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An External Focus of Attention Enhances Golf Shot Accuracy in Beginners and Experts
... Specifically, asking participants to focus on something outside themselves-whether it is a movement effect or an external target-is more effective than asking them to focus on their body or the movement itself, according to an impressive number of studies. To exemplify, past studies suggest that a golfer about to hit a shot should direct attention externally to the club swing, rather than the internal arm swing (Wulf et al., 1999;Wulf & Su, 2007). ...
... 596). This is a more holistic instructional approach, and thus potentially more effective (Winter et al., 2014), as compared to the commonly described IF instructions of asking golfers to focus on a subcomponent in the form of arm motion (Bell & Hardy, 2009;Wulf et al., 1999;Wulf & Su, 2007). ...
... This is well demonstrated in golf studies. In an early study by Wulf & Su (2007), an IF condition encouraged golfers to focus on "the swinging motion of their arms" (p. 385), whereas the EF instructions were to focus on "the pendulum-like motion of the club" (p. ...
Research has repeatedly suggested that an external focus of attention is far superior to an internal focus of attention in motor learning and performance. Such findings have been explained through the lens of automaticity, as focusing externally on something outside your body should promote efficient and subconscious execution of any given motor action. In this paper, I critically review evidence and propose an alternative mechanism to explain why various foci are effective. Information, and its relevance to the task at hand, are at the center of this alternative view. The strong conclusions recently put forth in favor of an external focus, and the dismissal of all internal foci, appear unfounded. Researchers and practitioners should keep exploring attentional strategies that promote task-relevant information attunement.
... The first two factors are considered as motivational and the last factor is considered as an attentional factor which optimizes the performance and learning of new motor skills (1). Numerous studies have examined the effect of external and internal focus of attention on learning motor skills (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12). These studies generally compared the effect of external focus versus internal focus on motor skills learning. ...
... External focus of attention refers to focusing on the intended movement, such as the dartboard or dart path in dartthrowing, while internal attention focuses on the body, such as the hand when throwing the dart (1). A common finding in previous research has been that adopting an external focus of attention improves motor learning better than internal focus (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12). For example, Wulf and Sue (2007) asked beginners to hit the golf ball toward a circular target and found that the participants in the external focus group had higher accuracy scores on the retention test than the internal focus group (13). ...
... The results showed that children with mental retardation who adopted an external focus of attention were significantly more likely to perform better during the retention test than children in the internal focus of attention or control groups. This finding is consistent with the results of previous research, which shows that taking the external focus of attention on learning new motor skills is more effective than internal focus of attention in both healthy children and specific groups such as ADHD (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13). In addition, this finding supports the optimal theory (1), which suggests the advantage of an external focus of attention when learning new motor skills. ...
Background: This study examines the effects of adopting external and internal focus of attention on learning a static balance skill in children with mild mental retardation.Methods: The participants included 45 children with mild mental retardation in three groups: external focus, internal focus, and control. Motor tasks were used for the static balance, and the time children performed the skills without error was considered as the dependent variable. The students performed the pretest, the acquisition phase (including five 3-minute practice blocks), and posttest. In each exercise block, the children in the external focus group were instructed to focus on a red marker on the ground, while children in the internal focus group focused on their feet.Results: Descriptive findings showed that the age means of the participants in external focus, internal focus, and control groups were 14.29, 14.62, and 13.84 years, respectively. And the means of their BMI were 21.27, 23.52, and 23.51 kg/m2, respectively. The results showed that external focus could improve motor learning. However, there was no significant difference between mean scores of the internal focus and control groups. Furthermore, children in the external focus group reported that they focused more on the external sign (red marker) rather than the internal sign (body part) when performing the skills, while the opposite was true for those in the internal focus group.Conclusion: The results show that children with mental retardation benefited from adopting an external focus of attention to learn a static balance. This finding may indicate that these children have mechanisms such as goal-action coupling, which are needed to learn new motor skills through external focus of attention.
... focus on keeping the board level while standing on a stability platform; Wulf et al., 1998). The external focus benefit has been observed in a variety of sport skills with an accuracy demand (Becker & Fairbrother, 2019;Wulf & Su, 2007;Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999), athletic tasks requiring maximal force production (Marchant, Greig, & Scott, 2009;Wu, Porter, & Brown, 2012), and clinical tasks such as balance and gait (Becker & Hung, 2020;Mak, Young, Chan, & Wong, 2018). The benefit also generalises to older adults (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Wally, 2010), children (Asadi, Aiken, Heidari, & Kochackpour, 2021;Perreault & French, 2015), and populations with sensory and motor impairments (Landers, Wulf, Wallmann, & Guadagnoli, 2005;McNamara, Becker, Weigel, Marcy, & Haegele, 2019). ...
... An interesting finding emerging from athlete selfreports of attentional focus use is that athletes report shifting their attention between multiple sources in the time before, during, and after movement execution (Bernier et al., 2011;Bernier et al., 2016;Fairbrother et al., 2016, July 5). This contrasts with experimental literature that typically prescribes a single cue throughout the entire experiment (Lohse, Sherwood, & Healy, 2010;Wulf & Su, 2007), or multiple cues of the same type of focus (Becker & Fairbrother, 2019;Poolton, Maxwell, Masters, & Raab, 2006). Bernier et al. (2011) describe a golfer in a single shot shifting between the environment, the planned trajectory, technical elements, the ball, and the target. ...
... A surprising finding in this study is that the external focus group showed no performance or learning benefit over the internal focus group. The external focus advantage has been replicated several times, and in a pair of studies with this particular task (Wulf et al., 1999;Wulf & Su, 2007). The present study used the same internal focus cue as these previous studies (focus on the swinging motion of the arms), but a slightly different external focus cue. ...
Research with athletes and coaches has found that attentional focus strategies are more complex than using an internal or external focus exclusively. Recently Becker et al. [2020, March 1. The effects of attentional focus in the preparation and execution of a standing long jump. Psychological Research, 84(2), 285–291] found that switching attentional focus from internal in movement preparation to external during movement execution provided a benefit over internal focus and control conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of attentional switching on motor skill acquisition. 79 participants were randomly divided into an internal (INT), external (EXT), or switching group (IES). Individuals performed 80 acquisition trials of a golf chipping task with their prescribed attentional focus during preparation and execution. 24-hours later 10-trial retention and transfer tests were performed. The primary analysis revealed significant improvement during acquisition (p < .001) but no significant differences between attentional focus groups during acquisition, retention, or transfer. A secondary analysis was performed with individuals low in attentional focus adherence removed (<60%). Groups significantly improved during acquisition (p < .001). For retention IES significantly outperformed INT (p < .05). These results suggest that the detrimental effects of an internal focus are only found during skill execution and not movement preparation. It is possible for learners to benefit from both an internal and external focus so long as the cues are provided during the correct phase of skill performance.
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Highlights
• Attentional focus is much more complex than using either an internal or external focus of attention. This study investigated the effects of switching attention during skill acquisition from an internal to external focus.
• A preliminary analysis revealed no significant differences between attentional focus groups of internal, external, or switching. One reason for this finding was the poor adherence to the prescribed focus cue.
• A secondary analysis where low adherence individuals were removed revealed a significant difference between the switching group and the internal focus group during retention.
• These finding suggest that the detrimental effects associated with an internal focus of attention are exclusive to using the focus during task execution. It is possible that an internal focus can still facilitate learning so long as an external focus is used during movement execution.
... Many researches in sport tried to investigate different focus of attention: in golf, basketball, baseball, tennis, darts, swimming, high jump, volleyball and in football (An, Wulf and Kim, 2013;Lohse, Jones, Healy and Sherwood, 2013). Advantages and differences of different focus of attention were proven in different levels of sports expertise (Wulf and Su, 2007;Memmert, 2009;Vickers, 2010;Neumann and Thomas, 2011;An et al., 2013), and also in retention and transfer (Carpenter, Lohse, Healy, Bourne and Clegg, 2013). The main purpose of this paper was to investigate if different focus of attention has any impact on precision in recreational archers during archery practice sessions. ...
... Additionally, no significant differences in precision between control condition and internal focus condition were found. Something similar was observed in the experiment of Wulf and Su (2007), who noticed that although one would expect individuals to adopt the optimal focus of attention in a nonguided condition (control), studies have shown that when participants do not receive attentional focus instruction, their performance is typically similar to that seen under internal focus condition and less effective than under external focus condition. This suggests that individuals tend to use lower than necessary level of control as they incline to be relatively cautious when confronted with a complex task. ...
The anaerobic activities is frequently used in soccer including high intensity actions. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between anaerobic power, reaction times and body composition parameters of young soccer players. The twenty-seven amateur young soccer players (Age: 13.81±0.48 years, height: 166.74±6.16 cm, weight: 55.17±5.40 kg) were involved in study voluntarily. The Wingate anaerobic power test parameters (minimum power, mean power, peak power, fatigue index), dominant and non-dominant hand visual and auditory reaction times and body composition parameters (lean body mass, body fat mass and body fat percent) were examined. The statistical relationships among explored variables were determined by correlation analyze technique. The relationship between parameters was examined by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. According to the results, it was found that lean body mass, anaerobic capacity and mean power parameters had a statistical positive correlations (p<0.05). Also, it was found that body fat percent and body fat mass values had a negative correlation with minimum power values (p<0.05). There was no significant correlation between visual and auditory reaction time values with body composition and anaerobic power parameters. Consequently, it could be said that the relationship between lean body mass and body fat percent with some anaerobic power parameters could be arisen from similar mechanisms affecting related parameters. Also, it can be concluded that the reaction time parameter is not closely related to the body composition and anaerobic power parameters, as it is closer related to neural mechanisms than physical mechanisms.
... Many researches in sport tried to investigate different focus of attention: in golf, basketball, baseball, tennis, darts, swimming, high jump, volleyball and in football (An, Wulf and Kim, 2013;Lohse, Jones, Healy and Sherwood, 2013). Advantages and differences of different focus of attention were proven in different levels of sports expertise (Wulf and Su, 2007;Memmert, 2009;Vickers, 2010;Neumann and Thomas, 2011;An et al., 2013), and also in retention and transfer (Carpenter, Lohse, Healy, Bourne and Clegg, 2013). The main purpose of this paper was to investigate if different focus of attention has any impact on precision in recreational archers during archery practice sessions. ...
... Additionally, no significant differences in precision between control condition and internal focus condition were found. Something similar was observed in the experiment of Wulf and Su (2007), who noticed that although one would expect individuals to adopt the optimal focus of attention in a nonguided condition (control), studies have shown that when participants do not receive attentional focus instruction, their performance is typically similar to that seen under internal focus condition and less effective than under external focus condition. This suggests that individuals tend to use lower than necessary level of control as they incline to be relatively cautious when confronted with a complex task. ...
