
e-mail, investigating family trees, healthcare pur-
poses and even cybersex. As Campbell (2004)
found, however, differences exist among older
people in their use of the Net and these are usually
related to age; it seemed that the very old were less
capable of using computers and several Web
applications effectively due to inappropriate website
usability, design of computer equipment or the
unsuitable or unfocused content of many websites.
Yet, older people are able to learn to use computers
and Internet browsing effectively with appropriate
training (Dauz, Moore, Smith, Puno, & Schaag,
2004); their confidence and ease of use of these
technologies are proportional to actual practice
(Adams, Stubbs, & Woods, 2005) and they usually
are enthusiastic about learning computer technolo-
gies (Gietzelt, 2001).
In focusing on the ability of the Internet to meet
the needs of the elderly, Henke (1999) highlighted
services and applications—such as online shopping,
money management, health education and social,
political and spiritual involvement—that directly
contributed to older people’s independence. Wright
(2000) examined the effects of older people’s
participation in online support groups and online
communities and argued that high degree of
participation in these activities contributed to social
relationships as well as to increasing this popula-
tion’s direct action in coping with difficulties.
Employing a survey of elderly Internet users,
McMellon and Schiffman (2002) showed that
involvement in various online behaviors and activ-
ities contributed to older people’s gains in personal
control and empowerment. Chen and Persson
(2002) found that Internet use among older people
tended to be associated with greater sense of
well-being, contrary to the then-claimed negative
relationship between Internet usage and several
psychological factors. More recently, Karavidas,
Lim, and Katsikas (2005) found a positive relation-
ship between older people’s use and knowledge of
computers and the Internet and their general self-
efficacy and life satisfaction. In summary, it seems
that the functional use of computers and Internet is
positively related to older people’s well-being.
Several studies investigated the effects of inter-
vention programs aimed at educating older people to
use computers and the Internet. Cody, Dunn,
Hoppin, and Wendt (1999) found that a training
program in Internet browsing increased older
people’s perceived social support and made their
attitudes toward aging more positive. White et al.
(1999), after developing a training program for the
elderly in the use of computers and the Internet,
reported that participants demonstrated a significant
reduction in social isolation several months following
the program, compared to a no-treatment compar-
ison group, which did not change in this respect.
Straka and Clark (2000) developed a nine-week
workshop to train frail older seniors (mean age
85 years) in computers and Internet use. They found
that six months after the workshop had ended, and
with ongoing technical support by volunteers, most
participants reported improvement with various
factors related to their well-being and empowerment
(e.g. sense of mastery and achievement). White et al.
(2002) used a randomized control trial design with
older people in providing an intervention group with
nine hours of training in using computers and
Internet over two weeks and followed them up
after five months. The researchers found a trend
toward a positive psychological impact in compar-
ison with the waiting-list control group, though the
impact of the intervention was marginal.
The objective of the current study was to test the
psychological effects of a tailored educational inter-
vention offered to older people in computer and
Internet-usage skills and the promotion of their
actual use. Prior studies cited above either did not
use a comparison-control group (Cody et al., 1999;
Straka & Clark, 2000) or used a no-treatment
control group rather than an alternative activity
control (White et al., 1999; White et al., 2002). To
overcome these limitations, the present study
employed a quasi-experimental design in a field
setting, in which an intervention group based on
computer-education and Internet use was compared
to a control group receiving an intervention not
related to computer use. In addition, the present
study examined the effects on a broader spectrum
of psychological factors related to well-being and
empowerment, including feelings of loneliness, a
sense of control over one’s life, depression and life
satisfaction.
Methods
Participants
The study was carried out in Israel with Hebrew-
speaking participants. Twenty-two older people,
nine men and 13 women, aged 70–93 (M ¼80.25;
SD ¼6.50), were included in the intervention group.
These participants had an average of 11.43 years of
education (SD ¼3.43) and had been retired for
17 years on average (SD ¼10.10). Two of them were
bachelors, seven were married, two were divorced
and 11 were widows. Twenty-six other older people,
nine men and 17 women, aged 70–93 (M ¼82.60;
SD ¼5.90) were included in a comparison group.
