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Chronic Static Stretching Improves Exercise Performance
Abstract
This study investigated the influence of static stretching exercises on specific exercise performances.
Thirty-eight volunteers participated in this study. The stretching group (STR) consisted of 8 males and 11 females whose activity was limited to a 10-wk, 40-min, 3-d.wk(-1) static stretching routine designed to stretch all the major muscle groups in the lower extremity. The control group (CON) consisted of 8 males and 11 females who did not participate in any kind of regular exercise routine during the study. Each subject was measured before and after for flexibility, power (20-m sprint, standing long jump, vertical jump), strength (knee flexion and knee extension one-repetition maximum (1RM)), and strength endurance (number of repetitions at 60% of 1RM for both knee flexion and knee extension).
STR had significant average improvements (P < 0.05) for flexibility (18.1%), standing long jump (2.3%), vertical jump (6.7%), 20-m sprint (1.3%), knee flexion 1RM (15.3%), knee extension 1RM (32.4%), knee flexion endurance (30.4%) and knee extension endurance (28.5%). The control group showed no improvement.
This study suggests that chronic static stretching exercises by themselves can improve specific exercise performances. It is possible that persons who are unable to participate in traditional strength training activities may be able to experience gains through stretching, which would allow them to transition into a more traditional exercise regimen.
... Eight studies exclusively examined jumping performance (Hunter and Marshall, 2002;Yuktasir and Kaya, 2009;Donti et al., 2021;Ikeda and Ryushi, 2021;Nakamura et al., 2021;Panidi et al., 2021;Alipasali et al., 2022;Warneke et al., 2022d), two studies (Rodriguez Fernandez et al., 2016;Alipasali et al., 2019) only sprint performance. Since four studies assessed both jumping and sprinting performance (Kokkonen et al., 2007;Bazett-Jones et al., 2008;Hadjicharalambous, 2016;Barbosa et al., 2020), the results regarding jumping performance from 12 studies and sprinting results from six studies were examined. ...
... The intervention period ranged between three (Barbosa et al., 2020) and 12 weeks (Panidi et al., 2021) in which stretching sessions were scheduled at least 3 days/week (Kokkonen et al., 2007;Barbosa et al., 2020;Ikeda and Ryushi, 2021;Nakamura et al., 2021;Panidi et al., 2021) to a maximum of 7 days/week (Warneke et al., 2022d). In one study, stretching was also performed twice a day (Hadjicharalambous, 2016). ...
... via the expected stretch-shortening cycle length (short and long SSC subgroup). For jumping performance, effect sizes showed jumping performance increases ranging from 2.3% (Kokkonen et al., 2007) to 27 ± 30% (Panidi et al., 2021). Twelve (12) trivial and/ or non-significant effect sizes from -3.84% (Bazett-Jones et al., 2008) to 16.0% were observed, while two effect sizes showed performance decreases from the pre-to the post-test with −3.7% (Barbosa et al., 2020) to −7.93% (Ikeda and Ryushi, 2021). ...
When improving athletic performance in sports with high-speed strength demands such as soccer, basketball, or track and field, the most common training method might be resistance training and plyometrics. Since a link between strength capacity and speed strength exists and recently published literature suggested chronic stretching routines may enhance maximum strength and hypertrophy, this review was performed to explore potential benefits on athletic performance. Based on current literature, a beneficial effect of static stretching on jumping and sprinting performance was hypothesized. A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science and Google scholar. In general, 14 studies revealed 29 effect sizes (ES) (20 for jumping, nine for sprinting). Subgroup analyses for jump performance were conducted for short- long- and no stretch shortening cycle trials. Qualitative evaluation was supplemented by performing a multilevel meta-analysis via R (Package: metafor). Significant positive results were documented in six out of 20 jump tests and in six out of nine sprint tests, while two studies reported negative adaptations. Quantitative data analyses indicated a positive but trivial magnitude of change on jumping performance (ES:0.16, p = 0.04), while all subgroup analyses did not support a positive effect (p = 0.09–0.44). No significant influence of static stretching on sprint performance was obtained (p = 0.08). Stretching does not seem to induce a sufficient stimulus to meaningfully enhance jumping and sprinting performance, which could possibly attributed to small weekly training volumes or lack of intensity.
... Thus, authors investigated the e↵ects of stretching interventions in separated sessions over a period of some weeks on flexibility showing significant enhancements in range of motion (ROM) as long-term e↵ects in the stretched muscles [92,208,210]. Since previous animal studies in 1970 1990 showed significant hypertrophy e↵ects in skeletal muscle in response to chronic stretching intervention with stretching durations of 30 minutes to 24 hours per day [18,85,105,282], a growing number of authors investigated changes in strength capacity and/or hypertrophy due to long-term stretching training [160,229,262,277,359]. However, no study was performed using comparatively long stretching durations of more than 30 minutes per day with a daily frequency in humans. ...
... However, there are numerous studies examining the e↵ects of long-term (intervention period lasting for weeks) but short-lasting static stretching training on maximum strength and/or hypertrophy. Kokkonen and colleagues [160] investigated the e↵ects of a ten-week stretch training routine including 15 stretching exercises for the lower extremity which were performed for 3x15 seconds on three days per week with a total stretching time of 40 minutes per session. [145], LaRoche and colleagues [171], Caldwell et al. [66] and Mizuno [212]) confirmed enhanced maximum strength due to stretching interventions with 0. 9 23.79% (d = 0.087 0.47) for stretching durations between three times 30 seconds and six times five minutes per session with two to 14 sessions per week. ...
... Evaluating current literature in the topic of stretch training, there is high heterogeneity in study designs. While there are studies investigating the influence of one stretching session per week [262], most studies examined the influence of three times stretching per week [160,225,229]. Overall, stretching durations per session di↵ered from four times 30 sec to 30 minutes per day [359]. ...
Stretching is primarily used to improve flexibility, decrease stiffness of the muscle- tendon unit or reduce risk of injury. However, previous animal studies from 1970 to 1990 showed significant hypertrophy effects in skeletal muscle in response to chronic stretching intervention with stretching durations of 30 minutes to 24 hours per day. However, no study in humans was performed using comparatively long stretching durations of more than 30 minutes per day with a daily frequency.
The present cumulative dissertation includes six studies aiming to investigate the effects of long-lasting static stretching training on maximum strength capacity, hypertrophy and flexibility in the skeletal muscle. Before starting own experimental studies, a meta-analysis of available animal research was conducted to analyze the potential of long-lasting stretching interventions on muscle mass and maximum strength. To induce long-lasting stretching on the plantar flexors and to improve standardization of the stretch training by quantifying the angle in the ankle joint while stretching, a calf muscle stretching orthosis was developed. In the following experimental studies, the orthosis was used to induce daily long- lasting static stretching stimuli with different stretching durations and intensities in the plantar flexors to assess different morphological and functional parameters. For this, a total of 311 participants were included in the studies and, dependent on the investigation, the effects of daily stretching for 10-120 minutes for six weeks were analyzed. Therefore, effects on maximal isometric and dynamic strength as well as flexibility of the plantar flexors were investigated with extended and flexed knee joint. The investigation of morphological parameters of the calf muscle was performed by determining the muscle thickness and the pennation angle by using sonographic imaging and the muscle cross-sectional area by using a 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging measurement.
In animals, the included systematic review with meta-analysis revealed increases in muscle mass with large effect size (d = 8.51, p < 0.001), muscle cross-sectional area (d = 7.91, p < 0.001), fiber cross-sectional area (d = 5.81, p < 0.001), fiber length (d = 7.86, p < 0.001) and fiber number (d = 4.62, p < 0.001). The thereafter performed experimental studies from our laboratory showed a range of trivial to large increases in maximum strength of 4.84% to 22.9% with d = 0.2 to 1.17 and ROM of 6.07% to 27.3% with d = 0.16 to 0.87 dependent on stretching time, training level and testing procedure. Furthermore, significant moderate to large magnitude hypertrophy effects of 7.29 to 15.3% with d = 0.53 to 0.84 in muscle thickness and trivial to small increases of 5.68% and 8.82% (d = 0.16 to 0.3) in muscle cross-sectional area were demonstrated.
The results are discussed based on physiological parameters from animal studies and in the front of knowledge in resistance training, suggesting mechanical tension to be one important factor to induce muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength increases. Further explanatory approaches such as hypoxia and changes in the muscle tendon unit are debated in the following. Since these studies are the first investigations on long-lasting stretch-mediated hypertrophy in humans, further research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms and confirm the results in different populations to enhance the practical applicability for example in clinical populations when, e.g. counteracting muscular imbalances or sarcopenia in the elderly.
https://pub-data.leuphana.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/1318
... There is a considerable amount of literature indicating that static and dynamic stretching (as used in this study during the yoga session) are effective at improving flexibility in both acute and chronic settings (Caplan et al., 2009;Kokkonen et al., 2007;LaRoche & Connolly, 2006;Worrell et al., 1994). However, to our knowledge, there is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of a yoga training or a mixed-method (static and dynamic) stretching routine on improving sprint performance and flexibility. ...
... Previous research indicates that the benefits from a regular stretching programme are improved flexibility, and increased strength (Kokkonen et al., 2007). Although flexibility gains are correlated with reduced sprint time, this correlation may not show a direct cause and effect. ...
... Although flexibility gains are correlated with reduced sprint time, this correlation may not show a direct cause and effect. Kokkonen et al. (2007) reported that recreationally active male and female participants in a stretching group increased flexibility and decreased sprint time which were related to the change in the muscular strength. Likewise, yoga postures included in the training in this study may have increased muscle length which may have led to increased contractile velocity and force generation. ...
There is an ongoing search on how to enhance the sprint performance of athletes. One should likely start investigating beyond traditional sport-training techniques about enhancing the sprinting ability of an athlete. Female rugby players were randomly assigned to one of the two groups; an experimental group (n = 5) and a control group (n = 5). Data were collected during pre-season and end- season on hamstring flexibility and sprint performance. Unpaired t-tests with an alpha level of p ≤ 0.05, Pearson correlation coefficient for the correlation. The experimental group significantly improved their straight leg raise test (SLR) by 29.1 ± 15.3-degrees (mean % change ± 95% CI, p < 0.05) and 5 m sprint time -10.4 ± 10.2 % compared to the control group 2.9 ± 15.3-degree (p = 0.05), and time difference of 9.9 ± 6.1% respectively. There was also a moderate negative correlation between SLR and 5 m sprint performance time (r = -0.29, p < 0.05 statistical significance. Results indicate that a 12-week yoga training helped improve the hamstring flexibility and performance of the 5 m acceleration phases of the 20 m sprint of rugby union players compared to a control group. Yoga helped rugby players to improve their hamstring flexibility when practiced alongside normal rugby training but maybe did little to improve sprint measures greater than 5 m performance during the season.
... Static stretching can be conducted by either contracting the agonist muscles (i.e., active static) or by using external forces such as gravity, the help of a partner, or stretching aids such as elastic bands (i.e., passive static) [1]. Generally, the main intended aims of SS are to increase ROM [2,3], mitigate injury incidence [1,4], and improve athletic performance [5][6][7]. ...
... While the acute effects of SS exercises on muscle strength and power are generally accepted [1,8,12,13], the chronic effects are, as yet, unclear and controversial. In fact, there are studies showing improvements [7,14,15], no effects [16][17][18], or even negative effects [19,20] of chronic SS exercises on measures of muscle strength and power. For example, Kokkonen et al. [7] reported that 40 min of SS, three times weekly, for 10 weeks increased lower limb ROM, muscle strength, power, and endurance in untrained and recreationally active young adults aged 22 years. ...
... In fact, there are studies showing improvements [7,14,15], no effects [16][17][18], or even negative effects [19,20] of chronic SS exercises on measures of muscle strength and power. For example, Kokkonen et al. [7] reported that 40 min of SS, three times weekly, for 10 weeks increased lower limb ROM, muscle strength, power, and endurance in untrained and recreationally active young adults aged 22 years. In contrast to this, in healthy male participants aged 18 years, who undertook two daily sessions of SS training over 3 weeks, no effect on maximum voluntary contraction force and rate of force development of the plantar flexors was found [18]. ...
Background: The current literature on the chronic effects of static stretching (SS) exercises on muscle strength and power is unclear and controversial.
Objective: To examine the chronic effects of SS exercises on muscle strength and power as well as flexibility in healthy individuals across the lifespan.
Design: Systematic review with meta-analysis of (randomised) controlled trials.
Data sources: A systematic literature search was conducted in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and SPORTDiscus up to May 2022.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: We included studies that investigated the chronic effects of SS exercises on at least one muscle strength and power outcome compared to an active/passive control group or the contralateral leg (using between- or within-study designs) in healthy individuals, irrespective of age, sex, and training status.
Results: The main findings of 41 studies indicated trivial-to-small positive effects of chronic SS exercises on muscle strength (standardised mean difference [SMD]=0.21, [95% CI=0.10 to 0.33], p=0.001) and power (SMD=0.18, [95% CI=0.12 to 0.25], p<0.001). For flexibility, moderate-to-large increases were observed (SMD=0.96, [95% CI=0.69 to 1.23], p<0.001). Subgroup analyses, taking the participants' training status into account, revealed a larger muscle strength improvement for sedentary (SMD=0.58, p<0.001) compared to recreationally active participants (SMD=0.16, p=0.029). Additionally, larger flexibility gains were observed following passive (SMD=0.97, p<0.001) compared to active SS exercises (SMD=0.59, p=0.001). SS’s chronic effects on muscle strength were moderated by the proportion of females in the sample (β=0.004, p=0.042), with higher proportions experiencing larger gains. Other moderating variables included mean age (β=0.011, p<0.001), with older individuals showing larger muscle strength gains, and the number of repetitions per stretching exercise and session (β=0.023, p=0.004 and β=0.013, p=0.008, respectively), with more repetitions associated with larger muscle strength improvements. Muscle power was also moderated by mean age (β=0.006, p=0.007) with larger gains in older individuals. The meta-regression analysis indicated larger flexibility gains with more repetitions per session (β=0.094, p=0.016), more time under stretching per session (β=0.090, p=0.026), and more total time under stretching (β=0.078, p=0.034).
Conclusion: The main findings indicated that chronic SS exercises have the potential to improve muscle strength and power. Such improvements appear to benefit sedentary more than recreationally active participants. Likewise, chronic SS exercises result in a marked enhancement in flexibility with larger effects of passive, as compared to active, SS. Results of the meta-regression analysis for muscle strength indicated larger benefits of chronic SS exercises in samples with higher proportions of females, older participants, and higher number of repetitions per stretching exercise and session. For muscle power, results suggested larger gains for older participants. Regarding flexibility, findings indicated larger benefits following a higher number of repetitions per exercise and longer time under stretching per session as well as longer total time under stretching.
... Furthermore, although the contralateral limb served as a control (i.e., a possibility of cross-education effects), no regular control group was included in the study design. Kokkonen et al. [33] showed that stretching of the lower extremity using three × 15 s with about 15 stretching exercises 3 days per week with a weekly volume of 120 min increased the jumping height by 3.9% (d = 0.14), and the jumping distance in the standing long-jump by 2.2% (d = 0.11). While significant, both increases were of trivial magnitudes for an effect. ...
... The results of this study are in accordance with previous literature showing increases in MSt and ROM [23][24][25][26]33] and increases in jumping performance [32,33] due to longterm stretching interventions. It is well-accepted that stretch training leads to significant increases in flexibility with a dose-response relationship [41][42][43]. ...
... The results of this study are in accordance with previous literature showing increases in MSt and ROM [23][24][25][26]33] and increases in jumping performance [32,33] due to longterm stretching interventions. It is well-accepted that stretch training leads to significant increases in flexibility with a dose-response relationship [41][42][43]. ...