The studies confirm that instructions and feedback that induce external focus of attention (oriented on movement outcome) result with greater efficiency in motor performance and learning regarding internal focus of attention (oriented on bodily dimensions). Advantages and differences between external and internal focus of attention have been proved also in different levels of sport and recreational expertise. In this study, 10 recreational archers were tested in three different conditions: C1 - freely oriented focus of attention, C2 – internally oriented focus of attention, and C3 – externally oriented focus of attention. The subjects first undertook the C1 condition, and afterwards the next two conditions were randomly decided. According to the hypothesis, the main goal was to investigate the effect of external and internal focus of attention on precision of the shots. According to the results, in externally focused condition, recreational archers had better results than in other conditions with higher number of 9 points and lesser number of misses. Based on findings from this paper, adopting an external focus of attention should be beneficial for the shot precision, self-fulfillment and feelings of accomplishment in recreational archers.
... In the IF strategy, performers direct their attention to body movements, whereas performers direct their attention to movement outcomes in the EF strategy. Most previous studies on motor learning have found that the EF strategy improves motor performance compared to the IF strategy in many types of motor tasks such as basketball free-throw shooting (Zachry et al., 2005), volleyball serves (Wulf et al., 2002), golf pitch shots (Wulf and Su, 2007), and dart-throwing (Lohse et al., 2010;Wulf, 2013). The advantage of the EF strategy has been explained by the constrainedaction hypothesis (Wulf et al., 2001); when individuals try to control their body movements actively, the attentional strategy corresponding to the IF strategy disrupts automatic processes for motor control. ...
... Although it is desired that SSSEP and SSVEP can characterize individual optimal attentional strategy, the task-dependency on the effectiveness of the current approach is unclear. In other words, we currently applied a lab-based visuomotor task based on simple upper limb movement with a low degree of freedom, but many previous studies investigating the focus of attention used various kinds of practical motor tasks with a high degree of freedom, such as basketball free-throw shooting (Zachry et al., 2005), golf pitch shots (Wulf and Su, 2007), and dart-throwing (Lohse et al., 2010;Wulf, 2013). It is essential to clarify whether the SSSEP-and SSVEP-based approach is also useful for other practical motor tasks as a test bed to characterize the individual cognitive trait. ...
Focus of attention is one of the most influential factors facilitating motor performance. Previous evidence supports that the external focus (EF) strategy, which directs attention to movement outcomes, is associated with better motor performance than the internal focus (IF) strategy, which directs attention to body movements. However, recent studies have reported that the EF strategy is not effective for some individuals. Furthermore, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the frontal and parietal areas characterize individual optimal attentional strategies for motor tasks. However, whether the sensory cortices are also functionally related to individual optimal attentional strategy remains unclear. Therefore, the present study examined whether an individual’s sensory processing ability would reflect the optimal attentional strategy. To address this point, we explored the relationship between responses in the early sensory cortex and individuals’ optimal attentional strategy by recording steady-state somatosensory evoked potentials (SSSEP) and steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP). Twenty-six healthy young participants first performed a motor learning task with reaching movements under IF and EF conditions. Of the total sample, 12 individuals showed higher after-effects under the IF condition than the EF condition (IF-dominant group), whereas the remaining individuals showed the opposite trend (EF-dominant group). Subsequently, we measured SSSEP from bilateral primary somatosensory cortices while presenting vibrotactile stimuli and measured SSVEP from bilateral primary visual cortices while presenting checkerboard visual stimuli. The degree of increasing SSSEP response when the individuals in the IF-dominant group directed attention to vibrotactile stimuli was significantly more potent than those in the EF-dominant individuals. By contrast, the individuals in the EF-dominant group showed a significantly larger SSVEP increase while they directed attention to visual stimuli compared with the IF-dominant individuals. Furthermore, a significant correlation was observed such that individuals with more robust IF dominance showed more pronounced SSSEP attention modulation. These results suggest that the early sensory areas have crucial brain dynamics to characterize an individual’s optimal attentional strategy during motor tasks. The response characteristics may reflect the individual sensory processing ability, such as control of priority to the sensory inputs. Considering individual cognitive traits based on the suitable attentional strategy could enhance adaptability in motor tasks.
... During this emerging era, advances in a golfer's focus of attention have been discovered (Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) and quickly been utilized by researchers in the field (McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001). These rapidly adopted advances in a golfer's focus of attention have produced results of mitigating levels of anxiety and arousal (Tenenbaum, 2003) and provided confirmatory evidence that an external focus of attention is superior to an internal focus of attention during the pre-shot routines of both novice and elite golf performers (Wulf & Su, 2007). These advances have asserted that a preshot routine is a prerequisite for superior golf performance (Jackson, 2001) and allowed researchers to propose that golfers need to remain committed to performing a pre-shot routine on every shot in order to reach elite levels of golf performance (Douglas & Fox, 2002). ...
... As research began to build upon itself and in a follow up study to the work of Wulf et al. (1999), Wulf and Su (2007) conducted a study assessing a golfer's external focus of attention and how it enhances golf shot accuracy in both beginners and experts. The replicated findings reiterated the performance benefits of having an external (relative to internal) focus of attention and provided converging evidence that adopting an external focus of attention enhances learning and promotes a more automatic type of movement control. ...
The past decade of research has brought about new understandings in the study of pre-shot routines, with multiple researchers advancing the field of knowledge surrounding the usage of pre-shot routines as a performance enhancement mechanism. Across golfers of novice to expert skill-levels, the results of peer-reviewed studies have clearly presented the potential benefits of incorporating pre-shot routines for all golfers in improving their play. However, with the current state of research serving as an indicator as to how far we have come in our learning of pre-shot routines in golf, researchers and practitioners in the field understand that there is still a long way to go in expanding our knowledge base on pre-shot routines and their role in the golf performance spectrum. The paper reviews the concept of the wandering mind, attentional control theory, performance routines in general, and more specifically, pre-shot routines in golf.
... Handball is a team sport in which the movements require a high level of coordination and the rhythm of the game is very fast [3], with high precision [4][5][6][7][8]. Certain players are expected to have a particular level of physical strength and body mass index (BMI), as is A randomised controlled trial was developed over 12 weeks. ...
Low energy availability may precede or be caused by cognitive disturbances in professional athletes. Related psychological problems include disordered eating patterns, body shape preoccupation, depression or anxiety. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effects of different personalised dietary plans on psychological factors in young professional female handball players with low energy availability. This 12-week randomised clinical trial involved 21 female players aged 22 ± 4 years, 172.0 ± 5.4 cm and 68.4 ± 6.7 kg divided into three groups (FD: free diet; MD: Mediterranean diet; HAD: high antioxidant diet). Eating behaviour (Eating Attitude Test, EAT-26: diet, bulimia and oral control subscales), body image (Body Shape Questionnaire, BSQ) and mood state (Profile of Mode State, POMS: tension, vigour, anger, depression, fatigue) were assessed. All participants showed low energy availability (<30 kcal/lean mass per day). The different plans showed no significant differences between them but significant differences over time within groups for the variables: body image, Tension, Vigour and Depression (p < 0.05). Eating behaviour improved slightly but did not show statistically significant changes. Following an adequate nutritional planning for athletes seems to improve the mood and body perception of young female handball players. A longer intervention period is required to assess the differences between diets and improvement of other parameters.
... The way we learn motor skills and the factors which intervene in this process are questions investigated in the motor learning area (Adams, 1987;Magill and Hall, 1990;Newell, 1991;Wulf et al., 2010). Several factors influence motor learning, such as the number of attempts and task practice sessions (Braganholo et al., 2013), the focus of attention (Marchant et al., 2007;Wulf and Su, 2007), feedback (O'Connor et al., 2008;Porte et al., 2007;Salmoni et al., 1984), and contextual interference (Braganholo et al., 2013;Moretto et al., 2018;Shea and Morgan, 1979). Another factor that has gained attention to facilitate motor learning is transcranial electrical stimulation (Buch et al., 2017;Celnik, 2015;Grimaldi et al., 2014;Reis and Fritsch, 2011). ...
TDCS is one of the most commonly used methods among studies with transcranial electrical stimulation and motor skills learning. Differences between study results suggest that the effect of tDCS on motor learning is dependent on the motor task performed or on the tDCS assembly specification used in the learning process. This systematic review aimed to analyze the tDCS effect on motor learning and verify whether this effect is dependent on the task or tDCS assembly specifications. Searches were performed in PubMed, SciELO, LILACS, Web of Science, CINAHL, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Embase, and PsycINFO. Articles were included that analyzed the effect of tDCS on motor learning through pre-practice, post-practice, retention, and/or transfer tests (period ≥24 h). The tDCS was most frequently applied to the primary motor cortex (M1) or the cerebellar cortex (CC) and the majority of studies found significant stimulation effects. Studies that analyzed identical or similar motor tasks show divergent results for the tDCS effect, even when the assembly specifications are the same. The tDCS effect is not dependent on motor task characteristics or tDCS assembly specifications alone but is dependent on the interaction between these factors. This interaction occurs between uni and bimanual tasks with anodal uni and bihemispheric (bilateral) stimulations at M1 or with anodal unihemispheric stimulations (unilateral and centrally) at CC, and between tasks of greater or lesser difficulty with single or multiple tDCS sessions. Movement time seems to be more sensitive than errors to indicate the effects of tDCS on motor learning, and a sufficient amount of motor practice to reach the "learning plateau" also seems to determine the effect of tDCS on motor learning.
... In the literature there is solid evidence that an external focus of attention enhances motor outcomes more substantially than an internal focus of attention. It has been shown in a variety of tasks such as a balance task [5], discus throwing performance [6], standing long jump [7], sprint performance [8], tennis skills technique [9] accuracy tasks in hitting golf balls [10,11], basketball free throw shooting [12,13], dart throwing [14,15], frisbee flying-disk throwing [16] or archery shooting [17]. Wulf and Lewthwaite proposed the Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) theory of motor learning [1]. ...
The aim of the study was to determine the impact of internal and external (proximal and distal) attentional focus on table tennis backhand stroke accuracy in low-skilled players. Fifty-one undergraduate physical education (PE) students were randomly assigned to 3 groups: Group G1 (IF) was instructed to focus on the hand holding the paddle, Group G2 (EFP) was instructed to focus on the ball, while Group G3 (EFD) was instructed to focus on targets marked on the tennis table. The experimental groups followed identical instructions except for the instruction about the focus of attention. Participants were asked to score as many points as possible by hitting the ball inside the three smallest targets marked on the tennis table. They were required to do so using a backhand stroke. The practice session consisted of 45 trials in three blocks of backhand (15 trials at each target). A special scoring system was used to determine the accuracy of the strokes. One of the most important findings from the current research was that groups with an external focus of attention revealed significant improvements in accuracy in the post-test, while the group with an internal focus of attention achieved low training effects. No significant difference was observed between G2 (EFP) and G3 (EFD) in the delayed retention test, which indicates that proximal and distal attentional focus had similar effects on table tennis backhand stroke accuracy in low-skilled players.