These other participants had an average of 10.31
478 N. Shapira et al.
(SD ¼3.74) years of education and had been retired
for 17.47 years (SD ¼7.84). None of them was a
bachelor, three were married, two were divorced and
21 were widows. As can be seen from these data, the
two samples were relatively similar in relevant
variables. Participants were involved in three day
centers for the elderly or resided in two nursing
homes. The activities given the two groups were
carried out at separate locations in order to avoid the
existence of two activities in the same setting to
preclude the possible leaking of information, which
then might have created motivational contamination
of the research. Participation in the activities as well
as in the research was on a voluntary basis.
Participants were assigned to computer-education
intervention or to the comparison group based on
their willingness to participate and interest in the
different activities. This procedure enhanced ecolo-
gical validity, as assigning participants to activities is
standard in natural settings, therefore better general-
ization of research findings to reality is possible.
Also, by allowing freedom of choice participants did
not have to engage in activities against their will,
therefore greater cooperation and learning could be
reached. The only inclusion criterion referred to
sufficient cognitive capability (as reported by per-
manent sites’ staff who knew participants closely) to
participate in the offered activity.
Nine participants (six from the intervention group
and three from the comparison group) dropped out
of the program, leaving an actual group size of
16 and 23, respectively, in the intervention group
and in the comparison group. Reasons for dropping
out were death, moving, traveling abroad, medical
problems and unwillingness to be interviewed. There
was no systematic difference in any meaningful
variable (e.g. age, gender) in either group among
participants who stayed on or who dropped out of
the research.
Intervention
Computer operation and Internet use. The partici-
pants in the intervention group took part in an
educational program that was aimed at equipping
them with skills for operating a personal computer
and using several Internet applications, including
handling e-mail, browsing the Web and exploiting
different types of sites and participating in forums
and virtual communities. The teaching was carried
out in specially dedicated rooms in which several
computers were hooked up to the Internet through
ADSL. Participants were encouraged to use the
computers and the Internet as much as they liked in
between training sessions and they actually did so
in their free time. The instructors, veteran teachers
in the use of computers and Internet, were especially
experienced in working with older people. They were
assisted by volunteers, who provided participants
with additional help and guidance when needed.
The program lasted 15 weeks and included one
or two lessons per week, each approximately
60 minutes long.
Alternative activities. The participants in the com-
parison group took part in one or more of several
activities offered to them in the respective settings
with which they were involved. These activities,
which included courses in painting, sewing and
needlework and ceramics, were typical for elderly
people. Length of time of involvement in each
activity, as well as availability and attention given
to participants by the instructors, was similar to the
computer-intervention group. Participants took part
in weekly or bi-weekly classes and practiced the
activities on their free time in between classes. These
courses, too, lasted approximately 15 weeks.
Instruments
Demographic questionnaire. This questionnaire
asked for participants’ biographic personal details,
such as age, marital status and education.
Participants were also asked about other relevant
details, such as computer experience and recent
negative life-events.
Difficulties in physical functioning scale
(DPFS). Based on items included in question-
naires developed by Parkerson et al. (1981) and
Zung (1965), this questionnaire examined partici-
pants’ physical health. Participants were asked
to rate, on 3-point scales, their difficulties related
to 13 areas (e.g. breathing, headaches, fever, weight
loss or gain). An additional four 3-point-scale items
referred to physical health-related behaviors, such as
frequency of visits to a physician. A total score in the
range from 17 to 51 was computed by adding up all
17 items. Cronbach alpha coefficient of the ques-
tionnaire when administered prior to the program
was 0.78.
Life-satisfaction scale (LSS). This instrument is an
adaptation of Back and Guptill’s (1966) question-
naire designed to measure the level of life satisfaction
in older people. The present scale included seven
5-point, bipolar items, such as ‘my life is:
interesting–boring; hopeful–hopeless’. A total score,
ranging from 7–35, was computed by adding up all
items. Cronbach alpha coefficient of the scale when
administered prior to the program was 0.87.