There are many reasons for reduced physical activity leading to reduced maximal strength and sport-specific performance, such as jumping performance. These include pandemic lockdowns, serious injury, or prolonged sitting in daily work life. Consequently, such circumstances can contribute to increased morbidity and reduced physical performance. Therefore, a demand for space-saving and home-based training routines to counteract decreases in physical performance is suggested in the literature. This study aimed to investigate the possibility of using daily static stretching using a stretching board to counteract inactivity-related decreases in performance. Thirty-five (35) participants were either allocated to an intervention group (IG), performing a daily ten-minute stretch training combined with reduced physical activity or a reduced physical activity-only group (rPA). The effects on maximal voluntary contraction, range of motion using the knee-to-wall test, countermovement jump height (CMJheight), squat jump height (SJheight), drop jump height (DJheight), contact time (DJct) and the reactive strength index (DJRSI) were evaluated using a pre-test-post-test design. The rPA group reported reduced physical activity because of lockdown. Results showed significant decreases in flexibility and jump performance (d = −0.11–−0.36, p = 0.004–0.046) within the six weeks intervention period with the rPA group. In contrast, the IG showed significant increases in MVC90 (d = 0.3, p < 0.001) and ROM (d = 0.44, p < 0.001) with significant improvements in SJheight (d = 0.14, p = 0.002), while no change was measured for CMJheight and DJ performance. Hence, 10 min of daily stretching seems to be sufficient to counteract inactivity-related performance decreases in young and healthy participants.
... Concerning other chronic flexibility treatments, such as static stretch training, previous studies report conflicting results on performance parameters. While some report no significant changes [12,13,[36][37][38], others report an increase in performance parameters [15,[39][40][41][42][43]. However, in most of the studies which reported an increase in performance, either an inactive population was used as a sample [39], or a high volume or high intensity stretching protocol was applied [14,15]. ...
... While some report no significant changes [12,13,[36][37][38], others report an increase in performance parameters [15,[39][40][41][42][43]. However, in most of the studies which reported an increase in performance, either an inactive population was used as a sample [39], or a high volume or high intensity stretching protocol was applied [14,15]. Concerning the inactive population, simply holding the position during a stretching exercise with the contralateral limb (e.g., when considering the classical quadriceps stretch in a standing position), rather than the stretching stimulus, can result in such an increase in performance in the long-term [39]. ...
... However, in most of the studies which reported an increase in performance, either an inactive population was used as a sample [39], or a high volume or high intensity stretching protocol was applied [14,15]. Concerning the inactive population, simply holding the position during a stretching exercise with the contralateral limb (e.g., when considering the classical quadriceps stretch in a standing position), rather than the stretching stimulus, can result in such an increase in performance in the long-term [39]. However, Panidi et al. [15] recently found an increase in jump performance in adolescent female volleyball players. ...
Foam rolling (FR) is a new and popular technique for increasing range of motion. While there are a few studies that demonstrate increased performance measures after an acute bout of FR, the overall evidence indicates trivial performance benefits. As there have been no meta-analyses on the effects of chronic FR on performance, the objective of this systematic meta-analytical review was to quantify the effects of FR training on performance. We searched PubMed, Scopus, the Cochrane library, and Web of Science for FR training studies with a duration greater than two weeks, and found eight relevant studies. We used a random effect meta-analysis that employed a mixed-effect model to identify subgroup analyses. GRADE analysis was used to gauge the quality of the evidence obtained from this meta-analysis. Egger’s regression intercept test (intercept 1.79; p = 0.62) and an average PEDro score of 6.25 (±0.89) indicated no or low risk of reporting bias, respectively. GRADE analysis indicated that we can be moderately confident in the effect estimates. The meta-analysis found no significant difference between FR and control conditions (ES = −0.294; p = 0.281; I2 = 73.68). Analyses of the moderating variables showed no significant differences between randomized control vs. controlled trials (Q = 0.183; p = 0.67) and no relationship between ages (R2 = 0.10; p = 0.37), weeks of intervention (R2 = 0.17; p = 0.35), and total load of FR (R2 = 0.24; p = 0.11). In conclusion, there were no significant performance changes with FR training and no specific circumstances leading to performance changes following FR training exceeding two weeks.
... Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11621 2 of 11 a significant increase in MSt due to a long-term static stretching intervention [17,20,21]. Yahata et al. [22] found a significant increase in MSt of 6.4 ± 9.9% in the calf muscles within a five-week period by stretching twice a week with durations of 6 × 5 min using a stretching board. ...
... Yahata et al. [22] found a significant increase in MSt of 6.4 ± 9.9% in the calf muscles within a five-week period by stretching twice a week with durations of 6 × 5 min using a stretching board. In addition, Kokkonen et al. [20], Nelson et al. [17] and Mizuno et al. [23] were able to achieve significant MSt increases of 15.3% to 32.4% due to stretch training for up to ten weeks, while other studies investigated the effects of a daily stretching routine on concentric peak torque and found significant increases of 9.3% [24] and 11% [16], respectively. ...
... While Nelson and colleagues [17] assumed the cause of the MSt increase in the contralateral leg to be the stabilization of the body during the stretch training, such an effect can be excluded in the present work because the stretching intervention was performed in a seated position. The comparatively high MSt increases of 29% in the intervention leg as well as 11% in the control leg reported by Nelson et al. [17], as well as in Kokkonen et al. [20], can possibly be attributed to the conditional training status of the participants, if the authors attribute the MSt increases in the non-intervened leg to the stabilization of the body during the stretch training. In trained participants, no MSt increase would be expected due to the stabilizing activity during stretch training. ...
Rebuilding strength capacity is of crucial importance in rehabilitation since significant atrophy due to immobilization after injury and/or surgery can be assumed. To increase maximal strength (MSt) strength training is commonly used. Literature from animal studies shows that long-lasting static stretching (LStr) interventions can also produce significant improvements in MSt with a dose-response relationship with stretching times from 30 min to 24 hours per day, however, there is limited evidence in human studies. Consequently, the aim of this study is to investigate the dose-response relationship of long-lasting static stretching on MSt. 70 active participants (f=30, m=39; age: 27.4±4.4years, height: 175.8±2.1cm, and weight: 79.5±5.9kg) were divided into three groups: IG1 and IG 2 both performed unilateral stretching continuously for one (IG1) or two hours (IG2) respectively per day for six weeks, while CG served as non-intervened control. MSt was determined in the plantar flexors in the intervened as well as in the non-intervened control leg to investigate the contralateral force transfer. Two-way ANOVA showed significant interaction ef-fects for MSt in the intervened leg (ƞ²=0.325, p<0.001) and in the contralateral control leg (ƞ²=0.123, p=0.009) dependent upon stretching time. From this, it can be hypothesized that the stretching duration has an influence on MSt increases but both durations were sufficient to induce significant enhancements in MSt. Thus, possible applications in rehabilitation can be assumed, e. g. if no strength training can be performed meaning atrophy could be reduced by performing long-lasting static stretching training.
... Diversos autores han postulado sobre los beneficios de poseer adecuados niveles de esta capacidad, a partir de su impacto positivo sobre las producciones de fuerzavelocidad durante las contracciones musculares (Del Rio Valdivia et al., 2015;Hunter & Marshall, 2001;Kokkonen et al., 2007Kokkonen et al., y 2010, motivo por el cual se determinó conocer los niveles de esta capacidad en un grupo de atletas de Boxeo y Muay Thai. Luego de evaluar la Flexibilidad a partir del método Flexitest (Araujo, 2005(Araujo, y 2008 en una muestra compuesta por 10 competidores de estas disciplinas, y tras el análisis de los resultados, se evidenciaron los niveles más bajos de rangos de movimiento (ROM) en las zonas de tobillo, muñeca y hombro. ...
... En el ámbito del deporte, mejoras en la Flexibilidad podrían relacionarse con aumentos en la capacidad para aplicar fuerza muscular y lograr acciones más potentes (Kokkonen et al., 2007(Kokkonen et al., y 2010Shrier, 2004). ...
... En diversas investigaciones se hace mención sobre los beneficios en el rendimiento de distintos gestos tras la implementación de programas para la mejora de la Flexibilidad (Del Río Valdivia et al., 2015;Hunter & Marshall, 2001;Kokkonen et al., 2007Kokkonen et al., y 2010, pero en ninguno de los casos se han evaluado parámetros específicos de los gestos del golpeo en deportes de combate. Por este motivo, en el presente estudio se ha indagado sobre la relación entre mejoras de Flexibilidad y las producciones de Velocidad de los golpes de puño rectos. ...
El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar los resultados de la implementación de un programa para el desarrollo de la Flexibilidad en atletas de Boxeo y Muay Thai, sobre la ROM articulares y la producción de Velocidad de los golpes rectos de puño. Se utilizó una metodología cuantitativa con un diseño de investigación preexperimental de corte longitudinal. A partir de la evaluación de la Flexibilidad en 10 atletas de Boxeo y Muay Thai utilizando el método Flexitest, y tras evidenciar los niveles más bajos de esta capacidad en las zonas de tobillo, hombro y muñeca, se desarrolló un programa de entrenamiento de 6 semanas de duración utilizando los métodos dinámico, estático y FNP para el entrenamiento de estas zonas. También se evaluaron las Velocidades pico alcanzadas por los participantes en golpes de puño rectos lanzados al aire. Se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas al comparar los rangos articulares pre y post programa de entrenamiento de la Flexibilidad en las articulaciones de tobillo y hombro (p=0.006 y p=0.005, respectivamente). Con respecto a la Velocidad no se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en ninguno de los gestos evaluados. La fuerza de asociación resultó de baja a nula al correlacionar la Flexibilidad y producción de Velocidad de los gestos. Si bien se mejoró la Flexibilidad de hombros y tobillos, la Velocidad de los gestos de golpeo no se vio modificada y no se pudo considerar una asociación entre ambas variables.
... In addition, literature shows significant improvements in maximal strength up to 32.4% in leg extension by stretching the lower extremity. For this, a 40-min stretching workout was performed three times per week which was divided into 15 different stretching exercises for lower extremities, each hold for 3 × 15 s (Kokkonen et al., 2007). Highest stretching duration was performed by by stretching the plantar flexors with a specific stretching board for 30 min per session, each session twice a week for 5 weeks. ...
... Furthermore, Panidi et al. (2021) and Kokkonen et al. (2007) demonstrated improvements in jumping performance of up to 22% (Panidi et al., 2021). While Nunes et al. (2020) point out that low intensity stretching intervention is not a sufficient stimulus to induce muscular hypertrophy, Panidi et al. (2021) examined an enhancement in muscle thickness of 23% due to a stretching training for 12 weeks in volleyball players. ...
... While there are studies showing positive effects of stretching interventions on maximal strength (Kokkonen et al., 2007;Nelson et al., 2012;Mizuno, 2019;Yahata et al., 2021) and muscle thickness (Abdel-Aziem & Mohammad, 2012;Moltubakk et al., 2021), there are also studies showing no effects on strength capacity (Sato et al., 2020;Nakamura et al., 2021), hypertrophy and muscle architecture Yahata et al., 2021). Assuming significant influence of stretching intensity on adaptations of the muscle-tendon unit (Apostolopoulos et al., 2015;Nakamura et al., 2021) partially differences in results may be explainable due to heterogeneity in study design of these studies. ...
Background: In animal studies long-term stretching interventions up to several hours per day have shown large increases in muscle mass as well as maximal strength. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a long-term stretching on maximal strength, muscle cross sectional area (MCSA) and range of motion (ROM) in humans.
Methods: 52 subjects were divided into an Intervention group (IG, n = 27) and a control group (CG, n = 25). IG stretched the plantar flexors for one hour per day for six weeks using an orthosis. Stretching was performed on one leg only to investigate the contralateral force transfer. Maximal isometric strength (MIS) and 1RM were both measured in extended knee joint. Furthermore, we investigated the MCSA of IG in the lateral head of the gastrocnemius (LG) using sonography. Additionally, ROM in the upper ankle was investigated via the functional “knee to wall stretch” test (KtW) and a goniometer device on the orthosis. A two-way ANOVA was performed in data analysis, using the Scheffé Test as post-hoc test.
Results: There were high time-effects (p = 0.003, ƞ² = 0.090) and high interaction-effect (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0.387) for MIS and also high time-effects (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0.193) and interaction-effects (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0,362) for 1RM testing. Furthermore, we measured a significant increase of 15.2% in MCSA of LG with high time-effect (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0.545) and high interaction-effect (p=0.015, ƞ²=0.406). In ROM we found in both tests significant increases up to 27.3% with moderate time-effect (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0.129) and high interaction-effect (p < 0.001, ƞ²=0.199). Additionally, we measured significant contralateral force transfers in maximal strength tests of 11.4% (p < 0.001) in 1RM test and 1.4% (p=0.462) in MIS test. Overall, there we no significant effects in control situations for any parameter (CG and non-intervened leg of IG).
Discussion: We hypothesize stretching-induced muscle damage comparable to effects of mechanical load of strength training, that led to hypertrophy and thus to an increase in maximal strength. Increases in ROM could be attributed to longitudinal hypertrophy effects, e.g., increase in serial sarcomeres. Measured cross-education effects could be explained by central neural adaptations due to stimulation of the stretched muscles.
... The American College of Sports Medicine recognises flexibility as one of five health-related components of physical fitness [4]. Muscle stretching, the primary way to improve flexibility, is widely used by coaches, athletes, and allied health, exercise and medical professionals to increase ROM [5], improve physical performance [6,7] and supposedly mitigate injury risk [8,9]. The most common, accessible and simplest form of stretching is static stretching, which involves moving a joint to near its end ROM (until a stretch sensation is felt in the muscle) and holding still [10][11][12][13]. ...
... An additional 16 studies were identified from the reference lists of the included 185 studies, of which five were eligible for inclusion. Therefore, a total of 189 studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis [7,. Figure 1 presents a flow diagram of the literature search and screening process. ...
Background
Static stretching is widely used to increase flexibility. However, there is no consensus regarding the optimal dosage parameters for increasing flexibility.
Objectives
We aimed to determine the optimal frequency, intensity and volume to maximise flexibility through static stretching, and to investigate whether this is moderated by muscle group, age, sex, training status and baseline level of flexibility.
Methods
Seven databases (CINAHL Complete, Cochrane CENTRAL, Embase, Emcare, MEDLINE, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched up to June 2024. Randomised and non-randomised controlled trials investigating the effects of a single session (acute) or multiple sessions (chronic) of static stretching on one or more flexibility outcomes (compared to non-stretching passive controls) among adults (aged ≥ 18 years) were included. A multi-level meta-analysis examined the effect of acute and chronic static stretching on flexibility outcomes, while multivariate meta-regression was used to determine the volume at which increases in flexibility were maximised.
Results
Data from 189 studies representing 6654 adults (61% male; mean [standard deviation] age = 26.8 ± 11.4 years) were included. We found a moderate positive effect of acute static stretching on flexibility (summary Hedges’ g = 0.63, 95% confidence interval 0.52–0.75, p < 0.001) and a large positive effect of chronic static stretching on flexibility (summary Hedges’ g = 0.96, 95% confidence interval 0.84–1.09, p < 0.001). Neither effect was moderated by stretching intensity, age, sex or training status, or weekly session frequency and intervention length (chronic static stretching only) [p > 0.05]. However, larger improvements were found for adults with poor baseline flexibility compared with adults with average baseline flexibility (p = 0.01). Furthermore, larger improvements in flexibility were found in the hamstrings compared with the spine following acute static stretching (p = 0.04). Improvements in flexibility were maximised by a cumulative stretching volume of 4 min per session (acute) and 10 min per week (chronic).
Conclusions
Static stretching improves flexibility in adults, with no additional benefit observed beyond 4 min per session or 10 min per week. Although intensity, frequency, age, sex and training status do not influence improvements in flexibility, lower flexibility levels are associated with greater improvement following both acute and chronic static stretching. These guidelines for static stretching can be used by coaches and therapists to improve flexibility.
Clinical Trial Registration
PROSPERO CRD42023420168.
... Trotzdem sind über den Trainingszeitraum von drei Monaten [18,29,30] und einem Jahr [20] auch langfristige Effekte möglich. Da sowohl Kraft-und Leistungssteigerungen als auch ein Ansteigen der Ruhespannung durch Langzeitdehnen nachgewiesen sind [4][5][6], könnten Wachstumsprozesse die Ursache für die Reduzierung der Muskelsehnenverletzungen in diesen Studien sein. Nach Behm [4] reduzieren vor allem Dehnprogramme mit einer Länge über fünf Minuten die Anzahl der Verletzungen. ...