... could be explained by a higher degree of automaticity and less conscious interference linked to external focus of attention compared to internal focus (Wulf et al., 2001). Moreover, the advantages of external focus of attention seem to be often immediate, during the acquisition period (Porter et al., 2010;Wulf and Dufek, 2009;Wulf and Su, 2007). In accordance with this suggestion, our results show an immediate improvement in the quality and precision of the back dismount execution: in the alignment of the body during the backswing with the opening of the arms/trunk and pelvis angles, as well as at the level of the landing on the ground with precision. ...
The aim of this study was to identify the immediate effect of self-modelling with different focus of attention strategies (i.e., internal vs. external) on the teaching/learning of gymnastics motor-skills. Fifty-nine non-gymnast students participated in this study and were divided into three groups (i.e., an external focus group (EF), an internal focus group (IF), and a control group (CG)). Each participant’s performance of the back dismount in the parallel bars was assessed before the experiment (i.e., base-score), and each participant was asked to provide a self-evaluation of their performance and their efficiency percentage. Afterwards, participants received a specific learning session (i.e., self-modelling with external focus, self-modelling with internal focus, or traditional learning with verbal instruction) and performed the back dismount in the parallel bars again immediately after (i.e., final score). Four international judges evaluated performance of our participants. The results showed that the EF and IF outperformed the CG in the final score. Importantly, a significant difference between the base and the final score was observed in the EF and IF, but not in the CG. In addition, the EF showed the highest percentage of improvement (Δ-score) and self-estimation scores compared to the two other groups. In conclusion, this study supports the adoption of external focus of attention for teaching/learning gymnastics motor-skills.
... This is not surprising because several studies have shown that one factor influencing motor skill learning is the athletes' focus of attention induced by receiving instructions or performance feedback. Specifically, following instructions that induce an external focus of attention, whereby attention is directed to the movement effect on the environment (e.g., tools), can enhance learning more than following instructions that induce an internal focus by directing attention to the movements themselves (Al- Abood et al., 2002;Wulf & Su, 2007). Indeed, in our study, in the experimental group, the external focus was provided by attending to the interface of the Witty-SEM devices, which at the end of the exercises provided immediate feedback on the response time and accuracy of the athlete; this did not happen for the control group which was instead trained with the attention focus on the dribbling execution only. ...
Objectives
In this study, we aimed at evaluating the effects of cognitive-motor dual-task training (CMDT) on sport-specific athletic performance and cognitive functions of semi-elite basketball players. Further, we investigated the CMDT effects on reactive brain processing by employing event-related potential (ERP) analysis. Design: A randomized controlled trial was conducted including 52 young semi-elite basketball players (28 females mean age 16.3 ± 1.1 years) who were randomly assigned into an experimental (Exp) group executing the CMDT and a control (Con) group performing standard motor training. Method: Athletes’ sport-specific performance was evaluated with dribbling tests before and after a five-week training. Cognitive performance was assessed by measuring speed and accuracy in a discrimination response task. Brain activity associated with sensory processing, selective attention, and decision-making was measured through the P1, N1, and P3 components. The CMDT consisted of simultaneous execution of dribbling exercises and cognitive tasks which were realized using interactive devices located around the athlete on the basket court. Data were submitted to a mixed analysis of variance. Results: Both groups showed some improvements from pre-to post-tests, but the Exp group improved basket-specific performance by 13% more than the Con group; in addition, the cognitive performance also improved more in the Exp group (25.8% in accuracy and 5.4% response speed). According to the EEG results, training did not affect sensory processing and attentional processing which were equally increased after both kinds of training; however, decision-making processes were specifically affected by the experimental training. Conclusions: This study confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed CMDT protocol on both sport-specific and cognitive performance of basketball players and showed that the neural basis of these benefits may be mediated by more intense decisional processing allowing faster connection between sensory encoding and response execution.
... There is a great body of evidence underpinning advantages of external focus of attention over internal focus, e.g., in performance or skill learning 1,2,3 . The effectiveness of external focus of attention has been found in studies on balance performance 4 , basketball shots 5,6 , dart throwing 7,8 , golf 9 , tennis 10 , throwing beanbags at a target 11 , volleyball and soccer 12 as well as fundamental motor skills 13 . ...
Research related to motor skill learning has provided an important insight into which instructional methods are effective. Recent research has shown that the combination of autonomy and external focus of attention may benefit learning outcomes; however, there is not enough strong evidence in this respect. The study sought to examine effects of attentional focus instructions and combined effects of autonomy (choice) and external focus of attention on the learning of a standing korfball shot. One hundred and seven postgraduate students of physical education (40 females and 67 males, age = 22.57) took part in the study. They were randomly assigned to one of four practice groups: external focus (E), internal focus (I), self-regulated (S) and self-regulated external (SE). During the acquisition phase, all participants completed a total of 150 trials, with 50 trials (5 sets x 10 repetitions) completed during each session. The results of the between-group comparison for shooting accuracy demonstrated no significant differences. The present findings suggest that external focus of attention benefits motor learning and performance. We did not reveal additive advantages for motor learning when comparing combined effects of external focus and autonomy support with each of these conditions administered separately.
... Turnout discs, if used properly, can help significantly reduce the dancer's ability to compensate with lower leg turnout only and access the appropriate proximal musculature. Turnout discs also provide an external focus of control which has been proven to assist in improving motor learning [21][22][23][24] . As the dancer gains strength and improved motor planning, weight shifts, dynamic movement and turn out without the use of the discs should be incorporated. ...
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in dance medicine present an interesting comparison to many other sports. When ACL injuries occur, the mechanics required for dance and more specifically ballet, place the knee in positions that put increased load on the graft, which creates challenges to safely return a dancer to a full workload of rehearsals and performances. Unlike most sports, dancers present with a lower rate of ACL injuries in females versus males. In addition to returning to jumping and landing with external rotation at the hip and lower leg, females must also return to dancing en pointe. This manuscript will aim to lay a framework for dance medicine providers to use in returning musculoskeletal mature female professional dancers to full participation. Additional considerations should be reviewed regarding pre-professional and adolescent dancers.
... However, the findings of this study did not show a significant difference between external-proximal condition and internal condition. In addition, this study did not support the recommendations of Wulf and Su (2007) and Kearney (2015) because novice learners showed worse performance with the more distal focus. There appears to be a limit beyond which performance decreases. ...
Although research has leaned toward an external focus, there is no consensus on the optimal distance of the attentional focus for novice learners. The purpose of this study was to examine which type of attentional focus is beneficial for the novices performing golf putting task. Forty-five novice learners (23 males, 22 females), aged 20 to 37, participated in this study. Participants were randomized into the attentional focus of attention (FOA) conditions of internal (i.e., focus on the arm movement), external-proximal (i.e., focus on the golf club), and external-distal (i.e., focus on the target). Each participant was requested to perform four blocks of 10 putts on an artificial putting surface. The total number of putts made, total putt points achieved, and perceived confidence for each putt were recorded. A 4 (block) × 3 (condition) mixed-design analysis of variance was applied for data analysis. The external-proximal FOA condition had significantly better performance (i.e., more putt points) than the external-distal FOA condition. Under the internal FOA condition, participants significantly made more golf putt points during the third and fourth blocks than the first block. Perceived confidence was significantly elevated during the third block and fourth block compared to the first block across all conditions. Postexperimental manipulation check showed most participants adopted the focus as they were instructed. The external-distal FOA may be detrimental for novice learners in skill acquisition. Putting performance was related to the perceived confidence for the golf stroke. Therefore, it is recommended that practitioners consider the OPTIMAL theory by facilitating external-proximal FOA and the motivational factor together for novice learners.
... In golf putting, internal focus directs attention to the arm or the putting motion and external focus directs attention to the golf club or the course of the ball. Several studies have reported more favorable motor learning via external focus than when internal focus or control conditions are used [11,12]. External focus improves putting accuracy, kinematic parameters [13], and muscle activity as measured by electromyography (EMG) [14], as it smooths the putting motion and decreases muscle activity in the lower extremities. ...
Attention focus plays an essential role in promoting motor performance and motor learning. There are two types of attention focus: internal focus and external focus. Internal focus refers to direct attention inside the body while external focus refers to direct attention outside the body. Several studies have reported that external focus positively affects motor performance and motor learning by promoting automatic control. The mechanisms of attention focus have been examined using electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). During rehabilitation, therapists promote patients’ movement acquisition and motor learning. This chapter reviews the application of attention focus in rehabilitation to promote motor performance and motor learning in patients.
... For the different sensors used, the current motion data measurement can be divided into the following ways: based on light sensor and infrared sensor measurement; based on speed, acceleration, and gravity sensor measurement; based on ultrasonic and electromagnetic wave sensor measurement; based on vision sensor measurement; etc. For golf, the study of motion posture capture is very important [11,12]. After accurately obtaining the motion parameters of the golf ball and club head, the next thing to do is to analyze the reasons for such a hitting effect, and the change of human posture is one of the most important factors to determine the hitting effect. ...
In recent years, significant advances in the development of computer vision technology have produced many platforms and systems that combine computer technology and sports-assisted training, including intelligent systems that are integrated with golf training and instruction. However, the existing intelligent systems for golf-assisted teaching usually use three-dimensional depth information, which will significantly increase the cost of intelligent systems. In this paper, the extraction of golf club slope is carried out on the basis of golf sport video capture using a common monocular camera in order to match the club slope information with the professional coach swing video information. At the same time, in order to facilitate the interframe matching, the joint point information is complemented using the projection approximation point algorithm, and the segmentation of the swing video is performed using the complemented human hand joints and the fixed characteristics of the golf swing. Then, in order to solve the problem that human joints will have the same joint angle under different movements, the human limb joint angles are defined and then the swing movements in the user video frames are evaluated.
... Limited center of pressure displacements accompanied by increased components of higher frequency typically have a positive effect on posture after attention shifting from postural function [17]. Instructions that shift attention to the target or ending movement on an instrument as an external focus improve performance of motor skills in comparison with an internal focus, which directs the attention to the sequences of the movement [18]. There is limited information on whether Cognitive tasks or focus of attention in dynamic postural control is effective in musculoskeletal diseases, especially ankle sprain. ...