Depressive adjective checklist (DACL). This ques-
tionnaire, based on Lubin’s (1966; 1981) instru-
ment, is designed to measure depressive moods in
older adults. The instrument contains 34 adjectives
(e.g. unhappy, lonely, friendly, free), according to
which participants were asked to describe themselves
on the day they filled out the forms. Lomranz,
Lubin, Eyal, and Joffe (1991) had reported a
Internet training and use 479
Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.84 and a significant
correlation with other measures of depression. The
Cronbach alpha coefficient found for this question-
naire in the present study was 0.91.
Revised UCLA loneliness scale (UCLALS). The
questionnaire was developed by Russell, Peplau,
and Cutrona (1980) to assess subjective feelings of
loneliness or social isolation. Participants responded
on a 4-point scale to 20 statements (e.g. ‘I miss the
pleasure of the company of others’). Total scores
ranged from 20 (low loneliness) to 80 (high lone-
liness). Cronbach alpha coefficient found in the
present study was 0.88.
Self-anchoring scale (SAS). This instrument
(Cantril, 1965) consisted of a vertical scale, from
0–10, on which participants marked the degree of
satisfaction with their lives at three points in time:
currently, five years ago and, as an estimate, in five
years time. In the present research, participants were
asked to refer only to their current feelings. Several
studies have supported the reliability and validity of
this measure (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin,
1985; Larsen, Diener, & Emmons, 1985).
Perceived control scale (PCS). This scale consists of
the ‘perceived control’ factor found in a study on
coping (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). It contains seven
statements (e.g. ‘What happens to me in the future is
dependent mainly on me’), on which participants
were asked to rate the degree of their agreement on a
4-point scale. Scores from adding up the items
ranged from 7–28. The scale has been found to be
reliable and valid (Becker et al., 2001; Lomratz
et al., 1991). In the current research, the Cronbach
alpha coefficient was 0.67.
Procedure
The project started once the computer and Internet
training course and the research matters were
coordinated with the managers of the nursing
homes and day care centers. In the first stage, pre-
intervention data were collected from the partici-
pants in both groups for pre-treatment assessment.
This was done by one of two experimenters in
individual meetings with each participant. The
participants received a copy of each questionnaire
and, if necessary, were assisted in filling them out. In
several cases, instructions and items were read to
participants who gave their responses orally and
these were recorded by the experimenter.
The interventions lasted approximately 15 weeks.
Upon completion of the respective activities, the
participants were contacted and individual appoint-
ments were scheduled for the second administration
of the measures, by the same experimenters, for
post-treatment assessment. The second administra-
tion was conducted 2–4 weeks after the end of the
computer or alternative intervention and conducted
in the two groups in parallel.
Results
Table I presents descriptive statistics for the experi-
mental treatment and the comparison groups at the
two times of measurements, both unadjusted and
adjusted for pre-treatment scores. Three measures
(DPFS, DACL, UCLALS) were scored in a negative
direction (lower score indicates better functioning)
while three measures (LSS, PCA, SAS) were scored
in a positive direction (a higher score indicates better
functioning). Looking at the unadjusted data, the
Internet group changed from pre- to post-treatment
in a direction consistent with the research hypothesis
on all six variables: scores showed lower levels of
physical difficulties (DPFS), depression (DACL)
Table I. Comparison of means and standard deviations of the dependent measures by group and time of measurement: Unadjusted pre-
(n¼39) and post- (n¼37) measurements and adjusted post-measurements (n¼37) corrected for control and pre-intervention differences.