... Die Ruhespannung, also die Dehnungsspannung im submaximalen Bereich, sinkt kurzfristig um 20 %. In einigen Trainingsexperimenten stieg die Ruhespannung langfristig, und es kam zu Steigerungen der Kraft und der Leistung[4,6].Da die Muskelspannungen beim Dehnen ähnlich hoch sind wie beim Krafttraining, könnte dies die Folge von Wachstumsprozessen sein. Schleip und Bayer ...
On the effect of stretching as injury prevention - an analysis with special regard to the risk of injury in various sporting activities
Abstract
Musculotendinous injuries account for a high proportion of all injuries, especially in high-speed strength sports. Both warm-up and regular stretching are expected to reduce musculotendinous injuries. An indication of the extent of reduction is given either as a percentage or as a recommendation of how many years of stretching is needed to avoid musculotendinous injuries. The figures show a wide range (5 - 54%, 5 - 23 years).
This article explains how these different figures come about and how they should be interpreted. The different risk of injury in various sports activities and the variation in the volume of training (hours per year) are of particular importance.
Twelve primary studies were mainly considered in the corresponding meta-analyses of the last few years. The meta-analyses include different primary studies. Four primary studies in particular are suitable for calculating the relative risk. This calculation shows that about one third of the musculotendinous injuries can be avoided. This result is supported by five other primary studies. It is not clear whether this reduction is caused by short-term warm-up effects or long-term adaptations. As a result, great importance should be given to warm-up stretching in sports practice (dynamic stretching) and regular stretching (all methods: dynamic – static - and contract-relax stretching). In addition to stretching, there are other measures that can reduce the risk of injury, such as eccentric strength training.
In future studies, the volume of training and the incidence of injury should be expressed in terms of injuries per 1000 hours. Since these data are missing in many primary studies, the results can hardly be compared. Furthermore, additional variables such as previous injuries should be recorded and included in a multivariate analysis.
... In humans, it is well established that SST leads to improved flexibility, but the literature shows conflicting results regarding MSt. While some authors measured long-term increases of +16.8% (p < 0.001) in the plantar flexors (4) and +32.4% in the knee extensors (p < 0.001) (5) following several weeks of stretching, others were not able to find significant increases (6,7). There are different explanatory approaches for enhanced stretch-induced MSt, such as morphological, physiological, or neural adaptation (4,8). ...
... Since CK values are not significantly different, the hypothesis that SST can lead to acute microtraumtization of the muscle is not confirmed. Increases in MSt found in the present study are in line with previous studies (4,5,(12)(13)(14) and could possibly be explained by neuronal or morphological changes due to high mechanical tensile tension. Since an increase in muscle protein synthesis due to stimulated anabolic signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR was reported in animal studies using chronic stretching (26)(27)(28), it could be speculated that similar adaptations could occur in humans. ...
Purpose
Static stretch training (SST) with long stretching durations seems to be sufficient to increase flexibility, maximum strength (MSt) and muscle thickness (MTh). However, changes in contraction properties and effects on muscle damage remain unclear. Consequently, the objective of the study was to investigate the effects of a 6-week self-performed SST on MSt, MTh, contractile properties, flexibility, and acute response of creatine kinase (CK) 3 days after SST.
Methods
Forty-four participants were divided into a control (CG, n = 22) and an intervention group (IG, n = 22), who performed a daily SST for 5 min for the lower limb muscle group. While isometric MSt was measured in leg press, MTh was examined via sonography and flexibility by functional tests. Muscle stiffness and contraction time were measured by tensiomyography on the rectus femoris. Additionally, capillary blood samples were taken in the pretest and in the first 3 days after starting SST to measure CK.
Results
A significant increase was found for MSt (p < 0.001, η² = 0.195) and flexibility in all functional tests (p < 0.001, η² > 0.310). Scheffé post hoc test did not show significant differences between the rectus femoris muscle inter- and intragroup comparisons for MTh nor for muscle stiffness and contraction time (p > 0.05, η² < 0.100). Moreover, CK was not significantly different between IG and CG with p > 0.05, η² = 0.032.
Discussion
In conclusion, the increase in MSt cannot be exclusively explained by muscular hypertrophy or the increased CK-related repair mechanism after acute stretching. Rather, neuronal adaptations have to be considered. Furthermore, daily 5-min SST over 6 weeks does not seem sufficient to change muscle stiffness or contraction time. Increases in flexibility tests could be attributed to a stretch-induced change in the muscle–tendon complex.
... Therefore, comparability of results of the present study with other investigations seems to be limited since there are differences in study designs, e. g. regarding the way in which the stretching stimulus was generated as well as weekly stretching volume. In this study, the training volume of IG30 and IG60 was significantly higher compared to other studies (19,25,29,33). Mizuno (25) performed stretching intervention on three days per week with 4x30 sec of stretching gaining 12.7% (d = 1.0) in flexibility, Kokkonen et al. (19), showed significant increases of 18.1% (d = 1.15) performing stretching for 3x15 sec per session on three days per week for 12 weeks. ...
... Mizuno (25) performed stretching intervention on three days per week with 4x30 sec of stretching gaining 12.7% (d = 1.0) in flexibility, Kokkonen et al. (19), showed significant increases of 18.1% (d = 1.15) performing stretching for 3x15 sec per session on three days per week for 12 weeks. Compared to the results of this study showing increases of 10.02% with stretching durations of ten and 30 min per day, listed results of studies using short-time stretching interventions seem to be comparatively high (19,25,29,31). It seems that different factors influence results of stretching training, e.g. ...
To improve flexibility, stretching is most commonly used and in training interventions
duration-dependent effects are hypothesized. However, there are strong limitations in used stretching protocols in most studies, particularly regarding documentation of intensity and performed procedure. Thus, aim of this study was to compare different stretching durations on flexibility in the plantar flexors and to exclude potential biases. Eighty subjects were divided into four groups performing daily stretching training of 10min (IG10), 30min (IG30) and 1h (IG60) and one control group (CG). Flexibility was measured in bended and extended knee joint. Stretching was performed with a calf muscle stretching orthosis to ensure long-lasting stretching training. Data were analysed with a two-way ANOVA for repeated measures on two variables. Two-way ANOVA showed significant effects for time (ƞ2=0.557-0.72, p<0.001) and significant interaction effects for time x group (ƞ2=0.39-0.47, p<0.001). Flexibility in the knee to wall stretch improved with 9.89-14.46% d=0.97-1.49 and 6.07-16.39% with d=0.38-1.27 when measured via the goniometer of the orthosis. All stretching times led to significant increases in flexibility in both tests. While there were no significant differences measured via the knee to wall stretch between the groups, the range of motion measurement via the goniometer of the orthosis showed significantly higher improvements in flexibility depending on stretching duration with the highest increase in both tests with 60 minutes of stretch per day.
... Although there were some heterogeneity, most longitudinal studies found either increase or no change in muscle strength following flexibility training, mainly for the lower limb muscles [14,28,29]. Recently, a review of 25 studies indicated that flexibility training may increase strength as measured during isotonic contractions, but no improvement on strength was seen as measured using isometric contractions test [30]. ...
... Male participants in our study may have better neural recruitment pattern and the effect of training on nervous system was relatively low, therefore no strength gain was observed in male participants. As previously mentioned, strength gain by flexibility training was mostly studied in old or sedentary adults, and those are individuals considered to have low strength to begin with [16,28]. This study has shown that the increase in strength is mainly due to muscle hypertrophy and increased recruitment of neurons, and improvement in neuron recruitment generally happens at the early stage of training [38]. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of multi-modal strength training or flexibility training on hamstring flexibility and strength in young males and females. A total of 20 male and 20 female college students (aged 18–24 years) participated in this study and were randomly assigned to either a multi-modal flexibility intervention group or strength intervention group. Passive straight leg raise and isokinetic strength test were performed before and after the intervention to determine flexibility and strength of the participants. Multivariate repeated-measure ANOVA was used to determine the effect of training group and gender on hamstring strength and flexibility. Both male and female participants in the strength intervention group significantly increased peak torque, relative peak torque, and flexibility (all p ≤ 0.029). Both male and female participants in the flexibility intervention group significantly increased flexibility (both p ≤ 0.001). Female participants in the flexibility intervention group significantly increased peak torque and relative peak torque (both p ≤ 0.023). However, no change was seen in peak torque and relative peak torque of male participants in the flexibility intervention group (p ≥ 0.676). An 8-week strength training program involving various training components can increase flexibility in both males and females, although the flexibility of male participants only increased slightly. While hamstring flexibility training protocol consisted of different types of stretching improved both flexibility and strength in female participants, male participants increased only flexibility but not strength, indicating such effects were gender-specific. For subjects with relatively low strength (e.g., older adults, sedentary women, postoperative rehabilitation population, etc.), strength training alone or flexibility training alone may increase both strength and flexibility.
... Nelson et al. [43] demonstrated a 29% increase in maximal strength after stretching the calf muscles for 4 × 30 s, 3 days a week for 10 weeks. In addition, Kokkonen et al. [34] achieved significant improvements in various performance tests, such as 1 RM knee extension and knee flexion, standing long jump, and high jump, with static stretching for 40 min per session, 3 days per week for 10 weeks. ...
... Schoenfeld [51, p. 2862] also refers to the possibility to induce sufficient mechanical tension to induce morphological adaptations using stretching training: "Mechanically induced tension produced both by force generation and stretch is considered essential to muscle growth, and the combination of these stimuli appears to have a pronounced additive effect". Consequently, there are some studies pointing out improvements in sport-specific parameters as jumping and sprinting [34,44], maximal strength [41,43,70] and muscle thickness [44,53] using stretching durations of up to 6 × 5 min [70] for up to 12 weeks [44]. However, there is still a lack of human studies on the effects of long-lasting stretching interventions for many weeks on muscular hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and force development. ...
Muscular hypertrophy depends on metabolic exhaustion as well as mechanical load on the muscle. Mechanical tension seems to be the crucial factor to stimulate protein synthesis. The present meta-analysis was conducted to determine whether stretching can generate adequate mechanical tension to induce muscle hypertrophy. We used PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus to search for literature examining the effects of long-term stretching on muscle mass, muscle cross-sectional area, fiber cross-sectional area, and fiber number. Since there was no sufficient number of studies investigating long-lasting stretching in humans, we only included original animal studies in the current meta-analysis. Precisely, we identified 16 studies meeting the inclusion criteria (e. g. stretching of at least 15 minutes per day). The 16 studies yielded 39 data points for muscle mass, 11 data points for muscle cross-sectional area, 20 data points for fiber cross-sectional area, and 10 data points for fiber number. Across all designs and categories, statistically significant increases were found for muscle mass (d = 8.51; 95% CI 7.11-9.91), muscle cross-sectional area (d = 7.91; 5.75-10.08), fiber cross-sectional area (d = 5.81; 4.32-7.31), and fiber number (d = 4.62; 2.54-6.71). The findings show an (almost) continuous positive effect of long-term stretching on the listed parameters, so that it can be assumed that stretch training with adequate intensity and duration leads to hypertrophy and hyperplasia, at least in animal studies. A general transferability to humans – certainly with limited effectiveness – can be hypothesized but requires further research and training studies.
... Static stretching (SS) is commonly used in sporting and clinical settings to increase joint range of motion (ROM) with the intention of improving physical performance [1,2] and reducing the risk of injury [3]. Although its role in performance and injury is controversial, [4][5][6][7][8] it is universally agreed that SS improves ROM [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. ...
Background
Static stretching (SS) is routinely used in sports and clinical settings to increase joint range of motion (ROM). However, the mechanisms underlying improvements in ROM remain unclear.
Objective
We aimed to determine the effects of a single session (acute) and multiple sessions (chronic) of SS on stretch tolerance, passive stiffness and fascicle length, and whether such effects are moderated by specific training parameters and participant characteristics. A secondary aim was to explore the mechanisms associated with improved ROM.
Methods
Seven databases (CINAHL Complete, Cochrane CENTRAL, Embase, Emcare, MEDLINE, Scopus and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched up to 6 June, 2024. Randomised and non-randomised controlled trials investigating the effects of acute (single session) or chronic (two or more sessions) SS on muscle–tendon unit structure (fascicle length), mechanical properties (stiffness) or stretch tolerance (maximum tolerable passive resistive torque) compared to non-stretching passive controls (adults aged ≥ 18 years) were included. The effects of SS were examined using a multi-level meta-analysis, with associations between changes in maximum tolerable passive resistive torque, stiffness and fascicle length with improvements in ROM examined using multivariate meta-regression.
Results
Data from 65 studies representing 1542 adults (71% male; mean ± standard deviation age = 26.1 ± 11 years) were included. We found a small decrease in overall stiffness following both acute (Hedges’ g = 0.42, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.21, 0.63, p < 0.001) and chronic SS (Hedges’ g = 0.37, 95% confidence interval 0.18, 0.56, p < 0.001), and a moderate increase in maximum tolerable passive resistive torque following chronic SS (Hedges’ g = 0.74, 95% CI 0.38, 1.10, p < 0.001). Neither acute nor chronic SS had a significant effect on fascicle length. For acute SS, greater reductions in overall stiffness were found with moderate (p < 0.002) and high SS intensities (p = 0.02) compared with low-intensity SS, and in individuals with normal flexibility compared with those with poor flexibility at baseline (p < 0.001). Conversely, the effects of chronic SS on overall stiffness and maximum tolerable passive resistive torque were not moderated by stretching intensity, intervention length, baseline flexibility or sex (p > 0.05). Last, improved ROM following chronic SS was significantly associated with both decreased overall stiffness (g = 0.59, 95% CI 0.08, 1.10, p = 0.03) and increased maximum tolerable passive resistive torque (g = 0.74, 95% CI 0.41, 1.09, p < 0.001).
Conclusions
While both acute and chronic SS reduced overall stiffness, stretch tolerance only increased following chronic SS. Neither acute nor chronic SS altered fascicle length. The effect of acute SS on reduced overall stiffness was greater when stretching at a moderate or higher intensity and in those with normal flexibility. Increased ROM was significantly associated with decreased overall stiffness and increased stretch tolerance following chronic SS. Understanding the mechanisms underlying SS will assist coaches and clinicians in deciding whether and when to prescribe SS to their athletes and patients.
Clinical Trial Registration
PROSPERO CRD42023420168.
... Participants were instructed to fix their hands on the wall in each hand position, move the upper trunk downward as far as they could without pain, and hold a maximal stretching position for 15 seconds. 18,33,34 Then, they repeated the exercise protocol with the other hand positions ( Figure 1). Thus, the total stretching duration was 45 seconds, with a 10-second rest period between the trials as required. ...
Background: The decreased flexibility could attribute numerous adverse impacts to daily functions and risk of joint injury, especially in the joint with a large range of motion (ROM), such as that of the shoulder. Current management to increase shoulder flexibility mostly face the problems of regular adherence due to the need for expert guidance and the requirement of specific and numerous poses that are difficult to remember and time-consuming.
... Static stretching (SS) is frequently used in athletic, fitness, and clinical settings to increase joint range of motion (ROM) [1,2]. Additionally, SS aims to mitigate injury incidence [3][4][5] and improve athletic performance [5][6][7]. Despite some studies showing that prolonged SS can acutely impair muscle strength and power, particularly when the total duration of the exercise per muscle group exceeds 60 s [4,8], a recent systematic review with meta-analysis of 41 controlled trials indicated that chronic SS has the potential to improve muscle strength and power in healthy individuals [9]. ...
Background
The chronic effect of static stretching (SS) on muscle hypertrophy is still unclear. This study aimed to examine the chronic effects of SS exercises on skeletal muscle hypertrophy in healthy individuals.
Methods
A systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and SPORTDiscus databases up to July 2023. Included studies examined chronic effects of SS exercise compared to an active/passive control group or the contralateral leg (i.e., utilizing between- or within-study designs, respectively) and assessed at least one outcome of skeletal muscle hypertrophy in healthy individuals with no age restriction.