... They also perform throws in the most challenging situations, such as horizontal dive and lay shots, which increase the throw zone at the goal (Silva, 2006). From a cognitive perspective, during goal attempts, the player's external attention narrows (only to the goal area) (Bond and Sargent, 2004;Morrow Jr et al., 2015;Nideffer, 1976;Schmidt and Wrisberg, 2007;Wulf and Su, 2007;Wulf and Lewthwaite, 2016). The pivot is expected to have physical strength and high body mass while having a relatively low body fat index (Karcher and Buchheit, 2014), as he plays between defenders where he has to fight for the position and create a throw-in for himself. ...
For an athlete to be successful at the professional level, he or she should be characterized by extraordinary preparation in four areas: physical, technical, cognitive (related to game strategy, perception, and decision-making), and emotional (coping, emotional control). This study aimed to determine the level of selected cognitive traits in handball players while considering their sports level and assigned position on the court. Fifty handball players participated in the study. Participants consisted of 35 national team players, six first-division players, and nine second-division players. There were no significant differences between players from the elite (national team) and the sub-elite (I and II divisions) group. The results identified major differences in selective attention and short-term memory between handball players assigned to different positions (goalkeepers, compared to players in other positions, had lower attention and short-term memory). Thus, it is possible to develop a more effective psychological training program. However, it must be remembered that the results showed great variability among handball players. With this in mind, individual differences should be taken into account when planning psychological interventions.
... Previous research [2] reported that performance was improved by focusing attention on EF compared to IF. As examples, the effectiveness of EF has been tested in movements that require accuracy, such as dart shooting [3,4] and golf putting [5,6]. The effects of attentional focus on EF are explained by the constrained action hypothesis [7], in which the conscious control of movements inhibits the automatic system and constrains movement. ...
Attention focus changes performance, and external focus (EF) improves performance compared to internal focus (IF). However, recently, the dominance of attention focus, rather than the effectiveness of unilateral EF, has been examined. Although the positive effects of EF on standing postural control have been reported, the dominance of attention focus has not yet been examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the dominance of attention focus and its neural mechanism in standing postural control using electroencephalography (EEG). A standing postural control task under IF and EF conditions was performed on healthy young men. Gravity center sway and cortical activity simultaneously using a stabilometer and an EEG were measured. Participants were classified into IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups according to their index of postural stability. The EEG was analyzed, and cortical activity in the theta-wave band was compared between the IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups. Significant neural activity was observed in the left parietal lobe of the IF-dominant group in the IF condition, and in the left frontal lobe of the EF-dominant group in the EF condition (p < 0.05). Differences in EEG activity between IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups, in standing postural control, were detected. This contributes to the development of training methods that consider attentional focus dominance in postural control.
... To investigate the focus of attention effect, the traditional research design has compared motor performance following instructions designed to direct attention internally (i.e., thinking about the movement of the body), or externally (i.e., focusing on the result of the movement). Experimental findings have consistently demonstrated that instructing a mover to focus her/his attention externally results in enhanced motor performance compared to when participants are instructed to focus internally (for recent examples see (2). However, they have not paid attention to the associative and dissociative dimensions of the task. ...
Type of attentional focus on the physiological and psychological state of people can be effective running time. Although the role of external attention approaches informing optimal movement has been approved several times, the role of associative and dissociative factors with movement has not been known in the case of manipulating the different tasks and individual constraints. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the role of associative and dissociative attentional focus with internal and external dimensions on the running economy of beginners. Twelve beginner women (18-30 years old) ran on the treadmill. To measure the Vmax of participants, the starting speed was set at 6 km/h and increased to 2 km/h per minute. The process continued until voluntary fatigue. The speed used in each of the five test conditions (internal associative, external associative, internal dissociative, external dissociative, control) was 70% of each subject's maximum speed. The results of repeated-measure ANOVA revealed that associative attentional focus with internal/external dimension resulted in higher oxygen consumption and blood lactate, which caused a lower running economy in beginners. The results of internal/external dissociative attention indicated lower consumption of oxygen and less amount of blood lactate (higher economy). Based on the results of the current study, dissociative attention is the most economical method for running in beginners.
... The role of attention in motor control has been widely studied. The results suggest that there is a close relationship between attention and motor control to coordinate actions (Wulf & Su, 2007). Device-based feedback can direct an individual's attention to specific sections and facilitate the process of perception-action coupling (Lahav et al., 2007). ...
In competitive sports, testing and training equipment is used to monitor and optimize the training process and to analyze and improve the performance of athletes. These technologies offer coaches and athletes innovative and effective support. Sports science research provides empirical evidence that the use of synthesized additional audio information (data-driven sonification) as interactive feedback has positive effects on the accuracy of perception, the reproduction and regulation of movement patterns as well as on motor control and learning. Providing objective data on technical devices quantifies the information and enables the detection of deviations in the movement being performed. To meet the needs of a specific field, the measurement and analysis systems are developed by engineers in collaboration with scientists, biomechanics and coaches. In addition to biomechanical aspects, the athletes’ subjective perception and individual idea of the movement should be considered. Thus, the interface between human and computer becomes an integral part of the process of selecting, manipulating or controlling the display. This chapter aims at describing the design of interactive real-time audio feedback systems for sport applications. Focus is on the development of specially adapted sonification algorithms for real-time sound synthesis and the information transfer to the athlete.
... Additionally, there is also contrasting evidence for a performance-enhancing effect with an EF in elite athletes. While some studies have shown enhanced performances with an EF in highly-trained athletes (Ille, Selin, Do, & Thon, 2013;Wulf & Su, 2007), other studies could not replicate these findings (Keller, Kuhn, Luthy, & Taube, 2018;Winkelman, Clark, & Ryan, 2017;Wulf, 2008). Thus, the expertise level of the athletes could have an impact on which focus is ideally applied. ...
It is well established that adopting an external focus of attention (EF) enhances motor learning when contrasted to an internal focus (IF) or a neutral condition. Despite consistent evidence for this performance-enhancing effect of an EF, recent studies show that coaches predominantly induce an IF in the communication with athletes. It remains, however, unknown whether and to what degree coach-, content- or player-related factors have an impact on the focus of attention during youth tennis training. Therefore, we recorded all statements from 10 tennis coaches during six training sessions with a total of 87 youth athletes aged 18 years or younger. All statements were categorized according to the focus they induced (IF, EF, neutral, best place to hit the ball, mix, no focus) and the form of communication (instruction, feedback). Of the relevant statements (n = 3049), 45.1% promoted an EF, whereas 33.1% induced an IF. Evaluation of coaches-, player- and content-specific features (education, age of coach/player, training content, skill level) showed that more statements with an IF were given when training beginners. The data also show more statements with an EF for instructions (59.0%) compared to feedback (43.0%). Our results contrast with other sports where instructions with an IF predominate. Thus, instrumented sports with external targets (e.g. tennis) might be better suited for inducing an EF. The data also show that coaches are more likely to use IF when communicating with beginners. Consequently, an EF should not be induced in every possible situation, even if this is often communicated so far.
Highlights
• This study shows for the first time that statements that induce an external focus of attention predominate in tennis. This result contrasts with results from other sports and suggests that racquet sports may be better suited for inducing an external attentional focus.
• This study shows that coaches adapt their communication to the performance level of their athletes. The use of an external focus of attentions predominates when working with tennis players. However, the likelihood of inducing an EF is even higher when working with skilled tennis players when compared to beginners.
• The way of communication (feedback vs. instruction) influences how coaches phrase their statements to athletes. The analysis revealed that coaches use more statements with an external focus of attentions for instructions compared to feedback.
... Although much less frequent, some existing research has explored the effects of differing foci on skilled and elite performers. For example, experts or highly skilled athletes have been examined in endurance sports 6,7 , acrobatics 8 , golf 9 , horseshoe pitchers 10 , figure skaters 11 , sprinters 12 , weight throwers 13 , dancers 14 , and track and field athletes 15 . Even though a small body of literature exists on the use of attentional focus among these elite athletes, there has been little done to guide coaches on how to change the instruction given to athletes that may aid in adopting an EF 16 . ...
BACKGROUND: Previous research in motor learning shows that adopting an external focus of attention significantly benefits performance and learning among novice participants. Research has been fairly limited in regards to the attentional focus reported to be used by highly skilled performers or coaches. Fairbrother et al. (2016) suggested that experts might utilize more complex attentional strategies than a simple dyad of internal or external foci.
AIM: The purpose of the present study was to examine attentional focus cues utilized by elite track and field throws coaches during practice and competition.
METHOD: Fifteen NCAA track and field coaches completed a questionnaire related the instructions they provide their athletes during practice. Meaning units that related to attentional focus were extracted from the questionnaires and categorized into associative and dissociative cues. The cues were then categorized for various attentional focus strategies.
RESULTS: Results showed that elite coaches utilized multiple attentional focus strategies which included internal, external, and holistic focus cues. The most common attentional focus utilized with collegiate throwers was that of a holistic focus, which directs attention to the general feeling of the movement (Becker et al. 2019). It was observed that elite throws coaches alter their focus of attention instruction based on their unique style of coaching and the perceived needs of the athlete.
CONCLUSION: This research shows that attentional focus is not as simple as adopting one focus strategy for all individuals within all contexts.
... Therefore, in studies that are characterised by our above example, it may be beneficial for any warm-up /preparatory procedures to incorporate the same technique instructions as during experimental conditions (cf. Wulf and Su 2007). Consequently, time to warm-up and prepare for the two execution conditions could minimise any detrimental differences in neurocognitive co-ordination. ...
Over the past 35 years the dance domain has adopted sports medicine as a key driver of professional practice. However, similar to limitations identified within sport, research is yet to achieve its full translational potential within applied settings. This Viewpoints paper begins to identify and unpick key philosophical and methodological aspects, with the view to stimulate discussion in this rapidly growing and developing domain. Firstly, we outline a pragmatic philosophy that underpins expert professional practice as a basis to evaluate research. Secondly, we critically appraise study design characteristics to exemplify a gap between accepted scientific research protocols and professional needs within applied settings. Thirdly, we comment on recommendations/insights made within the literature against the requirements and practices of professionals. Finally, based on this appraisal we suggest an exemplar new line of research that draws upon a pragmatic philosophy; namely, motor skill refinement. In enacting these ‘new moves’, we look forward to increased collaboration between practitioners and academics to fully realise a strong applied evidence-base. This task will not be easy, as with any interdisciplinary research, and should draw upon interdisciplinary expertise to do so. Hopefully our brief comments will provide a stimulus for further discussion, planning and future action.