Measure group DPFS DACL UCLALS LSS PCS SAS
Unadjusted
Intervention Pre M 30.00 11.75 42.56 21.75 15.62 6.13
SD 6.07 7.69 12.32 7.44 3.91 2.47
Post M 26.46 8.88 35.51 24.88 19.19 6.38
SD 4.08 7.20 11.27 6.79 3.82 2.22
Comparison Pre M 24.61 6.76 38.16 21.19 18.45 5.48
SD 4.14 6.02 11.51 6.64 3.81 2.00
Post M 26.67 12.62 46.71 15.05 16.10 4.29
SD 4.83 7.01 12.13 6.01 4.02 2.10
Adjusted post measures
Intervention M 25.41 7.04 32.88 24.81 19.99 6.06
SE 1.00 1.50 1.84 1.18 0.87 0.44
Comparison M 27.60 13.89 47.53 15.36 15.00 4.32
SE 0.82 1.23 1.53 1.00 0.72 0.38
DPFS ¼Difficulties in physical functioning scale. DACL ¼Depressive adjective checklist. UCLALS ¼Revised UCLA loneliness scale.
LSS ¼Life-satisfaction scale. PCS ¼Perceived control scale. SAS ¼Self-anchoring scale.
480 N. Shapira et al.
and feeling of loneliness (UCLALS) and improve-
ment in life satisfaction (LSS), sense of control
(PCS) and life quality (SAS). However, Table I also
shows that the treatment and comparison groups
differed in their pre- treatment measures, a finding
that might be related to the quasi-experimental
nature of the study. Thus, controlling pre-treatment
scores was necessary to test the research hypotheses.
We also searched for a-priori differences between
nursing home residents and day care users, to
check possible moderating interactions with the
dependents measures. In the treatment group, no
significant differences were found on all six pre-
treatment measures. In the comparison group, there
was a significant difference only in physical function-
ing (DPFS): nursing home residents had signifi-
cantly fewer physical problems than did day care
users (M ¼20.80; SD ¼1.64 vs. M ¼27.04,
SD ¼5.30, t¼2.56; df¼21; p50.05). Since this
was the only a-priori difference between the two
subgroups and since the nursing home residents
subgroup was rather small (n¼8), we concluded
that overall there were no significant differences
between the two subgroups.
In addition, we examined Pearson correlations
among the six measures, assessed before treatment,
and ten key background variables: age, gender, years
of education, occupational area, number of children,
prior Internet experience, financial status, religiosity
and number of negative and positive events last year.
As some correlations could be found significant by
chance when a large number of correlations (112)
are computed, we used the 0.01 confidence level.
Only two correlations were found to fit this criterion:
between number of children and life satisfaction
(r¼0.47) and between the number of positive events
during the previous year and loneliness (r¼0.45).
Given the above findings, we performed a
repeated-measures MANCOVA comparing the
treatment and the comparison groups on the six
dependent measures before and after the interven-
tion, while controlling for the number of children
and the number of positive life events, in addition to
controlling for the pre-treatment group differences.
Table II shows that, as expected, the interaction
between the time x group factors, which relates to
the hypothesized differential changes, was significant
(F¼9.96; df¼6:28; p50.001;
2
¼0.68). The
lower part of Table I presents post-intervention
means and standard errors of the six measures,
adjusted for pre-intervention differences. Post-hoc
univariate ANOVAs (using the Bonferroni method)
showed differences in the expected direction
between the intervention and the comparison
groups in five of the six measures: Higher levels of
life satisfaction (LSS: F¼39.94; df¼1:33;
p50.001;
2
¼0.55); sense of control (PCS:
F¼13.22; df¼1:33; p50.001;
2
¼0.29) and life
quality (SAS: F¼7.42; df¼1:33; p50.01;
2
¼0.18) and significantly lower levels of depres-
sion (DACL: F¼10.00; df¼1:33; p50.01;
2
¼0.23) and feeling of loneliness (UCLALS:
F¼34.71; df¼1:33; p50.001;
2
¼0.51). Only for
physical difficulties (DPFS) the comparison was
found to be not statistically significant (F¼2.24;
df¼1:33;
2
¼0.06).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine possible
positive effects that the use of computers and the
Internet might have on older adults. As hypothe-
sized, elderly people who began using the Internet
felt less depressed and lonely, more satisfied with
life, more in control and more pleased with their
current quality of life than did people who were
engaged in other activities for the same period of
time. Changes in difficulties with physical function-
ing, however, were not statistically significant
following the intervention. In identifying these
effects, the current research is an important addition
to the cumulative knowledge on the possible effects
of the use of the Internet and computers on the
elderly. It should be noted that the conclusions of
our research contradict the assertion of a recent
comprehensive review by Dickinson and Gregor
(2006) who found no consistent and validated
effects of computer use by older people on
well-being. However, we contend that the results of
the current intervention study highlight the specific
positive effects of the use of the Internet, on
psychological distress in older users.