Results
Twenty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. Overall, findings indicated an unclear effect of chronic SS exercises on skeletal muscle hypertrophy with a trivial point estimate (standardised mean difference [SMD] = 0.118 [95% prediction interval [95% PI] = − 0.233 to 0.469; p = 0.017]) and low heterogeneity (I² = 24%). Subgroup analyses revealed that trained individuals (β = 0.424; 95% PI = 0.095 to 0.753) displayed larger effects compared to recreationally trained (β = 0.115; 95% PI = − 0.195 to 0.425) and sedentary individuals (β = − 0.081; 95% PI = − 0.399 to 0.236). Subanalysis suggested the potential for greater skeletal muscle hypertrophy in samples with higher percentages of females (β = 0.003, [95% confidence interval [95% CI] = − 0.000 to 0.005]). However, the practical significance of this finding is questionable. Furthermore, a greater variety of stretching exercises elicited larger increases in muscle hypertrophy (β = 0.069, [95% CI = 0.041 to 0.097]). Longer durations of single stretching exercises (β = 0.006, [95% CI = 0.002 to 0.010]), time under stretching per session (β = 0.006, [95% CI = 0.003 to 0.009]), per week (β = 0.001, [95% CI = 0.000 to 0.001]) and in total (β = 0.008, [95% CI = 0.003 to 0.013]) induced larger muscle hypertrophy. Regarding joint range of motion, there was a clear positive effect with a moderate point estimate (β = 0.698; 95% PI = 0.147 to 1.249; p < 0.001) and moderate heterogeneity (I² = 43%). Moreover, findings indicated no significant association between the gains in joint range of motion and the increase in muscle hypertrophy (β = 0.036, [95% CI = − 0.123 to 0.196]; p = 0.638).
Conclusions
This study revealed an overall unclear chronic effect of SS on skeletal muscle hypertrophy, although interpretation across the range of PI suggests a potential modest beneficial effect. Subgroup analysis indicated larger stretching-induced muscle gains in trained individuals, a more varied selection of SS exercises, longer mean duration of single stretching exercise, increased time under SS per session, week, and in total, and possibly in samples with a higher proportion of females. From a practical perspective, it appears that SS exercises may not be highly effective in promoting skeletal muscle hypertrophy unless a higher duration of training is utilized.
PROSPERO registration number: CRD42022331762.
... SLJ is often used for performance evaluation 15) . One practice session was performed as pre-measurement, and then 2 measurements each were taken at the pre, post SJ, and post I time points. ...
Purpose] The intensity of active recovery (AR) for performance recovery is often determined using breath gas analyzers and other special equipment. However, such procedures are difficult to perform in the field or where facilities are inadequate. Although several AR methods using simple patient-derived information have been proposed, only a few have specifically addressed their immediate effects. The present study aimed to quantify the immediate effects of AR, which was determined using the maximum exercise capacity calculated using a physical fitness test without specialized devices. [Participants and Methods] Thirty-two healthy male participants were equally divided into AR and control groups. Each group performed squat jumps, followed by a recovery intervention of jogging at a set intensity in the AR group or rest in a seated position in the control group. Standing long jumps performed before and after the squat jumps as well as after the intervention were analyzed. [Results] The recovery rate for standing long jumps was significantly higher in the AR group than in the control group. [Conclusion] The results of this pilot study indicate that the implementation of AR based on maximum exercise capacity may enhance performance recovery and requires further validation in larger studies.
... Static stretching showed a small positive effect on maximal strength (d = 0.30, p < 0.001, 95% CI 0.14 to 0. 46 Fig. 4). The certainty about the evidence is low. ...
Background
Increases in maximal strength and muscle volume represent central aims of training interventions. Recent research suggested that the chronic application of stretch may be effective in inducing hypertrophy. The present systematic review therefore aimed to syntheisize the evidence on changes of strength and muscle volume following chronic static stretching.
Methods
Three data bases were sceened to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis. Studies using randomized, controlled trials with longitudinal (≥ 2 weeks) design, investigating strength and muscle volume following static stretching in humans, were included. Study quality was rated by two examiners using the PEDro scale.
Results
A total of 42 studies with 1318 cumulative participants were identified. Meta-analyses using robust variance estimation showed small stretch-mediated maximal strength increases (d = 0.30 p < 0.001) with stretching duration and intervention time as significant moderators. Including all studies, stretching induced small magnitude, but significant hypertrophy effects (d = 0.20). Longer stretching durations and intervention periods as well as higher training frequencies revealed small (d = 0.26–0.28), but significant effects (p < 0.001–0.005), while lower dosage did not reach the level of significance (p = 0.13–0.39).
Conclusions
While of minor effectiveness, chronic static stretching represents a possible alternative to resistance training when aiming to improve strength and increase muscle size. As a dose-response relationship may exist, higher stretch durations and frequencies as well as long program durations should be further elaborated.
... voBla reflects peripheral aerobic training adaptations and is associated with an increased capillary density and capacity to transport lactate and h+ ions. 6,15 Therefore, to improve rSa, it appears prudent to target the development of voBla. ...
This case study provides a unique insight into a Championship League (CL) team’s match performance, as well as hormone and neuromuscular responses across a typical competitive week.
... In the treatment and prevention of sports injuries, as well as in the development of improved sports programs for injury prevention, static stretching (SS) is very important for the efficient rehabilitation of joints [3,[30][31][32][33][34]. Based on the latest scientific findings, especially on the biomechanical contributions in this field, new preventive and therapeutic measures for avoiding stiffness and motion impairment in the joints can be adopted during the early stages of diseases [2,9,15]. ...
Characterized in biomedical terms, stretching exercises have been defined as movements applied by external and/or internal forces to increase muscle and joint flexibility, decrease muscle stiffness, elevate the joint range of motion (ROM), increase the length of the “muscle–tendon” morpho-functional unit, and improve joint, muscle, and tendon movements, contraction, and relaxation. The present review examines and summarizes the initial and recent literature data related to the biomechanical, physiological, and therapeutic effects of static stretching (SS) on flexibility and other physiological characteristics of the main structure and the “joint–ligament–tendon–muscle” functional unit. The healing and therapeutic effects of SS, combined with other rehabilitation techniques (massage, foam rolling with and without vibrations, hot/cold therapy, etc.), are discussed in relation to the creation of individual (patient-specific) or group programs for the treatment and prevention of joint injuries, as well as for the improvement of performance in sports. From a theoretical point of view, the role of SS in positively affecting the composition of the connective tissue matrix is pointed out: types I–III collagen syntheses, hyaluronic acid, and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) turnover under the influence of the transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β-1). Different variables, such as collagen type, biochemistry, elongation, and elasticity, are used as molecular biomarkers. Recent studies have indicated that static progressive stretching therapy can prevent/reduce the development of arthrogenic contractures, joint capsule fibrosis, and muscle stiffness and requires new clinical applications. Combined stretching techniques have been proposed and applied in medicine and sports, depending on their long- and short-term effects on variables, such as the ROM, EMG activity, and muscle stiffness. The results obtained are of theoretical and practical interest for the development of new experimental, mathematical, and computational models and the creation of efficient therapeutic programs. The healing effects of SS on the main structural and functional unit—“joint–ligament–tendon–muscle”—need further investigation, which can clarify and evaluate the benefits of SS in prophylaxis and the treatment of joint injuries in healthy and ill individuals and in older adults, compared to young, active, and well-trained persons, as well as compared to professional athletes.
... Self-stretching exercises decreased muscle spasms on the concave side and hyperactivity, and corrected the curvature of the lumbar region by lengthening the shortened muscles [9]. Stretching exercises can improve the yield of sports practices in the young [10][11][12], besides reducing workrelated musculoskeletal pain in adults [13]. Self-stretching interventions can reduce the burden of upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders depending on their training, knowledge, and experiences. ...
Background
Smart-bar device (SBD) is a newly developed device to measure the body range of motion (ROM) by a kinetic sensor and to provide an exercise program with augmented reality (AR) guidance of body-frame image and audio feedback by mobile application.
Objective
This study aims to compare the performance of SBD with AR function with a goniometer and to verify the clinical utility of SBD with AR guide function`
Methods
Ten healthy individuals were enrolled and measured the ROM of body lateral flexion, extension, and rotation using a goniometer and SBD simultaneously. To evaluate the accuracy of an AR-guided exercise, we enrolled three patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis and measured the ROM of trunk lateral flexion and rotation during stretching exercises using SBD with or without AR guidance.
Results
Concurrent validity between the goniometer and SBD was statistically significant, with a very high correlation coefficient from r = 0.836–0.988 ( p < 0.05). All patients with scoliosis showed higher accuracy when we used SBD with AR guidance than when we used SBD without AR guidance ( p < 0.05).
Conclusions
The SBD could be a valid device to measure the joint angle of neck, shoulder, and trunk. AR guidance increased the accuracy of the stretching exercise, and mobile application of AR-guided stretching exercises with SBD should be useful for scoliosis patients to correct their posture.
... In the treatment and prevention of sport injuries, the static stretching (SS) is very important for efficient rehabilitation of joints, as well as in the development of improved sport programs for injuries prevention [3,[30][31][32][33][34]. Based on the last scientific findings and especially on biomechanical contributions in this field, new preventive and therapeutic measuresfor avoiding stiffness and motion impairment in the joints, could be adopted during the early stages of diseases [2,9,15]. ...
Characterized in biomedical terms, stretching exercises have been defined as movements applied by external and/or internal forces – to increase muscle and joint flexibility, decrease muscle stiffness, to elevate joint range of motion (ROM), to increase the length of the morpho-functional unit “muscle-tendon”, to improve joint, muscle and tendon movements, contraction and relaxa-tion. The present review examines and summarizes the initial and recent literature data related to the biomechanical, physiological and therapeutic effects of static stretching (SS) on flexibility and other physiological characteristics of the main structural and functional unit “joint-ligaments-tendon-muscle”. The healing and therapeutic effects of SS, soon combined with other rehabilitation techniques (massage, foam rolling – with and without vibrations; hot/cold therapy, etc.) are discussed in relationship to creation of individual (patient-specific) or group programs for treatment and prevention of joint injuries as well as for improving performance in sports. From a theoretical point of view, the role of SS as positively affecting the composition of the connective tissue matrix is pointed out: type I-III collagen synthesis, hyaluronic acid and glucosaminoglycans (GAGs) turnover – under influence of the transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β-1). Different variables as collagen type, biochemistry, elongation and elasticity are used as molecular biomarkers. Recent studies evaluated that the static progressive stretching therapy could prevent/reduce the development of arthrogenic contractures, joint capsule fibrosis, muscle stiffness and need new clinical applications. Combined stretch techniques are proposed and ap-plied in medicine and sports, depending on their long- and short-term effects on variables such as ROM, EMG activity, muscle stiffness, etc. The results obtained are of theoretical and practical interest for development of new experimental, mathematical and computational models and creation of efficient therapeutic programs. The healing SS effects on the main structural and functional unit – “joint-ligament-tendon-muscle” need further investigations, which could clarify and evaluate benefits of SS in prophylaxis and treatment of joint injuries - in healthy and ill in-dividuals, in older adults, as compared to young, active and well-trained persons, as well as to professional athletes.
... Long-term static stretching training is a well-known technique that is able to induce changes in the ROM of a joint [10][11][12][13]. Some studies have even reported an improvement in muscle force after a comprehensive static stretching intervention [12,[14][15][16], while others have reported no such improvement [13,17,18]. A potential mechanism for the changes, especially in ROM, is a change in stretch/pain perception after extensive stretching programs such as 10 min stretching training per week for a period of 6 weeks [13,19]. ...
Background
There is evidence that high-volume static stretching training of the lower limbs can increase the range of motion (ROM) while decreasing muscles stiffness. However, to date, there is no evidence on the effects of upper limb stretching training or its effect mechanism. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of a comprehensive 7-week static stretching training program of the pectoralis major muscle (PMa) on glenohumeral joint ROM, muscle force, and muscle stiffness.
Methods
Thirty-eight healthy, physically active participants (23 male, 15 female) were randomly assigned to either the PMa-static stretching intervention (PMa-SS) group or the control group. The PMa-SS group performed a 7-week intervention comprising three sessions a week for 15 min per session, including three static stretching exercises of the PMa for 5 min each. Before and after the intervention period, shoulder extension ROM, muscle stiffness of the PMa (pars clavicularis), and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) peak torque (evaluated at both long (MVIClong) and short (MVICshort) muscle lengths) were investigated on a custom-made testing device at 45° shoulder abduction.
Results
In the PMa-SS group, the shoulder extension ROM (+ 6%; p < 0.01; d = 0.92) and the MVIClong (+ 11%; p = 0.01; d = 0.76) increased. However, there were no significant changes in MVICshort or in PMa muscle stiffness in the PMa-SS group. In the control group, no changes occurred in any parameter.
Conclusion
In addition to the increase in ROM, we also observed an improved MVIC at longer but not shorter muscle lengths. This potentially indicates an increase in fascicle length, and hence a likely increase in sarcomeres in series.
... A potential mechanism for the increase in plantar flexion MVIC seen in the current study might be the activation of the lower limb muscles (i.e., tibialis anterior, triceps surae), to support balance during the repeated stretching and FR exercises. Kokkonen et al. (2007) suggested that the increase in muscle performance seen after 10 weeks of stretching might not be related to the stretching stimulus itself, but instead could be due to the stabilization tasks performed during stretching (e.g., standing on the contralateral leg while stretching the ipsilateral leg). Similarly, Zahiri et al. (2022) showed that the muscle activity of the core muscles during a plank or reverse plank position is similar to that with quadriceps and hamstrings FR, respectively. ...
It is known that a single bout of foam rolling (FR) or stretching can induce changes in range of motion (ROM) and performance in non-directly adjoining areas of the dorsal chain (i.e., remote effects). However, to date, it is not known if such effects exist following long-term interventions. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the remote effects of a 7-week combined stretching and FR training intervention of the plantar foot sole. Thirty-eight recreational athletes were randomly assigned to either an intervention (n = 20) or control (n = 18) group. The intervention group performed stretching and FR exercises of the plantar foot sole for 7 weeks. Before and after the intervention, the dorsiflexion ankle ROM, passive resistive torque at maximum angle (PRTmax) and at a fixed angle, as well as maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque, were measured with a dynamometer. Gastrocnemius medialis and lateralis stiffness was assessed with shear wave elastography. The results showed no interaction effect for any of the parameters. There was a time effect indicating an increase in MVIC and PRTmax, which was more pronounced in the intervention group (+ 7.4 (95% CI 2.5–12.4), + 4.5 (95% CI − 0.2–9.2)) than the control group (+ 3.6 (95% CI − 1.4–8.6), + 4.0 (95% CI − 2.2 to 10.2)). The results indicate no or minor remote effects of combined stretching and FR of the foot sole in the ankle joint. Potential non-significant changes in ROM were accompanied with an increase in stretch tolerance, but not with changes in muscle structure.
... Passive stretching techniques are used to improve flexibility and maintain muscle health by increasing the range of motion (ROM) (6). According to a systematic review, regular stretching exercises can improve the flexibility of the structures, performance, and functional activities, such as strength, jumping height, and speed (7). Additionally, myofascial release techniques are commonly used for musculoskeletal injuries in athletes (8). ...
Background: The iliotibial band (ITB) is prone to shortening in sports activities. Correcting the lack of flexibility can be a factor in improving the overall biomechanics of the body and preventing future injuries. Methods: A total of 51 semi-elite athletes (age range: 20 - 40 years) with ITB shortness confirmed by the modified Ober’s test participated in this study. The participants were randomly divided into three groups, including foam roller, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) active stretching, and a combination of foam roller and PNF stretching. Results: The mean of the active hip adduction range of motion (ROM), single-leg hop test, lateral hop test, and vertical jump in all three groups increased significantly after the intervention compared to before (P < 0.05). All three studied groups had similar changes over time, and no group was superior to the others. Conclusions: Using a foam roller, PNF active stretching technique, and a combination of both can improve hip ROM in patients with ITB shortness. As a result, the functional activities of athletes, including vertical jump, lateral hop, and single-leg hop, can be improved. Flexibility and ROM increased significantly in all three treatment groups. There is no priority between different interventions.