... Directing attention in a motor task to an object or implement external to the body (e.g., a golf club or target), or the movement outcome (e.g., deviations from the midline in a balancing task), is more effective than directing attention to the internal body motion (e.g., hand position or shoulder movement). Numerous studies confirm this finding in sports [2,[25][26][27] and nonsports tasks [9,[28][29][30]. The "constraint action hypothesis" [28] offers a potential explanation for these findings: Automatic control processes that usually unconsciously regulate the fluidity of motion get constrained when learners consciously focus internally on the segmented steps of performing the movement itself. ...
Background
The ‘OPTIMAL’ (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory of motor learning suggests that autonomy, external focus of attention, and perceived competence can improve learning of simple motor tasks. The authors hypothesized that enhanced (vs. routine) autonomy and external (vs. internal) focus of attention would improve first-try performance of two medical motor tasks.
Methods
The authors conducted a randomized two-by-two factorial design study with high school students as participants. Task instructions promoted either enhanced or routine autonomy, and either external or internal focus of attention. These conditions were replicated in a crossover design for two common medical tasks (chest compressions on a manikin and a Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery peg transfer task). Primary outcomes were objective measures of task performance (chest compression deviation from target depth; peg transfer time with penalties for errors). Secondary outcomes included subjective perceptions of confidence, autonomy, and workload.
Results
One hundred thirty-three high school students participated in this study. The primary outcomes concerning enhanced vs. routine autonomy demonstrated no statistically significant difference in either task (chest compression depth deviation: difference -0.7 mm [score range 0 to 37.5 mm]; 95% confidence interval (CI95) -3.85, 2.41; p = .65; peg transfer penalized time: rate ratio 1.03; CI95 0.91, 1.31; p = .79). The authors likewise found no statistically significant difference for external vs. internal focus of attention (depth deviation: difference 1.1 mm; CI95 -2.04, 4.17; p = .50; penalized time: rate ratio 0.89; CI95 0.75, 1.13; p = .33). The authors found no statistically significant differences for either comparison in confidence, autonomy and workload ( p > .09; differences ranged from -0.83 to 0.79 [scale range 0 to 10]).
Conclusions
First-try performance of chest compressions and peg transfer by novice learners is not significantly affected by enhanced (vs. routine) autonomy or external (vs. internal) focus of attention.
... 1 Specifically, directing an individual's attention to the effects of the movement (an external focus) has been demonstrated to be superior to directing attention to body movements (an internal focus). 2 This attentional focus effect has been widely replicated in various motor skills, including skills requiring accuracy, 3,4 balance, 5,6 and kinematic skills such as ballet 7 and landing mechanic corrections. 8,9 The benefits of external focus over internal focus have generally been demonstrated in both novices and skilled individuals, 10,11 but not every time. Some literature showed that external focus was not different from the control ('do your best') or internal focus condition when professional acrobats performed an easy balance task 12 or when trained athletes performed a 10-meter sprint. ...
The external focus and internal focus effects on motor performance and skill acquisition have been extensively examined and reviewed in laboratory research. However, the use of attentional focus in the field has not been summarized. Therefore, the present study conducted a systematic review of literature regarding the use of external/internal focus by practitioners (therapists and coaches) and recipients (patients and athletes). From 1999 to 2020, twelve studies examined how external/internal focus were used in the field. Results showed both therapists and coaches predominantly used internal focus; athletes tended to use more internal focus but varied by sports; and attentional focus varied between practice and competition. Additionally, the present review also consistently found that external/internal focus accounted for a small proportion relative to other foci outside the external/internal focus paradigm. Importantly, the differences in results were largely dependent upon the type of assessment ( e.g. closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires). Future research needs to investigate the relative importance of external/internal focus as opposed to other foci, as well as that affect a shift of attentional focus from one type to another.
... Extensive scholarly work has suggested that that an external focus (i.e., focusing on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning when compared to an internal focus (i.e., focusing on body movements; Wulf, 2013). These effects have been historically consistent across a variety of types of tasks and participants of different skill levels (Becker & Fairbrother, 2019;Porter et al., 2010;Raisbeck & Diekfuss, 2017;Wulf et al., 2001;Wulf & Su, 2007). However, recent research has pointed to inconsistencies with the wellestablished external focus benefit when sensory systems are either impaired or experimentally manipulated. ...
Purpose: Recent work involving reaching and aiming tasks provides evidence that an internal focus results in less error than an external focus when visual information is removed. The purpose of this study was to extend these findings by determining how an internal and external focus impact motor performance during a balancing task for adults with and without visual occlusion. Method: Thirty-two undergraduate students were randomly assigned to perform the task with or without visual occlusion. Participants balanced on a stability platform during four familiarization trials, three internal focus trials, and three external focus trials. Results: A significant Focus x Vision interaction indicated the group without visual occlusion had significantly lower root mean square error (RMSE) with an external focus, whereas the group with visual occlusion had lower RMSE with an internal focus. Conclusions: These findings indicate that for tasks that rely on online sensory feedback, such as balancing, the optimal attentional focus may be dependent on the dominant type of sensory feedback that is available.
... The different concept of an effect of the generality and the functionality proponents is also obvious in how they formulate their focus instructions. Whereas Wulf and co-workers usually instruct the external focus with "focus on what you see" and the internal with "focus on what you do" (e.g., "the swing of the club" versus "the swing of your arms" [34]), the internal focus must correctly be instructed with "focus on what you feel" (e.g., "the pressure of the ski boot on the shinbone" [29]). Since it is clear that a movement cannot be focussed per se, what does a participant do if so instructed? ...
A large body of research suggests that during learning motor skills, focusing on environmental effects of the movement (external focus) generally leads to better performance than focusing on one’s own body (internal focus). The functionality hypothesis states, in contrast, that the superiority of any attentional focus is task dependent. The present study aimed to test the predictions of the latter and searched for underlying mechanisms and task characteristics for one or the other focus being more functional. In Experiment 1, we examined whether the internal focus is superior in a difficult body-oriented balance task. In Experiment 2, we added visual feedback and investigated whether this would enhance the functionality of the external focus. In both experiments, the participants stood one-legged on a balance board and had to shift their centre of pressure (COP) to predefined target points. Per instruction, they were asked to interpret their attentional focus on the COP as either internal (the sole of the foot) or external (the platform). In Experiment 1, the external focus was induced through a mental image. The internal focus group performed significantly better, thereby supporting the functionality hypothesis. In Experiment 2, the COP was dynamically visualized on a screen. The internal focus superiority vanished. We suggest that the internal focus is more functional in motor-learning situations that provide more effect information through body-internal senses than through body-external senses. In these cases, the external focus hampers learning because it is associated with additional cognitive load.
... 6,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38] Collectively, an external focus of attention has been shown to produce more accurate performance, improved reaction time, and more efficient movement (e.g., reduced muscular activity). [39][40][41] Also in athletes following an ankle sprain, those who received external focus instructions to "keep your balance by stabilizing the platform" demonstrated improved balance after training compared to an internal focus group instructed to "keep your balance by stabilizing your body". 18 In primary ACL injury prevention, there is evidence which illustrates how an external focus of attention can lead to improved movement form, jump performance, and result in safer landing mechanics. ...
Individuals after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) have a high rate of reinjury upon return to competitive sports. Deficits in motor control may influence reinjury risk and can be addressed during rehabilitation with motor learning strategies. When instructing patients in performing motor tasks after ACLR, an external focus of attention directed to the intended movement effect has been shown to be more effective in reducing reinjury risk than an internal focus of attention on body movements. While this concept is mostly agreed upon, recent literature has made it clear that the interpretation and implementation of an external focus of attention within ACLR rehabilitation needs to be better described. The purpose of this commentary is to provide a clinical framework for the application of attentional focus strategies and guide clinicians towards effectively utilizing an external focus of attention in rehabilitation after ACLR.
Level of evidence:
5.
... While most attentional focus studies used nonexperts or novices as participants, a number of studies included experienced performers, such as golfers (Christina & Alpenfels, 2014), boxers (Halperin et al., 2017, or volleyball players . Several studies also included expert performers such as boxers (Halperin et al., 2017, Experiment 1), marksmen (Hosseiny et al., 2014, balance acrobats (Wulf, 2008), or golfers (Bell & Hardy, 2009;Wulf & Su, 2007). Some authors have argued that novices should benefit from an IF (Peh et al., 2011), while others have claimed that expert performers need to focus on their body movements (i.e., use IF) for continued improvement (e.g., Toner et al., 2016;Toner & Moran, 2015). ...
Considerable literature on the role of attentional focus in motor performance and learning has accumulated for over two decades. We report the results of comprehensive meta-analyses that address the impact of an external focus (EF, on intended movement effects) versus internal focus (IF, on movements of body parts) of attention on the performance and learning of motor skills. Values of effect sizes (ES) from 73 studies with 1,824 participants and 40 studies with 1,274 participants were used for examining the effects of EF versus IF on behavioral outcomes of motor performance and learning (separately for retention and transfer phases) respectively. The EF condition was more effective than the IF condition for performance, Hedges’ g value = 0.264 (95% CI [0.217, 0.310]), retention learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.583 (95% CI [0.425, 0.741]), and transfer learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.584 (95% CI [0.325, 0.842]). Multivariable metaregression analyses on behavioral measures further indicated that neither age group, health status, or skill level, nor their two-way interactions, moderated the ES differences between EF and IF in performance, retention, and transfer models (all p > .100). A secondary analysis on 12 studies with 216 participants that examined the effects of EF versus IF on electromyographic outcomes of motor performance also indicated that EF was associated with more efficient neuromuscular processing, Hedges’ g value = 0.833 (95% CI [0.453, 1.213]). From nine studies with 272 participants, performance measured by behavioral outcomes was found to be more effective when a more distal, rather than proximal, EF was used, Hedges’ g value = 0.224 (95% CI [0.019, 0.429]). Overall, the meta-analytic results are consistent with prior narrative reviews and indicate that an external focus is superior to an internal focus whether considering tests of motor performance or learning, and regardless of age, health condition, and level of skill expertise.
... Since this work, many other studies have been published on this topic. These studies have generally demonstrated that adopting an external focus of attention is beneficial for the performance of tasks in different sports such as golf, rowing, and basketball [3][4][5]. Research in the field also explored the effects of attentional focus strategies on movement coordination and landing biomechanics in athletes with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction [6,7]. ...