The improvement in well-being of the elderly
participants with computer and Internet intervention
is of special interest because we also identified
deterioration in the well-being of those in the
comparison group. Age-related deterioration over
time in aspects related to well-being was identified in
the past (e.g. Kunzmann, Little, & Smith, 2000),
even in repeated measurements conducted over only
several months time (Wolinsky, Wyrwich, Babu,
Kroenke, & Tierney, 2003). It seems that computer
and Internet use not only prevented this deteriora-
tion but even enhanced psychological factors impor-
tant to the quality of life of older people. The reasons
for this improved well-being might be related to
psychological processes associated with experiences
of personal empowerment, enhanced interpersonal
communication, learning and overcoming physical
Table II. Results of MANCOVA on research measures, by
group and time of measurement (n¼37).
Factor Fdfp
2
Group 5.05 6:28 50.01 0.52
Time of measurement 1.05 6:28 ns 0.18
Group time 9.96 6:28 50.001 0.68
Internet training and use 481
difficulties related to mobility (e.g. Gal & Prisant,
2003; McMellon & Schiffman, 2002).
In an attempt to better identify and understand
these dynamics, we analyzed follow-up interviews
with participants in the computer intervention
group, who were asked semi-structured questions
regarding the process they had undergone. We
identified four central factors repeatedly stressed by
participants: learning of an innovative field; social
benefits of using online communication; experien-
cing involvement and action; and positive feelings
stimulated by using the Internet. First, in regard to
learning an innovative area, the Internet was viewed
by participants as a typical activity of young people,
who like the new technology are characterized by
(youthful) dynamics and speed. Using computers
and the Internet in old age and receiving the
cheerful feedback of people surrounding them
made the participants feel proud of themselves,
perhaps even a glimmer of returned youth.
Second, participants pointed out that they had
been encouraged to ask acquaintances for their
e-mail addresses and had corresponded with them,
as well as corresponded with the course instructor
and one another; in doing so, they experienced
the social benefits of enhanced interpersonal
communication. A third important social benefit
was using materials acquired online in a social
context. Participants thus used stories, jokes
and general information from online resources in a
social context. In addition, browsing the Internet
contributed to feelings of being constantly ‘in’
and updated, which elevated a personal sense of
belonging. Fourth, participants reported the emer-
gence of positive feelings while surfing the
Web, caused by the variety of online activities
they encountered, their consequent elevated
self-image and experiences of motivation and enthu-
siasm. Specific emotions cited were general happi-
ness, satisfaction and fun, a sense of control,
experiencing success, mental stimulation and
challenge. Especially with older adults, these emo-
tional experiences should not be disregarded or
underrated, as this population typically lacks
challenge and experience a lack of activity and
dependence (Cox, 1988).
Throughout the interviews, processes related to
empowerment, either implicitly or explicitly, were
quite evident. Participants said that the activities
they had taken part in contributed to experiencing
decision-making, critical thinking and equal access
to resources—factors that Wallerstein (1992) identi-
fied as essential to empowering individuals. These
factors also concur with Staples’ (1990) view of
personal empowerment as a process of personal
growth, resulting from developing skills and abilities
along with a more positive self-definition. One of
the special characteristics of using computers and
browsing the Internet is its individualistic and
continuous nature—people may engage in it as
long and as flexibly as they wish, thus providing
numerous opportunities to fit their needs and
conditions. Unlike dancing, card games, lectures or
sightseeing tours—which are limited to time, place,
or presence of instructors and other participants—
using computers is individualistic, time-flexible and
entirely self-initiated. It seems that the improved
well-being of the participants in the computer and
Internet intervention not only made them experience
an improved emotional state but also affected their
basic self-image and self-confidence—personality
agents that might have contributed to more general
growth and social functioning.