... Flexibility, which reflects the ability to move a joint through its complete range of motion, occupies an important role in sports, fitness, and clinical settings. More specifically, flexibility represents one of the main physical features of several sports (e.g., artistic gymnastics, ice skating, taekwondo, and karate) as it contributes to athletic performance [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Consequently, promoting flexibility due to the action of stretching (i.e., the physical act of elongating or lengthening the muscle-passively or actively) represents one of the prominent goals of training interventions in these sports. ...
The utility of flexibility as a standard component of physical fitness has recently been questioned, sparking a heated debate among scientists. More specifically, it has recently been proposed to retire flexibility as a major component of physical fitness and as a result de-emphasis stretching from exercise prescriptions. The aim of this narrative review was to summarize and discuss the most recent evidence related to the chronic effects of static stretching (SS) on muscle strength, muscle power, muscle hypertrophy, and injury prevention in healthy individuals. A literature search was conducted using the electronic databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to November 2022. We only considered studies written in English that addressed the chronic effects of SS exercises on flexibility, muscle strength, muscle power, muscle hypertrophy, or injury prevention in healthy individuals. With reference to the existing knowledge, we concluded that flexibility deserves to be further considered as a standard component of physical fitness. This is based on the findings that in addition to flexibility, long-term SS training induces positive effects on muscle strength, muscle power, and muscle hypertrophy, irrespective of age and sex. There are also indications that long-term SS training could mitigate the risk of injury, although this remains a debatable topic. Furthermore, promising evidence shows that combining resistance training with SS exercises constitutes an effective approach benefiting muscle strength and hypertrophy more than resistance training alone. In conclusion, we would not support the recent suggestion that flexibility should be retired as a standard component of physical fitness and we would advocate for a continuous emphasis on the prescription of stretching exercises.
... However, the evidence for transferability to humans seems limited as most human studies only investigated stretching durations up to a few minutes (#5 minutes) (19,23,30,35,52) showing conflicting results. Although Simpson et al. (35), Sato et al. (30), and Nakamura et al. (22) were not able to find increases in maximal strength, Nelson et al. (23), Mizuno (19), and Kokkonen et al. (15) reported significant improvements in MVC (d 5 0.46-1.24). Nunes et al. (24) reviewed many stretching studies (n 5 10) and concluded that stretching durations of a few minutes are not sufficient to induce muscular hypertrophy. ...
Animal studies show that long-lasting stretching training can lead to significant hypertrophy and increases in maximal strength. Accordingly, previous human studies found significant improvements in maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), flexibility and muscle thickness (MTh) using constant angle long-lasting stretching. It was hypothesized that long-lasting stretching with high intensity will lead to sufficient mechanical tension to induce muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength gains. This study examined muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA) via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Therefore, 45 well-trained participants (f: 17, m: 28, age: 27.7±3.0 years, height: 180.8±4.9 cm, weight: 80.4±7.2 kg) were assigned to an intervention group (IG) that stretched the plantar flexors 6x10 minutes per day for six weeks or a control group (CG). Data analysis was performed using two-way ANOVA. There was a significant Time x Group interaction in MVC (p<0.001-0.019, ƞ²=0.158-0.223), flexibility (p<0.001, ƞ²=0.338-0.446), MTh (p=0.002-0.013, ƞ²=0.125-0.172) and MCSA (p=0.003-0.014, ƞ²=0.143-0.197). Post-hoc analysis showed significant increases in MVC (d=0.64-0.76), flexibility (d=0.85-1.12) as well as in MTh (d=0.53-0.6) and MCSA (d=0.16-0.3) in IG compared to CG, thus confirming previous results in well-trained participants. Furthermore, this study improved the quality for the morphological examination by investigating both heads of the gastrocnemius with MRI and sonography. Since stretching can be used passively, an application in rehabilitation settings seems plausible, especially if no commonly used alternatives such as strength training is applicable.
... The same 10-min warm-up routine was applied to both groups, consisting of active mobilization and 30-second-long stretches for the spine, hips, knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows, and wrists [4,10,11]. The first group of patients followed a program of dynamic exercises for the deltoids, quadriceps, trunk extensions, hip extensions, elbow flexors, and gastrocnemius that lasted 30 min and were administered twice a week [4]. ...
Exercise is often recommended for fibromyalgia. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible influence and change in the pain characteristics of fibromyalgia patients when breathing exercises were added to their exercise program. A total of 106 patients were included and randomly divided into two groups. Τhe first group of patients followed a program of active exercises up to the limits of pain, lasting 30 min with a repetition of two times a week. Patients of the second group followed the same program with the addition of diaphragmatic breaths when they reached the pain limit. The patients completed three questionnaires: the Fibromyalgia Rapid Screening Tool (FiRST), the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI), and the Pain Quality Assessment Scale (PQAS)—once at the beginning, once again after three weeks of exercise, and again 3 months since the beginning of the program. Independent t-tests for the mean total change scores in pain scales demonstrated that for the second group there was a greater improvement in all pain scales, except for the PQAS Deep Pain subscale (p = 0.38). In conclusion, both groups showed significant improvement in all characteristics of the pain scales; however, the improvement of the second group was significantly higher.
... Es posible que las personas que no pueden participar en las actividades tradicionales de entrenamiento de fuerza pueda ser capaz de experimentar ganancias a través de estiramientos, que les permita una mejora en el desempeño durante el ejercicio. (Kokkonen et al., 2007). Los estiramientos no parece ser perjudicial para el rendimiento de ejercicios de alta velocidad cuando se incluyen en un calentamiento de los jugadores de fútbol profesional. ...
RESUMEN OBJETIVO: El propósito de éste estudio fue valorar el efecto agudo de diferentes protocolos de estiramiento sobre la capacidad de salto vertical y sprint de 20 metros en Seleccionados de Futbol de la Universidad San Sebastián Sede Puerto Montt. MÉTODOS: Estudio Cuasi experimental. 24 futbolistas, se asignaron en 3 grupos: Estiramiento Dinámico (ED) (n=8), Estiramiento Estático (EE) (n=8) y No Estiramiento (NE) (n=8). Después de que cada grupo realizó su respectivo protocolo de estiramiento, se evaluó: Salto vertical y Sprint de 20 metros mediante plataforma de salto. RESULTADOS: Según ANOVA, existió una mejora significativa del salto vertical usando protocolos de ED por sobre protocolos de EE y NE en; Tiempo de Vuelo (p=0,046) y velocidad de despegue (p=0,045) tras el ED por sobre el EE y altura (p=0,049) tras el ED por sobre el EE. Kruskal-Wallis indica que existen diferencias significativas entre los sprint tras los distintos protocoles de estiramiento (p=0,006), el NE aumento la velocidad de carrera expresado en un menor tiempo de recorrido (2,58 s), con respecto al ED (2,99 s) y EE (3,23 s). CONCLUSIÓN: El efecto agudo del ED es más efectivo en la capacidad de salto vertical que el protocolo de EE y NE, pero los resultados arrojados tras el sprint, plantean que él NE es incluso mejor que realizar un protocolo de ED o EE. PALABRAS CLAVE: estiramiento dinámico; estiramiento estático; salto vertical; sprint; futbol. ABSTRACT OBJETIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the acute effects of different stretching protocols on the ability of vertical jump and sprint 20 meters in a selected soccer team from the University San Sebastian in the city of Puerto Montt. METHODS: Quasi-experimental study. 24 selected soccer players were assigned into three groups: Dynamic Stretch (DS) (n = 8), Static Stretching (SS) (n = 8) and no stretch (NS) (n = 8). After each group performed their respective stretching protocol, the following criteria were evaluated: Vertical jump and sprint 20 meters by jumping platform. RESULTS: According to ANOVA, a significant improvement in vertical jumping using protocols DS above protocols in SS and NS; in Flight time (p = 0.046) and takeoff speed (p = 0.045) after the DS for about SS height (p = 0.049) after the DS on the SS. Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant differences between the various protocols sprint after stretching (p= 0,006), the NS increase running speed expressed in less travel time (2.58 sec) with respect to DS (2 , 99 sec) and SS (3.23 sec). CONCLUSION: The acute effect of DS is more effective in the vertical jumping ability than the protocol of SS and NS, but the results obtained after the sprint, indicates that NS is even a better protocol to use than DS or SS.
... Snaga i fleksibilnost su kompaktibilne jer fleksibilnost zavisi od presjeka mišića, dužine ligamenata i njihovog stanja, a snaga o tome koliko se mišić može istegnuti . Fleksibilnost obezbjeđuje bolju elastičnost mišića i veći opseg pokreta u zglobovima (Kokkonen et al., 2007), odnosno fleksibilno mišićno i vezivno tkivo omogućava opuštenija, koordinisana i kontrolisana kretanja (Medina-Jiménez, 2003). ...
Istraživanje efekata programiranog trenažnog rada tematika je istraživanja mnogih studija. Osnovni cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrđivanje efekata tromjesečnog programiranog rada na transformaciju (promjene) morfoloških karakteristika mladih košarkašica uzrasne dobi 13 – 15 godina koje redovno treniraju u ŽKK „Ljubuški“ iz Ljubuškog.
Uzorak za istraživanje obuhvatio je 88 ispitanica-mladih koarkašica uzrasne dobi 13-15 godina koje aktivno treniraju košarku u ŽKK „Ljubuški“ iz Ljubuškog.
U istraživanju je primijenjen set od 12 varijabli za procjenu morfoloških karakteristika mjerene prema uputama Internacionalnog biološkog programa (IBP). Mjerenje morfoloških varijabli izvršeno je u dvije vremenske tačke, prije realizacije programa (inicijalno) i poslije realizacije programiranog rada (finalno).
U cilju utvrđivanja efekata tromjesečnog programiranog rada na transformaciju (promjene) morfoloških karakteristika mladih košarkašica primijenjena je faktorska analiza (metod kongruencije).
Rezultati faktorske analize pokazuju da je pod utjecajem tromjesečnog programiranog rada došlo do strukturalnih promjena morfoloških karakteristika kod tretiranog uzorka ispitanica. U odnosu na inicijalno mjerenje gdje su izolovane četiri latentne dimenzije u finalnom mjerenju došlo je do kvalitenijeg grupisanja primijenjenih varijabli te su izolovane tri latentne dimenzije, odnosno došlo je do sužavanja hiperkonusa projekcije izolovanih glavnih komponenti u finalnom mjerenju u odnosu na inicijalno mjerenje.
Dobiveni rezultati istraživanja ukazuju da dobro osmišljen i programiran trenažni rad može efikasno doprinjeti željenim promjenama morfoloških karakteristika u pravcu rasta i razvoja mladih košarkašica.
... Snaga i fleksibilnost su kompaktibilne jer fleksibilnost zavisi od presjeka mišića, dužine ligamenata i njihovog stanja, a snaga o tome koliko se mišić može istegnuti . Fleksibilnost obezbjeđuje bolju elastičnost mišića i veći opseg pokreta u zglobovima (Kokkonen et al., 2007), odnosno fleksibilno mišićno i vezivno tkivo omogućava opuštenija, koordinisana i kontrolisana kretanja (Medina-Jiménez, 2003). ...
The aim of this study was "application of different passing techniques in basketball". The
aim of the study was to present ways of passing in basketball based on the analysis of selected
matches. Based on the sample of matches and the application of descriptive statistics, conclusions
were drawn: that the players are in all positions in the team, ie. the defenders mostly applied the
addition from the chest with two hands - directly, then the addition with one hand from the chest -
directly. The players on the wing position, like the defenders, mostly used the two-handed pass from
the chest - directly, then the two-handed pass over the head. The players in the center position also
mostly applied passing from the chest with two hands - directly, then passing with one hand from the
chest - directly. It can be concluded that adding is one of the most important technical elements in
basketball. Therefore, adding a lot of time and attention should be devoted to basic training in
working with children. This data, which was obtained, can help in further work with children, coaches
and physical education teachers
... Snaga i fleksibilnost su kompaktibilne jer fleksibilnost zavisi od presjeka mišića, dužine ligamenata i njihovog stanja, a snaga o tome koliko se mišić može istegnuti . Fleksibilnost obezbjeđuje bolju elastičnost mišića i veći opseg pokreta u zglobovima (Kokkonen et al., 2007), odnosno fleksibilno mišićno i vezivno tkivo omogućava opuštenija, koordinisana i kontrolisana kretanja (Medina-Jiménez, 2003). ...
The aime of this study is "Analysis of the application of blockades in basketball". The aime
of the study was to present the ways of setting up blockades, as well as their application in modern
basketball. Other goals are to analyze the application of blockades in relation to the position
(workplace) of players in the team participating in the blockades as well as their success.The tasks of
the work were collecting videos (matches), and materials, observation sheet, collecting and analyzing
data. Based on all set goals and after the analysis of videos of seven matches of the European
Championship in Poland in 2009, the quantity of application of techniques of set blockades of teams
and players in different playing positions (point guard, forward and center) was determined.
... However, the fact that there was no significant improvement is that 6 weeks of training might be a relatively short intervention period for improving muscle strength due to neurological adaptation [30]. Nevertheless, it is thought that static stretching-oriented movements contributed to the more positive increase in yoga compared to stabilization exercises [31]. ...
... Es posible que las personas que no pueden participar en las actividades tradicionales de entrenamiento de fuerza pueda ser capaz de experimentar ganancias a través de estiramientos, que les permita una mejora en el desempeño durante el ejercicio. (Kokkonen et al., 2007). Los estiramientos no parece ser perjudicial para el rendimiento de ejercicios de alta velocidad cuando se incluyen en un calentamiento de los jugadores de fútbol profesional. ...
El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el efecto de un programa de intervención en el desarrollo motor grueso, en un grupo de 46 niños y 31 niñas de párvulo, cuyas edades fluctúan entre 3 a 4 años de edad. Los niños fueron designados aleatoriamente en dos grupos: Grupo Control (GC n= 26), el cual recibió el programa regular de educación parvularia. Grupo experimental (GC n= 51), el cual recibe el programa regular de educación parvularia más una sesión semanal de 60 minutos de intervención
motriz, aplicada por un profesor de educación física, durante 12 semanas. Todos los participantes fueron evaluados con el “Test of Gross Motor Development” (TGMD-2), antes y después del estudio. Luego de los análisis realizados se concluye que el programa de intervención motriz, genero un aumento significativo en el desarrollo motor grueso, a favor del grupo experimental en las variables evaluadas en el TGMD-2, no así en la variable edad cronológica, donde no se observaron diferencias significativas. Además se observan diferencias significativas entre los varones y las damas, favoreciendo a los varones en el test locomotor y control de objetos, no así en las demás variables,
evaluadas por el TGMD-2, donde no se observaron diferencias significativas entre los varones y las damas.
Background and Purpose
Patients with chronic respiratory disease (CRD) often rely on neck muscles for breathing and contribute to poor posture, which alters the length‐tension relationship and efficiency of these muscles. Upper body flexibility and good posture can potentiate pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) protocol. The present study aims to evaluate if the addition of upper body flexibility exercises to PR benefits patients in terms of respiratory muscle performance, upper limb endurance, and daily activities.
Methods
The study protocol was approved by the institutional ethical committee before the participant enrollment. Sixty individuals with a diagnosis of chronic respiratory disease were recruited and randomly allocated to a control and experimental group. The control group received a conventional PR protocol, whereas the experimental group received upper body flexibility exercises in addition to PR for 4 weeks. Respiratory muscle performance measured as maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax), upper limb endurance (6‐Minute Pegboard and Rings Test), and activities of daily living (Barthel Index‐Dyspnea) were assessed at baseline and after 4 weeks for both the groups.