This review aimed to perform a meta-analysis examining the following: (a) acute effects of adopting an internal focus vs. external focus of attention on muscular strength; and (b) long-term effects of adopting an internal focus vs. external focus of attention during resistance training on gains in muscular strength. We searched through five databases to find eligible studies. Random-effects meta-analyses of standardized mean differences were conducted to analyze the data. Ten studies were included. In the meta-analysis for the acute effects, there was a significant positive effect of external focus on muscular strength (standardized mean difference: 0.34; 95% confidence interval: 0.22, 0.46). In the meta-analysis for the long-term effects, there was no significant difference between training with an internal focus and external focus on muscular strength gains (standardized mean difference: 0.32; 95% confidence interval: –0.08, 0.73). In the subgroup analysis for lower-body exercises, we found a significant positive effect of training with an external focus on muscular strength gains (standardized mean difference: 0.47; 95% confidence interval: 0.07, 0.87). In summary, our findings indicate an acute increase in muscular strength when utilizing an external focus of attention. When applied over the long-term, using an external focus of attention may also enhance resistance training-induced gains in lower-body muscular strength.
... Wulf and colleagues have studied various sports activities and illustrated that shifting the focus of attention from conscious control of movements (internal focus) to the outcome of an action (external focus), often results in more effective performance (Wulf and Lewthwaite, 2010). In golf, for instance, focusing on the swing of the club instead of on the swing of the arms was found to improve the accuracy of pitch shots (Wulf and Su, 2007). It was suggested that an external focus causes greater coherence between the predicted (imagined) action outcome and actual sensory feedback, which allows the motor system to adjust more adaptively to task demands. ...
he term flow originates from studies on what motivates people to devote more time to activities – across both work and play settings – than could be expected based on external rewards such as money or fame. The main underlying reason appears to be the intrinsically rewarding subjective experience of flow. Flow refers to a psychological state of high but subjectively effortless attention, low self–awareness, sense of control and enjoyment that can occur during the performance of tasks that are challenging but matched in difficulty to the skill level of the person. This chapter gives an introduction to flow that focuses on the prerequisites and phenomenology of effortless attention, and how the flow experience relates to perception, cognition, and action. Flow and creativity are discussed in particular detail, centering on three hypotheses of how flow may relate to creative cognition; as a motivating factor for task engagement and skill acquisition, as a feedback signal for optimal task-based adaptation, and as relying on similar psychological and neural underpinnings. Lastly, the need for more basic research and applied research is discussed – the former on the relation between flow states and the quality of creative performance and the latter on how the concept of flow could be implemented successfully in training and education.
... An internal focus directs the individual's attention to body movements and their quality, whereas an external focus pertains to the environment, a desired outcome, such as scoring a goal in soccer, or the effect of movement with an implement (e.g., ball, baseball bat, etc.) (Wulf et al., 1999;Zachry et al., 2005). The coaches' instructions influence what the athlete thinks about and, consequently, the performance of a given task (specific or not) Wulf & Su, 2007). Thus, the choice of internal or external focus of attention is very important and influenced by the types of verbal instructions provided by the coach or the instructor. ...
This study aimed to compare the effects of three different foci of attention (external focus, global internal and specific internal focus) on vertical jump performance. Thirty-two recreationally active males participated in this study and performed the jumps at three different foci of attention conditions. The specific internal focus was based on the knee extension and the global internal focus was on whole-body extension. The external focus was conducted using an implement (plastic ball) attached to the laboratory ceiling. The analysis of variance for repeated measures with Bonferroni post hoc test was used to compare the performance variables among the conditions with the significance level set at p < 0.05. The main results demonstrated that the jump height was higher in the external focus condition compared to the control (p = 0.003) and the specific internal focus (p < 0.001); jump height was also higher in the global internal focus compared to specific internal focus (p = 0.012). The peak power and velocity were higher in the external compared to specific internal focus (p = 0.040 and 0.006, respectively). We concluded that external focus showed better performance for the peak power and velocity, while global internal focus showed higher performance for jump height compared to specific internal focus and a similar performance to the external focus.
... Some studies have shown that the control condition was as effective as external focus (i.e., no statistical difference between the two conditions), and both conditions were superior to an internal focus (Makaruk, Porter, Długołecka, Parnicka, & Makaruk, 2015;Marchant, Clough, & Crawshaw, 2007). However, others have shown the control condition is as ineffective as internal focus (i.e., only the external focus was superior) (Halperin, Chapman, Martin, & Abbiss, 2016;Wulf & Su, 2007). These studies indicate that the unclear relationship between attentional focus and do-your-best strategies is present regardless of the types of skills. ...
An external focus of attention has been shown to be effective in balance tasks. However, replication in applied settings is limited. The OPTIMAL theory proposes that a combination of autonomy and external focus increases focus to the task goal, and therefore more effective than external focus alone. However, research suggests that the combined effect is limited in discrete skills, and the increased focus effect is only reported by subjective assessment. The present study examined the effect of the combined strategy and its effect of "increased focus" compared to external focus and control groups under distraction. In experiment 1, participants (N = 60) practiced eight 35 s trials on a stabilometer followed by a 10 min-delayed retention test and an auditory distraction transfer test. The combined group chose a tape color to place on a stabilometer and was told to "keep the tapes parallel to the floor," the external focus group was yoked with the combined group, and the control group was told to "do your best". Performance was measured in Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The increased focus effect was examined by both subjective (distraction score, a question about participants' perceptions) and objective (Mean Power Frequency, MPF, Sample entropy, SampEn) methods. Although participants improved significantly (p < .05), group differences were not observed during retention (p's > 0.05). An increased focus effect of the combined effect was not observed in any variables (p's > 0.05). In experiment 2, the practice duration was extended to replicate previous study designs (i.e., 90s trials; 2 days of practice; 24 h retention test; the number of participants). Consistent with experiment 1, group differences were not evident in RMSE, SampEn, and MPF (p's > 0.05). We suggest that autonomy may be required to be task-relevant, and simply telling to do best may be as useful as external focus or combined strategies in a continuous balance task. Further, the analysis showed that SampEn increased on Day 1 but decreased on Day 2, and MPF decreased within a session, but the average MPF increased by the day. Potential explanations and future directions when utilizing these metrics are discussed.
Recent research has demonstrated that consistent external attentional focus instructions produce more reliable jumping measurements compared to non-consistent focus of attention instructions. While previous research has examined the effects of different external attentional focus instructions, less is known about different external focus of attention instruction effects during a vertical jump. Given that previous work has demonstrated that consistent external focus of attention instructions produced reliable jumping estimations, we hypothesized that using multiple methods to direct attention externally would produce consistent vertical jump results. Using a within-participant design, college aged students (n = 35) completed two vertical jumps on a VertecTM within five conditions. Each condition was provided different external directing instructions conditions (control; external-lower near, -upper near, -upper far, -unreachable far). Data were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results showed that jump heights in the control and external focus of attention conditions were not significantly different from one another, p = .119. The findings of this study suggest there are numerous external focus of attention instructions that can be provided during a vertical jump producing consistent results.
Coaching behaviours often derive from sporting traditions, instinct and previous experiences. Practitioners tend to follow traditional, inherited methods rather than adopt new evidence-based approaches associated with athlete development. This article reviews literature relating to theoretical constructs of a novel coach education framework (CEF) developed by the Irish Rugby Football Union. The three constructs included are: self-determination theory (SDT), explicit learning theories (ELT) and implicit learning theories (ILT). A total of 82 publications met the inclusion criteria (SDT: n = 18, ELT: n = 28, ILT: n = 36). This review supports the efficacy of these constructs in isolation for promoting effective coaching practices and provides a justification for future implementation of the framework and its evaluation. This framework may have the potential to address a shortfall in current coach education formats, which have traditionally focused on What content should be used for athlete development as opposed to How practitioners can coach more effectively.
Instep kick is one of the most effective kicking techniques in soccer. Lower extremity muscles and joints play a crucial role during instep kick. However, external (EF) and internal focus and their effect on the muscles are still ambiguous. In this study, 13 male adolescent soccer players were included and aimed to hit the targets in internal and EF conditions. Lower extremity muscle activations were measured with surface electromyography, and kinematics were measured with a high-speed video camera. Muscle activations and movement latencies were analyzed in four different phases (backswing, leg cocking, acceleration, and follow-through) of kicking. While 10 out of 13 participants kicked accurately in internal focus, only five out of 13 in EF kicked accurately. Gastrocnemius muscle activations increased significantly in EF in all phases except acceleration. Movement latencies were found 0.07 ± 0.002 s for accurate and 0.05 ± 0.004 s for inaccurate kicks in EF. A correlation has been found between accuracy and movement latency in EF ( R = .67). Our results suggest that novices cannot yet coordinate their muscles in EF, cocontraction ratio increases. Therefore, training strategies that aim to reduce the cocontraction ratio can help the athlete increase performance through better motor coordination. Moreover, better motor coordination may be beneficial in preventing injuries (joint stiffness, etc.) caused by increased cocontraction ratio.
Detriments to performance under pressure are common in many performance settings, from public speaking to skilled sports or music performances. In the last few decades, sports scientists have suggested that the quality and accuracy of movements can depend on what the performer attends to while executing the action, with an external focus of attention directed at the effects of the movement on the environment resulting in better performance than an internal focus, where attention is directed at the performer’s own body movements. Here we investigated the effects of attention focus instruction on the accuracy of piano performance. Amateur pianists were asked to practice a set piano piece for 7 days and then perform it to the experimenter under different performance instructions (no instruction, internal focus, external focus). An external focus of attention resulted in more accurate performance compared to an internal focus instruction, as evaluated by the difference in the number of note pitch errors and note corrections between the two conditions. Importantly, the advantage of an external over internal focus did not depend on pianistic expertise in our sample. Our research supports the idea that an external attention focus can improve music performance and should be considered in music teaching practice.
Purpose: Voice therapy is a complex behavioural intervention. Understanding its components is integral for continued advancement of voice therapy research, translation of evidence into the clinical setting and improved client care. The Motor Learning Classification Framework (MLCF) offers an excellent opportunity for increasing such knowledge, specifically in relation to identifying variables that affect motor learning (ML), an important mechanism hypothesised to bring about voice change during voice therapy. The MLCF has shown promising results in identifying speech-language pathologists’ (SLPs) use of ML variables during experimentally controlled voice therapy contexts. The purpose of this study was to test the feasibility of applying the framework in the clinical context of everyday voice therapy practice.
Method: Data consisted of two video-recorded voice therapy sessions representing usual voice therapy care. Classification of ML variables used by SLPs during the recorded sessions was attempted based on the MLCF.
Result: Several problematic features of the framework were identified. Based on deliberations between the authors of the current paper, the MLCF was revised using an iterative process. This resulted in the construction of an updated version of the framework (MLCF-V2). The MLCF-V2 organises ML strategies into two broad categories: directly observable behaviours and learning processes. The framework incorporates greater consideration of theory and empirical evidence supporting motivational, attentional focus and subjective error estimation influences on ML. Several examples of each ML variable are included as well as an attempt to provide clearer classification instruction.