Our research showed a significant effect on
relevant psychological criteria from using computers
and Internet, compared to alternative activities that
elderly people took part in over a similar period of
time. In addition to methodological considerations
first used in this study, set to compensate for
weaknesses of previous investigations, we showed
that a relatively short and simple intervention could
enhance the mental processes of people despite their
old age. This notion is of special importance, as it is
commonly assumed that older people might not be
able to learn and apply new technologies. Actually,
we were able to show that when older people have
the willingness to engage in and the potential (as
assessed by themselves) for computer activity, they
can successfully employ this potential and achieve
both direct goals (e.g. search for information,
communicate with relatives) and indirect goals
(e.g. a higher sense of control, decreased feelings of
loneliness).
Moreover, as the study was conducted in Israel
with Hebrew-speaking participants, we found that
language was not a barrier despite the need to know
basic English in order to operate computers and
browse the Internet. This conclusion is similar to
that of Straka and Clark (2000), who showed
successful effects of learning and using the Internet
among French-speaking participants in Que
´bec.
However, we have to bear in mind that using
computers in old age does not suit everyone, as
might be evident from the higher dropout rate of
participants in the computers intervention group in
comparison with the comparison group. This fact
should be taken into account in inviting and screen-
ing seniors for such activities.
The findings reported here are based on a single
and relatively small sample. Replication of results
from additional samples and using alternative mea-
sures will contribute to better generalization. Our
post-intervention measurement consisted of a single
time observation; it would be of value to see whether
the effects found here are sustained for a longer
period of time. In fact, we informally followed
participants from the computer intervention group
for several months after the end of the study
and found that, on their own, they continued to be
highly involved in actively using the Internet.
482 N. Shapira et al.
Similarly, it would be important to examine
additional, secondary effects of the intervention;
that is, whether the significant changes in
psychological factors detected here had further
effects on older adults, such as on mortality, health-
related criteria and social involvement and activism.
Although we noted some differences before the
course in computer experience by various partici-
pants in the intervention group, the sample was too
small to examine the effects of this longer interaction
or to offer differential interventions. This factor,
however, might become more important to study in
the future, as computer skills and experience become
more prevalent in older adults. Likewise, possible
personality differences existed between people who
chose to participate in the computer and Internet
education activity and others. This factor could be
related to change, thus should be monitored and
controlled in future research.
Another interesting and important aspect that
should be elaborated in future research has to do
with a closer examination of the dynamics of personal
change prompted by computer and Internet use. As
noted earlier, we speculated that several psychologi-
cal processes were responsible for the observed
changes known to contribute to anti-aging psycholo-
gical deterioration, such as interpersonal commu-
nication and interaction (Bowling et al., 2003),
elevated use of cognitive mechanisms (Dunning,
2004) and a growing sense of empowerment
(McMellon & Schiffman, 2002). A closer investiga-
tion of these factors, using a mix of quantitative and
qualitative methods, might offer a deeper under-
standing of the internal processes older people go
through when they adopt computers and the Internet.
Preparing and applying computer and Internet
intervention programs for the elderly require special
attention to various factors characterizing this
population. Therefore, care should be taken to
develop educational means and technological speci-
fications that best fit older people and specific
individuals’ characteristics. In addition, more
general considerations must be attended to while
involving older people with computers, such as
friendlier computer interface and software design
(White et al., 2002), improved usability and contents
(Selwyn, 2004) as well as the physical environment
where learning and computer usage take place
(Namazi & McClintic, 2003). The improved prac-
tical considerations in combination with advanced
technology might prove beneficial for older people’s
well-being.
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by a grant from Myers-
JDC-Brookdale Institute of Gerontology and
Human Development; Eshel, The Association for
the Planning and Development of Services for the
Aged in Israel and the Fraenkel Family Fund.
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