Results
Baseline values were similar for both groups. Group A had scores of 55.1 ± 6.19 for PImax and 372.0 ± 41.80 for the 6‐Minute Pegboard and Rings Test, while Group B scored 57.7 ± 6.49 and 394.0 ± 36.99, respectively ( p < 0.05), showing greater improvements in Group B. Both groups also showed similar improvements in the Barthel Index‐Dyspnea, with Group A scoring 2.61 ± 1.87 and Group B scoring 2.86 ± 1.92 at the end of 4 weeks.
Discussion
The results of the study can be attributed to improved respiratory mechanics, muscle efficiency, and reduced perceived exertion during activities. Hence, respiratory physiotherapists should incorporate upper body flexibility training in PR for better outcomes.
Trial Registration: Clinical trial registry India (CTRI/2023/09/057917)
Background
Long-term static stretching as well as foam rolling training can increase a joint’s range of motion (ROM). However, to date, it is not clear which method is the most effective for increasing ROM.
Objective
The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of static stretching and foam rolling training on ROM.
Methods
The literature search was performed in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to find the eligible studies. Eighty-five studies (72 on static stretching; and 13 on foam rolling) were found to be eligible with 204 effect sizes (ESs). For the main analyses, a random-effect meta-analysis was applied. To assess the difference between static stretching and foam rolling, subgroup analyses with a mixed-effect model were applied. Moderating variables were sex, total intervention duration, and weeks of intervention.
Results
Static stretch (ES = − 1.006; p < 0.001), as well as foam rolling training (ES = − 0.729; p = 0.001), can increase joint ROM with a moderate magnitude compared with a control condition. However, we did not detect a significant difference between the two conditions in the subgroup analysis (p = 0.228). When the intervention duration was ≤ 4 weeks, however, a significant change in ROM was shown following static stretching (ES = − 1.436; p < 0.001), but not following foam rolling (ES = − 0.229; p = 0.248). Thus, a subgroup analysis indicated a significant favorable effect with static stretching for increasing ROM compared with foam rolling (p < 0.001) over a shorter term (≤ 4 weeks). Other moderator analyses showed no significant difference between static stretch and foam rolling training on ROM.
Conclusions
According to the results, both static stretching and foam rolling training can be similarly recommended to increase joint ROM, unless the training is scheduled for ≤ 4 weeks, in which case static stretching demonstrates a significant advantage. More studies are needed with a high-volume foam rolling training approach as well as foam rolling training in exclusively female participants.
Nos últimos anos, muitos estudos foram realizados com o intuito de comprovar a eficácia de protocolos de alongamentos agudos sobre as habilidadesmotoras de força e potência muscular, no entanto seus efeitos crônicos ainda não foram totalmente elucidados na literatura. O objetivo do presente estudo foiverificar a influência de um protocolo de alongamento ativo estático crônico dos músculos quadríceps e isquiostibiais sobre a flexibilidade e as variáveis isocinéticasde força e potência em adultos praticantes de musculação, durante 12 semanas. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico randomizado (parecer número: 2.697.277), no qual aamostra foi composta por 20 adultos do sexo masculino, praticantes de musculação há no mínimo três meses. Os participantes foram avaliados quanto ao peso ealtura, força muscular da articulação do joelho (utilizando dinamômetro isocinético Biodex Multi-Joint Pro), teste de flexibilidade e avaliação de composiçãocorporal. A intervenção foi aplicada após a realização do treinamento muscular e consistiu em um programa de alongamentos estáticos ativos para os músculosisquiotibiais e quadríceps, após o treinamento de força, durante um período de 12 semanas. Observou-se um aumento para todas as variáveis de flexibilidade dogrupo intervenção, além de promover um aumento significativo das variáveis de pico de torque do membro dominante e não dominante na extensão e de potênciado membro dominante e não dominante na extensão e do membro dominante na flexão. Conclui-se que os exercícios de alongamento foram benéficos para o ganhode flexibilidade, além de constatar uma melhora nas variáveis isocinéticas do grupo intervenção nos membros dominante e não dominante em relação ao grupo controle.
Introduction: Ballet dancers have a special morphology, such as a large muscle thickness that affects passive torque. Ballet dancers also possess specialized mechanical, and neural properties of muscles and tendons. These characteristics may produce different static stretching effects than non-dancers. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the differences in the effects of static stretching on joint range of motion, passive torque, and muscle strength between ballet dancers and non-dancers. Methods: This study included 13 ballet dancers and 13 college students. The muscle and tendon thicknesses were assessed using ultrasonography. In the right lower extremity, torque-angle data and muscle-tendon junction displacement measurements were obtained during isokinetic passive dorsiflexion before and after a 5-minute static stretch against the right plantar flexors. The relative stretching intensity was calculated by dividing the stretching angle by the maximal dorsiflexion angle pre-stretch. Additionally, the isometric maximal voluntary plantar flexion torque on the left ankle was measured before and after 5 minutes of static stretching against the left plantar flexors. Results: Ballet dancers had significantly greater muscle thickness than non-dancers (22.4 ± 2.2 vs 18.1 ± 1.7 mm), whereas no significant difference was observed in the Achilles tendon thickness. No significant difference was observed in the stretching angle; however, the relative stretching intensity was higher in the control group (65.9 ± 19.8 vs 127.5 ± 63.8%). Static stretching increased the maximal dorsiflexion angle (dancer: 30.4° ± 9.6° to 33.9° ± 9.5°, non-dancer: 18.4° ± 8.6° to 20.5° ± 9.5°) and maximal passive torque in both groups, whereas the maximal isometric plantar flexion torque and submaximal passive torque decreased. However, no significant differences were observed in the changes between the groups. Conclusion: These results indicate that despite having a lower relative stretching intensity, ballet dancers experienced similar changes as non-dancers after 5 minutes of static stretching.
BACKGROUND
The acute and chronic effects of stretching preceding exercises on strength, power and muscular endurance are still not entirely clear in the literature.
OBJECTIVE
To verify the acute and chronic effects of the main types of stretching (static, dynamic, PNF, and ballistic) on muscle strength, power, and endurance.
METHODS
A systematic literature search was performed in: PubMed, Web of Science, LILACS, Scopus, Science Direct, and CENTRAL. The methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. Meta-analysis were performed using the standardized mean difference (SMD).
RESULTS
43 studies were included in the systematic review and 30 in the meta-analysis calculations. Only two studies showed high methodological quality. In general, static stretching had an impact on the potentiated the gain in muscle strength of the lower limbs in the long term (0.60 [0.20–1.00]). The acute (ES [Formula: see text] 0.38 [0.05–0.70]) and long-term (ES [Formula: see text] 1.04 [0.21–1.88]) dynamic stretching was able to potentiate the gain of muscle power in the lower limbs, while the acute PNF had an impact on the worsening of the muscular endurance (ES [Formula: see text] 1.68 [0.83–2.53]).
CONCLUSIONS
When the training objective is linked to acute effects, dynamic stretching should be prioritized before the main activity. For long-term effects, static and dynamic stretching have been shown to potentiate muscle strength and power gain, respectively, and are recommended in these cases.
The maximal number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of the one repetition maximum (1RM) [REPS ~ %1RM relationship] is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. The current REPS ~ %1RM relationship is based on few studies and has not incorporated uncertainty into estimations or accounted for between-individuals variation. Therefore, we conducted a meta-regression to estimate the mean and between-individuals standard deviation of the number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of 1RM. We also explored if the REPS ~ %1RM relationship is moderated by sex, age, training status, and/or exercise. A total of 952 repetitions-to-failure tests, completed by 7289 individuals in 452 groups from 269 studies, were identified. Study groups were predominantly male (66%), healthy (97%), < 59 years of age (92%), and resistance trained (60%). The bench press (42%) and leg press (14%) were the most commonly studied exercises. The REPS ~ %1RM relationship for mean repetitions and standard deviation of repetitions were best described using natural cubic splines and a linear model, respectively, with mean and standard deviation for repetitions decreasing with increasing %1RM. More repetitions were evident in the leg press than bench press across the loading spectrum , thus separate REPS ~ %1RM tables were developed for these two exercises. Analysis of moderators suggested little influences of sex, age, or training status on the REPS ~ %1RM relationship, thus the general main model REPS ~ %1RM table can be applied to all individuals and to all exercises other than the bench press and leg press. More data are needed to develop REPS ~ %1RM tables for other exercises.
Increasing muscle strength and cross-sectional area is of crucial importance to improve or maintain physical function in musculoskeletal rehabilitation and sports performance. Decreases in muscular performance are experienced in phases of reduced physical activity or immobilization. These decrements highlight the need for alternative, easily accessible training regimes for a sedentary population to improve rehabilitation and injury prevention routines. Commonly, muscle hypertrophy and strength increases are associated with resistance training, typically performed in a training facility. Mechanical tension, which is usually induced with resistance machines and devices is known to be an important factor that stimulates the underlying signaling pathways to enhance protein synthesis. Findings from animal studies suggest an alternative means to induce mechanical tension to enhance protein synthesis, and therefore muscle hypertrophy by inducing high volume stretching. Thus, this narrative review discusses mechanical tension-induced physiological adaptations and their impact on muscle hypertrophy and strength gains. Furthermore, research addressing stretch-induced hypertrophy is critically analyzed. Derived from animal research, stretching literature exploring the impact of static stretching on morphological and functional adaptations was reviewed and critically discussed. No studies have investigated the underlying physiological mechanisms in humans yet, and thus the underlying mechanisms remain speculative and must be discussed in the light of animal research. However, studies that reported functional and morphological increases in humans commonly used stretching durations of >30 minutes per session of the plantar flexors, indicating the importance of high stretching volume, if the aim is to increase muscle mass and maximum strength. Therefore, the practical applicability seems limited to settings without access to resistance training (e.g., in an immobilized state at the start of rehabilitation), since resistance training seems to be more
time efficient. Nevertheless, further research is needed to generate evidence in different human populations (athletes, sedentary, and rehabilitation patients) and to quantify stretching intensity.
Background:
It is well known that stretch training can induce prolonged increases in joint range of motion (ROM). However, to date more information is needed regarding which training variables might have greater influence on improvements in flexibility. Thus, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to investigate the effects of stretch training on ROM in healthy participants by considering potential moderating variables, such as stretching technique, intensity, duration, frequency, and muscles stretched, as well as sex-specific, age-specific, and/or trained state-specific adaptations to stretch training.
Methods:
We searched through PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SportDiscus to find eligible studies and, finally, assessed the results from 77 studies and 186 effect sizes by applying a random-effect meta-analysis. Moreover, by applying a mixed-effect model, we performed the respective subgroup analyses. To find potential relationships between stretch duration or age and effect sizes, we performed a meta-regression.
Results:
We found a significant overall effect, indicating that stretch training can increase ROM with a moderate effect compared to the controls (effect size = -1.002; Z = -12.074; 95% CI confidence interval: -1.165 to -0.840; p < 0.001; I2 = 74.97). Subgroup analysis showed a significant difference between the stretching techniques (p = 0.01) indicating that proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and static stretching produced greater ROM than did ballistic/dynamic stretching. Moreover, there was a significant effect between the sexes (p = 0.04), indicating that females showed higher gains in ROM compared to males. However, further moderating analysis showed no significant relation or difference.
Conclusion:
When the goal is to maximize ROM in the long term, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation or static stretching, rather than ballistic/dynamic stretching, should be applied. Something to consider in future research as well as sports practice is that neither volume, intensity, nor frequency of stretching were found to play a significant role in ROM yields.
Physical activity level (PAL) and sedentary behavior (SB) are independent predictors of mortality. It is unclear how these predictors interact with each other and health variables. Investigate the bidirectional relationship between PAL and SB, and their impact and health variables of women aged 60 to 70 years. One hundred forty-two older adults women (66.3 ± 2.9 years) considered insufficiently active were submitted to 14 weeks of multicomponent training (MT), multicomponent training with flexibility (TMF), or the control group (CG). PAL variables were analyzed by accelerometry and QBMI questionnaire, physical activity (PA) light, moderate, vigorous and CS by accelerometry, 6 min walk (CAM), SBP, BMI, LDL, HDL, uric acid, triglycerides, glucose and cholesterol total. In linear regressions, CS was associated with glucose (B:12.80; CI:9.31/20.50; p < 0.001; R²:0.45), light PA (B:3.10; CI:2, 41/4.76; p < 0.001; R²:0.57), NAF by accelerometer (B:8.21; CI:6.74/10.02; p < 0.001; R²:0.62), vigorous PA (B:794.03; CI:682.11/908.2; p < 0.001; R²:0.70), LDL (B:13.28; CI:7.45/16.75; p < 0.002; R²:0.71) and 6 min walk (B:3.39; CI:2.96/8.75; p < 0.004; R²:0.73). NAF was associated with mild PA (B:0.246; CI:0.130/0.275; p < 0.001; R²:0.624), moderate PA (B:0.763; CI:0.567/0.924; p < 0.001; R²:0.745), glucose (B:−0.437; CI:−0.789/−0.124; p < 0.001; R²:0.782), CAM (B:2.223; CI:1.872/4.985; p < 0.002; R²:0.989) and CS (B:0.253; CI: 0.189/0.512; p < 0.001; R²:1.94). The NAF can enhance CS. Build a new look at how these variables are independent but dependent simultaneously, being able to influence the quality of health when this dependence is denied.
Background Evidence regarding chronic stretching training is limited. This study aimed to review studies that performed stretching training and evaluated the effects on muscular strength.
Methods Literature search was performed using three databases. Studies were included if compared the effects on strength following stretching training versus a non-training control group or stretching training combined with resistance training (RT) versus an RT-only group, following at least 4 weeks of intervention. The quality of the studies was assessed with the Downs & Black checklist. The meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model with Hedges’ g effect size (ES).
Results A total of 35 studies (n=1179), predominantly of medium and high quality, were included in the review. The interventions were carried out over a mean period of 8 weeks (4–24 weeks), 3 to 4 days per week, applying ⁓4 sets of stretching of ~1-minute duration. The meta-analysis for the stretching vs. non-training control group showed a significant small effect on improving dynamic (k=14; ES=0.33; p=0.007) but not isometric strength (k=8; ES=0.10; p=0.377), following static stretching programs (k=17; ES=0.28; p=0.006). When stretching was added to RT interventions, the main analysis indicated no significant effect (k=17; ES=-0.15; p=0.136); however, the meta-regression revealed a significant negative association with study length, whereby the longer the intervention the greater was the impairing effect of the stretching exercises on RT-induced strength gains (β=-0.100; p=0.004).
Conclusions Chronic static stretching programs may increase dynamic muscular strength to a small magnitude. Performing stretching before RT and for a prolonged time (>8 weeks) may blunt the strength gains to a small-to-moderate magnitude. Performing stretching in sessions distant from RT sessions may be a strategy to not hinder strength development.
People with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) are severely deconditioned, inactive and exhibit substantial muscle weakness. Aerobic capacity (V˙O2 peak), muscle strength, and physical function are 60%–70% of age- and sex-matched healthy individuals. These physical performance deficits have been linked to decreased quality of life and survival. Contributors to reduced physical performance include disuse muscle atrophy, myopathy, malnutrition, and deconditioning. Systematically applied exercise training can substantially reverse these negative consequences and improve quality of life in people with CKD. This chapter reviews principles of exercise training, methods for assessing efficacy outcomes, exercise training program design, and application of these principles for individuals with CKD using evidence-based recommendations. Included are guidelines and resources for aerobic training, progressive resistance exercise training, and for enhancing flexibility, balance, and stability. The relative merits of inter- and intradialytic training are discussed along with risks, safety, and contraindications for exercise in people with CKD. Finally, a renewed call to action is proposed for physicians, the renal care team, and exercise specialists to be more engaged with patients regarding exercise, regularly emphasizing the value of physical activity and ensuring that exercise is part of routine therapy for individuals with advanced CKD.