Conclusion: It is anticipated that the MLCF-V2 will provide a more useful and reliable classification for use in future investigations of SLPs’ use of ML variables during usual voice therapy practice.
Directing the attentional focus towards intended movement effects could enhance individual performance. This meta-analysis examines the immediate effects of an instructed external (proximal/distal) and internal attentional focus on an experimental group and a control group on their performance. A systematic review was done following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 3833 reports were scanned. Of these, 83 were included in the systematic review, and 61 studies were included into the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was additionally split into the original categories, which included the instructions as mentioned in the paper, and the adapted classifications, for which the instructions were reclassified based on the definition by [Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of sport and Exercise psychology, 6(1), 77–104. doii:10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 and McNevin, N. H., Shea, C. H., & Wulf, G. (2003). Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning. Psychological Research, 67(1), 22–29. doii:10.1007/s00426-002-0093-6]. In line with the constrained-action hypothesis, an external attentional focus instruction enhanced the immediate performance compared to an internal attentional focus instruction (SMDadapted = 0.24) and the control group (SMDadapted SMD = 0.31). Also, consistent with the constrained-action hypothesis, distal external attentional focus instructions showed performance-enhancing effects compared to proximal external attentional focus instructions (SMDadapted = 0.23). However, most comparisons showed moderate to substantial heterogeneity and wide prediction intervals. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized for all tasks and skill levels.
Background: Examining effects of attention on motor performance at the neurophysiological level, considering the skill level, seems there are still ambiguities. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to examine the neurophysiological effect of Attentional Focus on in postural task as a function of skill level. The performance (postural sways) and muscular activity changes was recorded shift concurrently in two attentional conditions. Method: 20 gymnasts (19-26 Years old) participated and assigned to groups of skilled (10 years' experience) and novices (3-5 years history of training in Gymnastics). All participant of both groups performed ten trails of semi-dynamic balance (10 seconds) in tow conditions of internal and external focus in a counterbalanced order. Postural sways were measured using Biodex Stabilometer and Electromyography (EMG) signals of Tibalis Anterior and Soleus muscles recorded using ME6000 device. Data where data were analyzed using 2×2 mixed ANOVA. Results: Results showed higher performance (less postural sways) and reduced EMG under external focus condition for novices and lower EMG activity for experts. Conclusion: Research findings (enhanced performance and reduced EMG) support Constraint action hypothesis. Focus of attention can have profound effects on motor behavior and the underlying neurophysiologic factors regardless of skill level but in behavioral level of analyze it effects depended on expertise.
Learning is a process of changes in which individuals evolve from rudimentary stages to stages more specialized, showing, over time, better conditions to perform motor skills. Attention is an important factor in this process. Specifically, attention can be directed to body movements or on the effects of our movements on the environment. Evidence shows that increasing the distance between the focus of attention and body movements (distal focus), can enhance the acquisition of motor skills. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different types of focus of attention in learning a penalty kick in children. Twenty-nine children with a mean age of 6,12±0,4 years participated in the study, which was randomly assigned into four groups (proximal external focus, distal external focus in target, distal external focus in goalkeeper and control). Participants performed a trial to pre-test, followed by 20 trials in the acquisition phase. On the following day, five trials were performed in the retention and transfer test, separately in each phase. The results showed high accuracy in kicking for the distal external focus in target on retention (p=0,003) and transfer (p=0,011) tests, compared to the proximal external focus of attention and control. The findings demonstrate that instructions inducing distal external focus of attention can increase the learning of sports skills in children.
Background
Instructional videos are increasingly employed in a physical education domain in order to enhance motor learning and self-motivational beliefs. However, evidence showed that videos are generally ineffective because they often create extraneous loads due to the information transience and passive processing of information.
Purpose
The current study investigates the effects of controlling the display of video on learning outcomes – expressed in terms of recall and transfer scores – and situational interest in physical education settings.
Method
60 tenth-grade students (Mage = 15.90 years, SDage = 1.32 months; 30 boys and 30 girls) were instructed to study using either a continuous video (presented without pauses), a system-controlled video using predefined segments or a self-controlled video where the learner uses ‘stop’ and ‘play’ keys. Then, they were asked to perform the learning tests (i.e. game comprehension test and game performance test) and evaluate the situational interest of the learning materials (i.e. attention demand, challenge, exploration intention, instant enjoyment, novelty).
Findings
The results from one-way ANOVAs revealed that students performed significantly better on both recall and transfer post-tests when the video was either system-controlled or self-controlled, which suggested that studying a controlled video could decrease irrelevant cognitive load and so yield better learning performances. Concerning the situational interest variable, students in the self-controlled condition scored significantly higher on almost all dimensions of situational interest.
Conclusion
This study indicates that self-controlled video, as applied in this study, can be integrated in a physical education context to foster learning and enhance situational interest. The discussion advances several options for enhancing the effectiveness of instructional videos during physical education lessons.
The goal of this research was to test the effectiveness of an integrative-adaptive teaching strategy against direct and indirect teaching strategies while learning a new and difficult movement task. In instructional psychology, there is a long-standing research debate on whether direct or indirect teaching strategies are more effective (cognitivsm versus constructivsm). While the research results up to this day do not suggest a superiority of direct or indirect teaching strategies, there are first indications that integrative teaching strategies may be more effective. The current research study is divided into 3 steps: In the first step, an explanatory model, namely, a biomechanically optimal solution for balancing on the slackline, was developed and empirically tested on n = 16 slackliners with different skill levels. The results show that the identified technical skills (e.g., low stiffness of the lower extremities) are responsible for a stable and economical movement solution. In the second step, an integrative-adaptive teaching strategy was systematically designed on the basis of the modified heuristic framework of Hänsel (2002), which means that the concrete teaching content, methods and activities (design parameters) are determined based on evidence. In the third step, a training experiment was carried out to test the practical implementation and effectiveness of the integrative-adaptive teaching strategy compared to a direct and indirect teaching strategy. In a study design that comprised three groups (direct, integrative-adaptive and indirect teaching strategy) and six measurement times (MZP), the exercise effect (5 MZP) as well as the learning and transfer effects (retention and transfer test after one week) of N = 36 slackline beginners were tested. All subjects practiced three times a week for four weeks (for a total of 12 training sessions of 20 minutes net time including tests) while using their assigned teaching strategy. Slackline performance was measured at different levels: (1) the qualitative and quantitative realization of the technical skills, (2) standing time and walking distance on the slackline and (3) the stability and economy of balancing. In summary, the results indicate an advantage of using the integrative-adaptive teaching strategy for balancing on the slackline. (1) The direct and integrative-adaptive group were more likely to perform the movement technique in terms of the optimal solution. (2) There was an advantage of the integrative-adaptive group over the direct and indirect group in terms of walking distance. For standing time, no effect was found due to a ceiling effect in performance for all conditions. (3) There was a tendency for the integrative-adaptive and indirect group to balance more economically than the direct group. No conclusions can be drawn on the effect on stability.
Skilled motor performance is essential in sports, the performing arts, various occupations, and many daily activities. Scientists and practitioners alike are therefore interested in understanding the conditions that influence the performance and learning of movement skills, and how they can be utilized to optimize training. In OPTIMAL theory, three motivational and attentional factors are key: enhanced expectancies for future performance, the performer’s autonomy, and an external focus of attention. We review recent evidence suggesting that each factor contributes independently to strengthen the coupling of goals to actions. This work has implications ranging from fostering more effective skill development in novice learners, to increasing the efficiency of athletes’ and musicians’ performance, and to facilitating the success of patients in regaining functional capabilities.
Introduction - The body of scientific literature on sports and exercise continues to expand. The summer and winter Olympic games will be held over a 7-month period in 2021–2022.
Objectives - We took this rare opportunity to quantify and analyse the main bibliometric parameters (i.e., the number of articles and citations) across all Olympic sports to weigh and compare their importance and to assess the structure of the “sport sciences” field. The present review aims to perform a bibliometric analysis of Olympic sports research.
Methods - We searched 116 sport/exercise journals on PubMed for the 40 summer and 10 winter Olympic sports. A total of 34,038 articles were filtered for a final selection of 25,003 articles (23,334 articles on summer sports and 1,669 on winter sports) and a total of 599,820 citations.
Results and Discussion - Nine sports (football (soccer), cycling, athletics, swimming, distance & marathon running, basketball, baseball, tennis, and rowing) were involved in 69% of the articles and 75% of the citations. Football was the most cited sport, with 19.7% and 26.3% of the total number of articles and citations, respectively. All sports yielded some scientific output, but 11 sports (biathlon, mountain biking, archery, diving, trampoline, skateboarding, skeleton, modern pentathlon, luge, bobsleigh, and curling) accumulated a total of fewer than 50 publications. While ice hockey is the most prominently represented winter sport in the scientific literature, winter sports overall have produced minor scientific output.
Further analyses show a large scientific literature on team sports, particularly American professional sports (i.e., baseball, basketball, and ice hockey) and the importance of inclusion in the Olympic programme to increasing scientific interest in “recent” sports (i.e., triathlon and rugby sevens). We also found local/cultural influence on the occurrence of a sport in a particular “sport sciences” journal. Finally, the relative distribution of six main research topics (i.e., physiology, performance, training and testing, injuries and medicine, biomechanics, and psychology) was large across sports and reflected the specific performance factors of each sport.
Discusses issues in the cognitive representation and control of action from the perspective of action identification theory. This theory holds that any action can be identified in many ways, ranging from low-level identities that specify how the action is performed to high-level identities that signify why or with what effect the action is performed. The level of identification most likely to be adopted by an actor is dictated by processes reflecting a trade-off between concerns for comprehensive action understanding and effective action maintenance. This suggests that the actor is always sensitive to contextual cues to higher levels of identification but moves to lower levels of identification if the action proves difficult to maintain with higher level identities in mind. These processes are documented empirically, as is their coordinated interplay in promoting a level of prepotent identification that matches the upper limits of the actor's capacity to perform the action. Implications are developed for action stability, the psychology of performance impairment, personal vs situational causation, and the behavioral bases of self-understanding. (87 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ObjectivesStudies using young, non-impaired adults have shown that by directing attention to the outcome of movements (external focus) rather than directing attention to the movements involved in a specific skill (internal focus), motor skill acquisition is enhanced. The purpose of this study was to investigate the generalisability of these attentional focus findings to balance in subjects with Parkinson's disease.DesignExperimental, repeated measures design.SettingPhysiotherapy research facility.ParticipantsTwenty-two subjects diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson's disease.InterventionsSubjects were tested under three attentional focus conditions; no instruction, internal focus and external focus.Main outcome measureBalance equilibrium scores from three computerised dynamic posturography conditions.ResultsA significant condition x attentional focus interaction was found (F [4, 84] = 2.86, P < 0.05), indicating increased sway with internal focus relative to no focus instructions (control) under the eyes-open condition. More importantly, when only subjects with a history of falls were considered, there was a significant interaction between condition and attentional focus (F [4, 36] = 4.40, P < 0.01). Post hoc tests revealed that the external focus instructions resulted in less sway than both internal focus and no attentional focus instructions under sway-referenced conditions.ConclusionThese findings support previous research studies on attentional focus. In particular, it was demonstrated that the balance of subjects with Parkinson's disease and a fall history can be enhanced by instructing subjects to adopt an external focus.