Previous research has shown that passive muscle stretching can diminish the peak force output of subsequent maximal isometric and concentric contractions. The purpose of the present study was twofold: 1. to establish if the deleterious effect of stretching on performance also exists for a skill that relies on the rate of force production for success rather than peak force generation and 2. to determine if a similar effect exists for a movement that employs a stretch-shortening action. Ten participants performed two types of maximal vertical jump with and without prior stretching of the hip and knee extensors. Both static jumps (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ) were executed from a force platform. Jump height was calculated from the velocity at takeoff determined from the force/time data. Stretching induced a significant (p<0.05) decrease in jump height for both the SJ (4.4 ± 1.3%) and CMJ (4.3 ± 1.3%). Thus, it appears that pre-performance stretching exercises might negatively impact skills that demand a high power output in addition to those that rely simply on maximizing peak force. Furthermore, it is possible that this detrimental effect is comparable for skills that take advantage of the stretch-shortening phenomenon and those that do not.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a six week wobble board exercise training program on lower extremity strength and static balance performance. Thirty healthy young male subjects are studied. A two (groups) by four (time frames) experimental protocol was utilized. Subjects in the experimental group (n=16) were subjected to a graduated wobble board exercise program held three times a week for six weeks. The subjects in the control group (N=14) did not receive any training. The maximal isometric contraction of the right knee extensor and flexor and the right ankle dorsiflexor and plantarflexor muscles were evaluated using a cable tensiometer. The static balance performance was assessed with the eyes open and closed. The muscle strength and balance performance were monitored at different time frames. For the subject in the experimental group, the knee extensor, knee flexor, ankle dorsiflexor and ankle plantar flexor muscles isometric force had increased (p<0.05) by 56.3%, 58.6%, 133.1% and 97.3%, respectively, at the end of the training. Similarly, the balance performance for the eyes open and eyes closed condition increased (p<0.05) by 201.2% and 58.8%, respectively. On the contrary, the isometric force and balance performance of the subjects in the control group remain unchanged (p>0.05) during the duration of the study. Our findings implied that the wobble board exercise regimen can be used to strengthen weak lower extremity muscles and improve static balance of sedentary subjects.
Background
The beneficial effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on mortality are well known; however, the relation of muscular fitness, specifically muscular strength and endurance, to mortality risk has not been thoroughly examined. The purpose of the current study is to determine if a dose-response relation exists between muscular fitness and mortality after controlling for factors such as age and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Methods
The study included 9105 men and women, 20–82 years of age, in the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study who have completed at least one medical examination at the Cooper Clinic in Dallas, TX between 1981 and 1989. The exam included a muscular fitness assessment, based on 1-min sit-up and 1-repetition maximal leg and bench press scores, and a maximal treadmill test. We conducted mortality follow-up through 1996 primarily using the National Death Index, with a total follow-up of 106,046 person-years. All-cause mortality rates were examined across low, moderate, and high muscular fitness strata.
Results
Mortality was confirmed in 194 of 9105 participants (2.1%). The age- and sex-adjusted mortality rate of those in the lowest muscular fitness category was higher than that of those in the moderate fitness category (26.8 vs. 15.3 per 10,000 person-years, respectively). Those in the high fitness category had a mortality rate of 20.6 per 10,000 person-years. The moderate and high muscular fitness groups had relative risks of 0.64 (95%CI = 0.44–0.93) and 0.80 (95%CI = 0.49–1.31), adjusting for age, health status, body mass index, cigarette smoking, and cardio-respiratory fitness when compared with the low muscular fitness group.
Conclusions
Mortality rates were lower for individuals with moderate/high muscular fitness compared to individuals with low muscular fitness. These findings warrant further research to confirm the apparent threshold effect between low and moderate/high muscular fitness and all-cause mortality.
ACSM Position Stand on The Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness, and Flexibility in Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 30, No. 6, pp. 975-991, 1998. The combination of frequency, intensity, and duration of chronic exercise has been found to be effective for producing a training effect. The interaction of these factors provide the overload stimulus. In general, the lower the stimulus the lower the training effect, and the greater the stimulus the greater the effect. As a result of specificity of training and the need for maintaining muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility of the major muscle groups, a well-rounded training program including aerobic and resistance training, and flexibility exercises is recommended. Although age in itself is not a limiting factor to exercise training, a more gradual approach in applying the prescription at older ages seems prudent. It has also been shown that aerobic endurance training of fewer than 2 d·wk-1, at less than 40-50% of V˙O2R, and for less than 10 min-1 is generally not a sufficient stimulus for developing and maintaining fitness in healthy adults. Even so, many health benefits from physical activity can be achieved at lower intensities of exercise if frequency and duration of training are increased appropriately. In this regard, physical activity can be accumulated through the day in shorter bouts of 10-min durations.
In the interpretation of this position stand, it must be recognized that the recommendations should be used in the context of participant's needs, goals, and initial abilities. In this regard, a sliding scale as to the amount of time allotted and intensity of effort should be carefully gauged for the cardiorespiratory, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility components of the program. An appropriate warm-up and cool-down period, which would include flexibility exercises, is also recommended. The important factor is to design a program for the individual to provide the proper amount of physical activity to attain maximal benefit at the lowest risk. Emphasis should be placed on factors that result in permanent lifestyle change and encourage a lifetime of physical activity.
The purpose of this study was to 1) compare two commonly practiced stretching techniques to determine which is most effective for improving hip range of motion, and 2) evaluate the effect of these techniques on gait economy. Seven asymptomatic males, 18-22 years of age, served as subjects. Goniometric measurements of hip range of motion (ROM) and gait economy, as measured by submaximal oxygen consumption of walking and running on a treadmill, were taken before and after each of the two stretching procedures, (a) static stretching, and (b) soft tissue mobilization with proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (STM/PNF). Static stretching procedures resulted in significant improvements in ROM for hip extension (p < 0.01) and hip flexion (p < 0.01). The STM/PNF also resulted in significant improvements in hip extension ROM (p < 0.01) and hip flexion ROM (p < 0.05). There was a significant improvement in gait economy at 40% VO2max (p < 0.05), at 60% VO2max (p < 0.05), and at 80% VO2max (p < 0.01) following the static stretching procedure. The STM/PNF procedure improved gait economy only at one workload, 60% of VO2max (p < 0.05). These results suggest that a single bout of static stretching or STM/PNF was effective for improving hip ROM but static stretching was more effective for improving gait economy in young, asymptomatic males. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1989;10(9):350-357.
The effect of repeated strains on rat soleus muscles was investigated by stretching active muscles 3 times/wk for 4 wk with two different methods of stretching. The adaptation of myofibers and noncontractile tissue was followed by histochemical techniques and computer-assisted image analysis. Muscle hypertrophy was seen in the slow-stretched muscles, which increased in mass by 13% and increased in myofiber cross-sectional area by 30%. In the fast-stretched muscle, mass increased by 10% but myofiber cross-sectional area actually decreased. This decrease in mean fiber area was the result of a population of very small fibers (population A) that coexisted with slightly smaller normal-sized fibers (population B). Fibers in population A did not have the distribution expected from atrophy compared with atrophic fibers from unloaded muscles; they were much smaller. In addition, there was a 44% increase in noncontractile tissue in the fast-stretched muscles. Thus, soleus muscles subjected to repeated strains respond differently to slow and fast stretching. Slow stretching results in typical muscle hypertrophy, whereas fast stretching produces somewhat larger muscles but with a mixture of small and normal-sized myofibers accompanied by a marked proliferation of noncontractile tissue.
The effects of an 8-week unilateral contract-relax (CR) stretching training program (passive stretch after isometric contraction) on muscular performance were investigated in a group of 16 athletes. The flexibility, maximum torque and angular position as well as contraction work in movements of the knee joint were determined before training and after 4 and 8 weeks of training. The torque measurements were performed under isokinetic conditions, eccentrically at angular velocities of 60 degrees x s(-1) and 120 degrees x s(-1), isometrically at five different joint positions, and concentrically at angular velocities of 60, 120, 180 and 240 degrees x s(-1) using an isokinetic dynamometer. A surface electromyogram (EMG) of the thigh muscles (quadriceps and hamstrings) was recorded simultaneously. As compared to untrained control limbs, significant improvements in active and passive flexibility (up to 6.3 degrees in range of motion), maximum torque (up to 21.6%) and work (up to 12.9%) were observed, and these were especially pronounced under eccentric load conditions. A comparison between integrated EMG recordings during eccentric and concentric loads, as well as the interpretation of the training-induced changes in the EMG, suggest that muscular activity under eccentric loads may be impaired by mental processes.
Flexibility measures can be static [end of ROM (range of motion)], dynamic-passive (stiffness/compliance) or dynamic-active (muscle contracted, stiffness/compliance). Dynamic measures of flexibility are less dependent on patient discomfort and are more objective. Acute and chronic changes in flexibility are likely to occur with stretching exercises, but it is difficult to distinguish between changes in stretch tolerance as opposed to changes in muscle stiffness. How flexibility is measured impacts these findings. There is no scientifically based prescription for flexibility training and no conclusive statements can be made about the relationship of flexibility to athletic injury.
The literature reports opposing findings from different samples, frequently does not distinguish between strain, sprain and overuse injury, and rarely uses the proper denominator of exposure.There is basic scientific evidence to suggest that active warm-up may be protective against muscle strain injury but clinical research is equivocal on this point. Typically, specific flexibility patterns are associated with specific sports and even positions within sports. The relationship of flexibility to athletic performance is likely to be sport-dependent. Decreased flexibility has been associated with increased in-line running and walking economy. Increased stiffness may be associated with increased isometric and concentric force generation, and muscle energy storage may be best manifested by closely matching muscle stiffness to the frequency of movement in stretch-shorten type contractions.
Low muscle strength is associated with mortality, presumably as a result of low muscle mass (sarcopenia) and physical inactivity. Grip strength was longitudinally collected in 1071 men over a 25-year period. Muscle mass was estimated by using 24-hour creatinine excretion and physical activity values, obtained by questionnaire. Survival analysis examined the impact of grip strength and rate of change in strength on all-cause mortality over 40 years. Lower and declining strength are associated with increased mortality, independent of physical activity and muscle mass. In men <60 years, rate of loss of strength was more important than the actual levels. In men >/=60 years, strength was more protective than the rate of loss, which persisted when muscle mass was considered. Strength and rate of change in strength contribute to the impact of sarcopenia on mortality. Although muscle mass and physical activity are important, they do not completely account for the impact of strength and changes in strength.
The editorial policies of several prominent educational and psychological journals require that researchers report some measure of effect size along with tests for statistical significance. In analysis of variance contexts, this requirement might be met by using eta squared or omega squared statistics. Current procedures for computing these measures of effect often do not consider the effect that design features of the study have on the size of these statistics. Because research-design features can have a large effect on the estimated proportion of explained variance, the use of partial eta or omega squared can be misleading. The present article provides formulas for computing generalized eta and omega squared statistics, which provide estimates of effect size that are comparable across a variety of research designs.
The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of stretching applied every 3 days to the soleus muscle immobilized in the shortened position on muscle fiber morphology. Eighteen 16-week-old Wistar rats were used and divided into three groups of 6 animals each: a) the left soleus muscle was immobilized in the shortened position for 3 weeks; b) during immobilization, the soleus was stretched for 40 min every 3 days; c) the non-immobilized soleus was only stretched. Left and right soleus muscles were examined. One portion of the soleus was frozen for histology and muscle fiber area evaluation, while the other portion was used to identify the number and length of serial sarcomeres. Immobilized muscles (group A) showed a significant decrease in weight (44 +/- 6%), length (19 +/- 7%), serial sarcomere number (23 +/- 15%), and fiber area (37 +/- 31%) compared to the contralateral muscles (P < 0.05, paired Student t-test). The immobilized and stretched soleus (group B) showed a similar reduction but milder muscle fiber atrophy compared to the only immobilized group (22 +/- 40 vs 37 +/- 31%, respectively; P < 0.001, ANOVA test). Muscles submitted only to stretching (group C) significantly increased the length (5 +/- 2%), serial sarcomere number (4 +/- 4%), and fiber area (16 +/- 44%) compared to the contralateral muscles (P < 0.05, paired Student t-test). In conclusion, stretching applied every 3 days to immobilized muscles did not prevent the muscle shortening, but reduced muscle atrophy. Stretching sessions induced hypertrophic effects in the control muscles. These results support the use of muscle stretching in sports and rehabilitation.
The results of previous research have shown that passive muscle stretching can diminish the peak force output of subsequent maximal isometric, concentric and stretch-shortening contractions. The aim of this study was to establish whether the deleterious effects of passive stretching seen in laboratory settings would be manifest in a performance setting. Sixteen members (11 males, 5 females) of a Division I NCAA track athletics team performed electronically timed 20 m sprints with and without prior stretching of the legs. The experiment was done as part of each athlete's Monday work-out programme. Four different stretch protocols were used, with each protocol completed on a different day. Hence, the test period lasted 4 weeks. The four stretching protocols were no-stretch of either leg (NS), both legs stretched (BS), forward leg in the starting position stretched (FS) and rear leg in the starting position stretched (RS). Three stretching exercises (hamstring stretch, quadriceps stretch, calf stretch) were used for the BS, FS and RS protocols. Each stretching exercise was performed four times, and each time the stretch was maintained for 30 s. The BS, FS and RS protocols induced a significant (P < 0.05) increase (approximately 0.04 s) in the 20 m time. Thus, it appears that pre-event stretching might negatively impact the performance of high-power short-term exercise.
There are many instances in daily life and sport in which force must be exerted when an individual performing the task is in an unstable condition. Instability can decrease the externally-measured force output of a muscle while maintaining high muscle activation. The high muscle activation of limbs and trunk when unstable can be attributed to the increased stabilization functions. The increased stress associated with instability has been postulated to promote greater neuromuscular adaptations, such as decreased co-contractions, improved coordination, and confidence in performing a skill. In addition, high muscle activation with less stress on joints and muscles could also be beneficial for general musculoskeletal health and rehabilitation. However, the lower force output may be detrimental to absolute strength gains when resistance training. Furthermore, other studies have reported increased co-contractions with unstable training. The positive effects of instability resistance training on sports performance have yet to be quantified. The examination of the literature suggests that when implementing a resistance training program for musculoskeletal health or rehabilitation, both stable and unstable exercises should be included to ensure an emphasis on both higher force (stable) and balance (unstable) stressors to the neuromuscular system.
We finally solved our copyright problems to make this book available in a eVersion that you can download! This is the same as the 3rd edition in print but the copyright reverted to me and I have posted it on the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab to download for a nominal $20 (US Dollars) that goes to the AbilityLab. Enjoy!
https://www.sralab.org/academy/bookstore/skeletal-muscle-structure-function-and-plasticity
Background: The beneficial effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on mortality are well known; however, the relation of muscular fitness, specifically muscular strength and endurance, to mortality risk has not been thoroughly examined. The purpose of the current study is to determine if a dose-response relation exists between muscular fitness and mortality after controlling for factors such as age and cardiorespiratory fitness. Methods: The study included 9105 men and women, 20–82 years of age, in the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study who have completed at least one medical examination at the Cooper Clinic in Dallas, TX between 1981 and 1989. The exam included a muscular fitness assessment, based on 1-min sit-up and 1-repetition maximal leg and bench press scores, and a maximal treadmill test. We conducted mortality follow-up through 1996 primarily using the National Death Index, with a total follow-up of 106,046 person-years. All-cause mortality rates were examined across low, moderate, and high muscular fitness strata. Results: Mortality was confirmed in 194 of 9105 participants (2.1%). The age-and sex-adjusted mortality rate of those in the lowest muscular fitness category was higher than that of those in the moderate fitness category (26.8 vs. 15.3 per 10,000 person-years, respectively). Those in the high fitness category had a mortality rate of 20.6 per 10,000 person-years. The moderate and high muscular fitness groups had relative risks of 0.64 (95%CI = 0.44–0.93) and 0.80 (95%CI = 0.49–1.31), adjusting for age, health status, body mass index, cigarette smoking, and cardio-respiratory fitness when compared with the low muscular fitness group. Conclusions: Mortality rates were lower for individuals with moderate/high muscular fitness compared to individuals with low muscular fitness. These findings warrant further research to confirm the apparent threshold effect between low and moderate/high muscular fitness and all-cause mortality.
After immobilisation of muscle in a shortened position there is a reduction of muscle fibre length due to a loss of serial sarcomeres. Experiments have been carried out to determine whether short, daily periods of stretch prevent sarcomere loss and the resultant loss of range of joint motion. It was found that periods of stretch as short as 1/2 h daily were sufficient not only to prevent loss of sarcomeres but actually to cause an increase in the number of sarcomeres in series. Range of joint motion was normal. Such short periods of stretch were also found to prevent much of the muscle atrophy normally associated with immobilisation in the shortened position.
Competitive and recreational athletes typically perform warm-up and stretching activities to prepare for more strenuous exercise. These preliminary activities are used to enhance physical performance and to prevent sports-related injuries. Warm-up techniques are primarily used to increase body temperature and are classified in 3 major categories: (a) passive warm-up - increases temperature by some external means; (b) general warm-up - increases temperature by nonspecific body movements; and (c) specific warm-up - increases temperature using similar body parts that will be used in the subsequent, more strenuous activity. The best of these appears to be specific warm-up because this method provides a rehearsal of the activity or event. The intensity and duration of warm-up must be individualised according to the athlete's physical capabilities and in consideration of environmental factors which may alter the temperature response. The majority of the benefits of warm-up are related to temperature-dependent physiological processes. An elevation in body temperature produces an increase in the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin and myoglobin, a lowering of the activation energy rates of metabolic chemical reactions, an increase in muscle blood flow, a reduction in muscle viscosity, an increase in the sensitivity of nerve receptors, and an increase in the speed of nervous impulses. Warm-up also appears to reduce the incidence and likelihood of sports-related musculoskeletal injuries. Improving flexibility through stretching is another important preparatory activity that has been advocated to improve physical performance. Maintaining good flexibility also aids in the prevention of injuries to the musculoskeletal system. Flexibility is defined as the range of motion possible around a specific joint or a series of articulations and is usually classified as either static or dynamic. Static flexibility refers to the degree to which a joint can be passively moved to the end-points in the range of motion. Dynamic flexibility refers to the degree which a joint can be moved as a result of a muscle contraction and may therefore not be a good indicator of stiffness or looseness of a joint. There are 3 basic categories of stretching techniques: (a) ballistic--which makes use of repetitive bouncing movements; (b) static--which stretches the muscle to the point of slight muscle discomfort and is held for an extended period; and (c) proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation - which uses alternating contractions and stretching of the muscles. Each of these stretching methods is based on the neurophysiological phenomenon involving the stretch reflex.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
The sample for the study involved 12 volunteer male, active but not specially trained secondary school students. They averaged 15.33 years with a mean height of 168.20 cm, and a mean mass of 55.08 kg. Changes, if any, in the mechanical properties (MVC, half-relaxation time, fast isometric contraction, concentric contraction of the knee extensors) and flexibility of the hip joints were studied. The subjects executed passive, purely slow stretching as well as range-of-motion flexibility exercises for the knee extensors and the hip joints for 7 weeks three times a week. Pre- and post-measurements for flexibility and stride frequency on the spot showed significant improvement as did half-relaxation time, fast isometric force development, and speed of concentric contractions when low loads were to be overcome. In addition to studies in which improvements reported were attributed to and related to myoelectrical, reflex, and connective tissue changes, in the present study it was concluded that stretching exercises influence intrinsic muscle mechanical character along with a simultaneous improvement in range of motion of the joints exercised.
The purpose of this study was to quantify the relationship between musculotendinous stiffness and performance in eccentric, isometric, and concentric activities. Thirteen trained subjects performed a series of maximal effort eccentric, concentric, and isometric muscular contractions in a bench press-type movement. Additionally, subjects performed a series of quasi-static muscular contractions in a bench press movement. A brief perturbation was applied to the bar while these isometric efforts were maintained, and the resulting damped oscillations provided data pertaining to each subject's musculotendinous stiffness. Musculotendinous stiffness was significantly related to isometric and concentric performance (r = 0.57-0.78) but not to eccentric performance. These results are interpreted as demonstrating that the optimal musculotendinous stiffness for maximum concentric and isometric activities was toward the stiff end of the elasticity continuum. A stiffer musculotendinous unit may facilitate such performances by improving the force production capabilities of the contractile component, due to a combination of improved length and rate of shortening, and additionally by enhancing initial force transmission.
The relationship between hamstring flexibility and hamstring muscle performance has not been reported. The purposes of this study were 1) to determine the most effective stretching method for increasing hamstring flexibility and 2) to determine the effects of increasing hamstring flexibility on isokinetic peak torque. Nineteen subjects participated in this study. A two-way analysis of variance was used to compare two stretching techniques: proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretch and static stretch. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare hamstring isokinetic values pre- and poststretching. No significant increase occurred (p < .05) in hamstring flexibility even though increases occurred with each technique: static stretch (+21.3%) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (+25.7%). Significant increases occurred in peak torque eccentrically at 60 degrees/sec (p < .05, +8.5%) and 120 degrees/sec (p < .05, +13.5%) and concentrically at 120 degrees/sec (p < .05, +11.2%). No significant increase occurred at 60 degrees/sec (p > .05, +2.5%). We concluded that increasing hamstring flexibility was an effective method for increasing hamstring muscle performance at selective isokinetic conditions. Further study is needed to determine if increasing hamstring flexibility will increase performance in closed kinetic chain activities.
Stretching exercises are either performed alone or with other exercises as part of the athlete's warm-up. The warm-up is designed to increased muscle/tendon suppleness, stimulate blood flow to the periphery, increase body temperature, and enhance free, coordinated movement. The purpose of this paper is to review the literature regarding stretching, with the aim of defining its role during the warm-up. Implications of stretching on muscle/tendon flexibility, minimizing injury, enhancing athletic performance, and generally preparing the athlete for exercise are discussed. Physiology applied to stretching is also discussed together with different related techniques and practical aspects. A proposed model stretching regime is presented based on the literature reviewed.
Studies of limb lengthening have demonstrated successful bone formation in the distraction gap. Failure of the muscle units to lengthen leads to many complications that significantly limit the success of this approach; it is, therefore, of paramount importance to characterize the behavior of the muscle during limb lengthening. In this study, tibiae of adult rabbits were lengthened for 10 days at a rate of 1 mm/day. The proliferative ability of the lengthened muscle was characterized using bromodeoxyuridine, a thymidine analogue that is incorporated during cell division, and desmin, a muscle-specific marker. We observed a large number of proliferating cells, specifically in the lengthened muscle, that were co-localized with many desmin-positive cells. The presence of bromodeoxyuridine nuclei inside desmin-positive muscle fibers suggests that limb lengthening promotes muscle growth by triggering myoblast proliferation and fusion into the lengthened muscle. Our findings are consistent with those of other studies in the reviewed literature that also suggest that limb lengthening promotes muscle growth.
A nonrandomized 2-group pretest-posttest design.
To determine the effects of a 4-week balance training program during stance on a single leg.
Individuals who have experienced multiple episodes of inversion ankle sprains often participate in balance training programs. Balance training is performed to treat existing proprioceptive deficits and to restore ankle joint stability, presumably by retraining altered afferent neuromuscular pathways. The effectiveness of such programs on individuals with functionally unstable ankles has yet to be established.
Prior to and following training, subjects with self-reported functionally unstable ankles (5 women and 8 men, mean age = 21.9 +/- 3.1 years) and nonimpaired subjects (6 women and 7 men, mean age = 21.2 +/- 2.5 years) completed a static balance assessment for both limbs as well as the ankle joint functional assessment tool questionnaire (AJFAT). The subjects from both groups participated in a unilateral, multilevel, static and dynamic balance training program 3 times a week for 4 weeks. Subjects from the experimental group trained only the involved limb, and the nonimpaired group trained a randomly selected limb. A stability index (SI) was calculated during the balance assessment to indicate the amount of platform motion. Compared to low stability indices, high stability indices indicate greater platform motion during stance and therefore less stability.
Following training, subjects from both groups demonstrated significant improvements in balance ability. When balance was assessed at a low resistance to platform tilt (stability level 2), the posttraining scores of both the subjects with unstable ankles (mean SI = 2.63 +/- 1.92) and the nonimpaired subjects (mean SI = 2.69 +/- 2.32) were significantly better than their pretraining scores (mean SIs = 5.93 +/- 3.65 and 4.67 +/- 3.43, respectively). Assessed at a high resistance to platform tilt (stability level 6), the posttraining scores of both subjects with unstable ankles (mean SI = 1.27 +/- 0.66) and the nonimpaired subjects (mean SI = 1.37 +/- 0.66) were significantly better than their pretraining scores (mean SIs = 2.30 +/- 1.88 and 2.04 +/- 1.43, respectively). Additionally, the posttraining AJFAT scores of subjects with unstable ankles (25.78 +/- 3.80) and the nonimpaired subjects (29.15 +/- 5.27) were significantly greater than their pretraining scores (17.11 +/- 3.44 and 22.92 +/- 5.22, respectively), indicating an overall improvement in perceived ankle joint functional stability.
This study suggests that balance training is an effective means of improving joint proprioception and single-leg standing ability in subjects with unstable and nonimpaired ankles.
Although different warm-up and flexibility routines are often prescribed before physical activity, little research has been conducted to determine what effects these routines have on athletic performance in activities. The purpose of this investigation was to determine to what degree different warm-up routines affect performance in the vertical jump test. The 40 female participants were asked to perform a general warm-up only, a general warm-up and static stretching, and a general warm-up and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) on 3 nonconsecutive days. Each of the treatments was followed by a vertical jump test. A 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed a significant difference in vertical jump performance. A post hoc analysis revealed decreased vertical jump performances for the PNF treatment group. Based on the results of this study, performing PNF before a vertical jump test would be detrimental to performance.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of power and flexibility training on countermovement and drop jump techniques.
All jumps were executed with the goal of attaining maximum height and no restrictions were placed on the magnitude of countermovement or ground contact time. Subjects underwent initial testing followed by random allocation to one of four groups: power training to increase vertical jump height (P), stretching to increase flexibility (S), a combination of power and stretch training (PS), and a control group (C). Training lasted for 10 wk, followed by retesting. Jump height was calculated in addition to the following technique variables: eccentric lower-limb stiffness produced during the countermovement phase, magnitude of countermovement, and in the case of the drop jumps, ground contact time.
Groups PS, P, and S all increased countermovement jump (CMJ) height, but only groups PS and P increased drop jump height (DJ30, DJ60, and DJ90 for drop jumps performed from 30-, 60-, and 90-cm drop heights). The technique changes associated with power training were increases in magnitude of countermovement (CMJ, DJ30, DJ60, and DJ90) and increases in ground contact time (DJ30 and DJ60). In addition, the eccentric lower-limb stiffness produced during the countermovement phase of the jumps increased for CMJ and decreased for DJ30, DJ60, and DJ90. Stretching appeared to have no significant effect on CMJ or drop jump technique.
The results of this study show that when the training goal is maximum jump height alone, it is likely that drop jump technique will change in the direction of a lower eccentric leg stiffness, greater depth of countermovement, and a longer ground contact time, whereas for a countermovement jump eccentric leg stiffness and the depth of countermovement will both increase. It is proposed that these technique changes are a result of attempting to optimize a complex combination of factors involved in jumping (e.g., utilization of elastic energy, Golgi tendon organ inhibition, and contractile component contribution).
To determine the effects of stretching before and after exercising on muscle soreness after exercise, risk of injury, and athletic performance.
Systematic review.
Randomised or quasi-randomised studies identified by searching Medline, Embase, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and PEDro, and by recursive checking of bibliographies.
Muscle soreness, incidence of injury, athletic performance.
Five studies, all of moderate quality, reported sufficient data on the effects of stretching on muscle soreness to be included in the analysis. Outcomes seemed homogeneous. Stretching produced small and statistically non-significant reductions in muscle soreness. The pooled estimate of reduction in muscle soreness 24 hours after exercising was only 0.9 mm on a 100 mm scale (95% confidence interval -2.6 mm to 4.4 mm). Data from two studies on army recruits in military training show that muscle stretching before exercising does not produce useful reductions in injury risk (pooled hazard ratio 0.95, 0.78 to 1.16).
Stretching before or after exercising does not confer protection from muscle soreness. Stretching before exercising does not seem to confer a practically useful reduction in the risk of injury, but the generality of this finding needs testing. Insufficient research has been done with which to determine the effects of stretching on sporting performance.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether a flexibility training program, a weight training program, and the combination of both would affect running speed when used as supplementary training programs to the conventional method of training sprinters. One hundred and forty-five subjects, randomly assigned to one of five training groups, were tested for flexibility, leg strength, and running speed before and after an 8-week training period. Results showed that both weight training and flexibility training, as supplements to sprint training, increased running speed significantly more than an unsupplemented sprint training program.
The purpose of this article was to evaluate the clinical and basic science evidence surrounding the hypothesis that stretching improves performance.
MEDLINE and Sport Discus were searched using MeSH and textwords for English-language and French-language articles related to stretching and performance (or performance tests). Additional references were reviewed from the bibliographies and from citation searches on key articles. All articles related to stretching and performance (or performance tests) were reviewed.
Of the 23 articles examining the effects of an acute bout of stretching, 22 articles suggested that there was no benefit for the outcomes isometric force, isokinetic torque, or jumping height. There was 1 article that suggested improved running economy. Of 4 articles examining running speed, 1 suggested that stretching was beneficial, 1 suggested that it was detrimental, and 2 had equivocal results. Of the 9 studies examining the effects of regular stretching, 7 suggested that it was beneficial, and the 2 showing no effect examined only the performance test of running economy. There were none that suggested that it was detrimental.
An acute bout of stretching does not improve force or jump height, and the results for running speed are contradictory. Regular stretching improves force, jump height, and speed, although there is no evidence that it improves running economy.
Since strength and muscular strength endurance are linked, it is possible that the inhibitory influence that prior stretching has on strength can also extend to the reduction of muscle strength endurance. To date, however, studies measuring muscle strength endurance poststretching have been criticized because of problems with their reliability. The purpose of this study was twofold: both the muscle strength endurance performance after acute static stretching exercises and the repeatability of those differences were measured. Two separate experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, the knee-flexion muscle strength endurance exercise was measured by exercise performed at 60 and 40% of body weight following either a no-stretching or stretching regimen. In experiment 2, using a test-retest protocol, a knee-flexion muscle strength endurance exercise was performed at 50% body weight on 4 different days, with 2 tests following a no-stretching regimen (RNS) and 2 tests following a stretching regimen (RST). For experiment 1, when exercise was performed at 60% of body weight, stretching significantly (p < 0.05) reduced muscle strength endurance by 24%, and at 40% of body weight, it was reduced by 9%. For experiment 2, reliability was high (RNS, intraclass correlation = 0.94; RST, intraclass correlation = 0.97). Stretching also significantly (p < 0.05) reduced muscle strength endurance by 28%. Therefore, it is recommended that heavy static stretching exercises of a muscle group be avoided prior to any performances requiring maximal muscle strength endurance.
The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic analysis of the literature to assess the efficacy of stretching for prevention of exercise-related injury. Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and controlled clinical trials (CCTs) investigating stretching as an injury prevention measure were selected. A computer-aided search of the literature was conducted for relevant articles, followed by assessment of the methods of the studies. The main outcome measures were scores for methodological quality based on four main categories (study population, interventions, measurement of effect, and data presentation and analysis) and main conclusions of authors with regard to stretching. One RCT (25%) and three CCTs (100%) concluded that stretching reduced the incidence of exercise-related injury. Three RCTs (75%) concluded that stretching did not reduce the incidence of exercise-related injury. Only two studies scored more than 50 points (maximum score=100 points) indicating that most of the studies selected were of poor quality. Neither of the two highest scoring RCTs showed positive effects for stretching. Due to the paucity, heterogeneity and poor quality of the available studies no definitive conclusions can be drawn as to the value of stretching for reducing the risk of exercise-related injury.
Effect of hamstring stretching on hamstring muscle performance.
- Worrell
Does stretching improve performance? A A systematic and critical review of the literature.
- Shrier