This study examined whether the learning advantages of an external focus of attention relative to an internal focus, as demonstrated by Wulf, Hööß, and Prinz (1998), would also be found for a sport skill under field-like conditions. Participants (9 women, 13 men; age range: 21–29 years) without experience in golf were required to practice pitch shots. The practice phase consisted of 80 practice trials. One group was instructed to focus on the arm swing (internal focus), whereas another group was instructed to focus on the club swing (external focus). One day after practice, a retention test of 30 trials without instructions was performed. The external-focus condition was more effective for performance during both practice and retention.
This study examined whether the learning advantages of an external focus of attention relative to an internal focus, as demonstrated by Wulf, Höss, and Prinz (1998), would also be found for a sport skill under field-like conditions. Participants (9 women, 13 men; age range: 21-29 years) without experience in golf were required to practice pitch shots. The practice phase consisted of 80 practice trials. One group was instructed to focus on the arm swing (internal focus), whereas another group was instructed to focus on the club swing (external focus). One day after practice, a retention test of 30 trials without instructions was performed. The external-focus condition was more effective for performance during both practice and retention.
The present experiment was designed to test the predictions of the constrained-action hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that when performers utilize an internal focus of attention (focus on their movements) they may actually constrain or interfere with automatic control processes that would normally regulate the movement, whereas an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) allows the motor system to more naturally self-organize. To test this hypothesis, a dynamic balance task (stabilometer) was used with participants instructed to adopt either an internal or external focus of attention. Consistent with earlier experiments, the external focus group produced generally smaller balance errors than did the internal focus group and responded at a higher frequency indicating higher confluence between voluntary and reflexive mechanisms. In addition, probe reaction times (RTs) were taken as a measure of the attention demands required under the two attentional focus conditions. Consistent with the hypothesis, the external focus participants demonstrated lower probe RTs than did the internal focus participants, indicating a higher degree of automaticity and less conscious interference in the control processes associated with the balance task.
Verbal instructions comprise an important element of clinical practice, however, their effectiveness in promoting movement organization in persons with cerebrovascular accident (CVA) has not been well investigated.
A counterbalanced, repeated-measures design was used to examine the effects of externally focused (task-related) versus internally focused (movement-related) instructions on movement kinematics during three functional reaching tasks. Participants included 16 persons with stroke who were able to perform the tasks with their affected arm and 17 age-matched adults without neurological impairments.
Significantly shorter movement time and greater peak velocity were evident when reaching under the external-focus condition of all tasks than for the internal-focus condition.
One clinical implication is that internally focused instructions can contribute to slower and less forceful reach in adults with and without CVA. This research reinforces the need for therapists to consider their use of instruction during the evaluation and treatment of movement disorders.
Previous studies (e.g., Wulf, Höss, & Prinz, 1998) have shown that motor learning can be enhanced by directing performers' attention to the effects of their movements ("external focus"), rather than to the body movements producing the effect ("internal focus"). The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that increasing the distance between the body and the action effects might further enhance the learning advantages associated with an external focus of attention. The distance of the external effect was manipulated by instructing three groups of participants learning to balance on a stabilometer to focus on markers attached to the platform located at different distances from their feet. Specifically, two groups were to focus on distant markers on the outside ("far-outside") or inside ("far-inside") of the platform, respectively, whereas another group was instructed to focus on markers close to their feet ("near"). In a retention test administered after two days of practice, all three external-focus groups showed generally more effective balance learning than an internal-focus control group. In addition, the far-outside and far-inside groups demonstrated similar performances, and both were more effective than the near group. Furthermore, the far-outside and far-inside groups showed higher-frequency movement adjustments than the near group. These results suggest that focusing on more distant effects results in enhanced learning by promoting the utilization of more natural control mechanisms. The findings are in line with a "constrained action" hypothesis that accounts for the relatively poorer learning associated with an attentional focus directed towards effects in close proximity to the body, or towards the body itself.
In this study, we examined the influence of internal and external attention instructions on the performance of a pitch shot by golfers who were either highly skilled (mean handicap = 4) or low skilled (mean handicap = 26). Ten golfers in each skill group used a 9-iron to pitch a ball as close as possible to an orange pylon, which was located at distances of 10, 15, 20 or 25 m from the golfer. Focus of attention was manipulated within participants (counterbalanced across golfers). Under internal focus of attention instructions, the participants were told to concentrate on the form of the golf swing and to adjust the force of their swing depending on the distance of the shot. For the external focus of attention conditions, the participants were told to concentrate on hitting the ball as close to the target pylon as possible. The most intriguing finding was an interaction of skill with focus of attention instructions for variability in performance. Similar to the findings of Wulf and colleagues, the highly skilled golfers performed better with external attention instructions than with internal focus instructions. In contrast, the low-skill golfers performed better with the internal than with the external focus of attention instructions. These findings are discussed relative to theoretical issues in motor learning and practical issues for golf instruction.
In previous studies of attentional focus effects, investigators have measured performance outcome. Here, however, the authors used electromyography (EMG) to determine whether difference between external and internal foci would also be manifested at the neuromuscular level. In 2 experiments, participants (N=11, Experiment 1; N=12, Experiment 2) performed biceps curls while focusing on the movements of the curl bar (external focus) or on their arms (internal focus). In Experiment 1, movements were performed faster under external than under internal focus conditions. Also, integrated EMG (iEMG) activity was reduced when performers adopted an external focus. In Experiment 2, movement time was controlled through the use of a metronome, and iEMG activity was again reduced under external focus conditions. Those findings are in line with the constrained action hypothesis (G. Wulf, N. McNevin, & C. H. Shea, 2001), according to which an external focus promotes the use of more automatic control processes.
This experiment followed up on previous studies showing learning benefits of instructions directing the performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) relative to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (internal focus). The main purpose was to determine whether similar advantages could be achieved by preventing learners from focusing on their movements through the use of an attention-demanding secondary task. Participants practiced balancing on a stabilometer. External and internal focus group participants were instructed to focus on markers attached to the balance platform or on their feet, respectively. A third group was required to shadow a story presented to them while balancing. In addition, a control group without attentional focus instructions or a secondary task was included. The external focus group showed more effective balance learning than the other groups. The results provide evidence for the learning benefits of external focus instructions. In addition, they show that similar advantages cannot be achieved by simply preventing learners from focusing on the task to be learned.
The effects of different types of instructions on complex motor skill learning were examined. The instructions were related either to the participant's own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects of those movements on the apparatus (external focus). The hypothesis tested was that external-focus instructions would be more beneficial for learning than internal-focus instructions. In Experiment 1, the participants (N = 33) performed slalom-type movements on a ski-simulator. The instructions referred to the way in which force should be exerted on the platform that the participant was standing on. The instructions given 1 group of participants referred to the performers' feet (internal focus), whereas the instructions given another group referred to the wheels of the platform, which were located directly under the feet (external focus). The control group was given no focus instructions. All participants practiced the task on 2 consecutive days and performed a retention test on Day 3. Compared with the effects of internal-focus instructions and no instructions, the external-focus instructions enhanced learning. Internal-focus instruction was not more effective than no instructions. In Experiment 2, an attempt was made to replicate the differential effects of external-versus internal-focus instructions with a different task (balancing on a stabilometer). Consistent with Experiment 1, instructing learners (N = 16) to focus on 2 markers on the platform of the stabilometer (external focus) led to more effective learning than instructing them to focus on their feet (internal focus), as measured by a retention test after 2 days of practice. Practical and theoretical implications of those results are discussed.
Experiment 1 examined whether it is more advantageous to direct learners' attention to the external effects of their movements relative to other external cues. Two groups of participants hit tennis balls at a target, with one group focusing on the ball coming toward them (antecedent) and the other group focusing on the ball leaving the racket (effect). The effect group demonstrated more effective learning. Experiment 2 examined whether it is more beneficial if the movement effect is related to the movement technique, relative to other movement effects (e.g., outcome). Two groups of participants hit golf balls at a target. The attention of these groups was directed to the club or the ball trajectory, respectively. The club group showed more effective learning than the target group, suggesting that focusing on technique-related effects is more effective.
Studies investigating the influence of the learner’s focus of attention, induced by instructions or feedback, on motor skill learning are reviewed. In general, directing performers’ attention to the effects of their movements (external focus of attention) appears to be more beneficial than directing their attention to their own movements (internal focus of attention). Preliminary evidence is presented indicating that an internal attentional focus constrains the motor system by interfering with natural control processes, whereas an external focus seems to allow automatic control processes to regulate the movements. Support for the view that actions are controlled by their anticipated effects comes from research demonstrating functional variability in motor control, as well as the benefits of purposeful activity in occupational therapy. We explain these results in terms of the ideomotor principle of human actions (James, 1890) and its more modern derivatives (Hommel, 1996; Prinz, 1990, 1997).
Fast backward trunk movements are accompanied by hip, knee and ankle rotation which compensate for the backward shift of the center of gravity. The electromyographic pattern associated with the performance of these movements and the associated synergies consists of a fairly synchronous activation of the prime mover (erectores spinae) and the muscles situated at the back of the leg (hamstring, calf muscles). This pattern is called the "non anticipated pattern". The effect of training on the EMG pattern and on the subjects' mechanical performances was investigated by comparing a population of untrained subjects with one of highly trained gymnasts. A new EMG pattern was observed in the highly trained gymnasts, the "distally anticipated pattern" consisting of an early activation of the gastrocnemius, and in some subjects also of the hamstring, indicating that a long term adaptation had taken place. Performances expressed as a ratio between the displacement of the center of gravity projection onto the ground and the velocity of the movement were clearly better in the gymnasts. Short term adaptation was found to occur in the gymnasts and not in the untrained group when the movement was performed while standing on a narrow support. A suppression of the distal gastrocnemius burst occurred in the gymnasts from the first trial under the constrained standing condition whereas no change occurred in the untrained group. The flexibility of the EMG patterns associated with axial movements occurring either spontaneously or as a result of long or short term training is discussed.
We assessed the effects on basketball free throw performance of two types of verbal directions with an external attentional focus. Novices (n = 16) were pre-tested on free throw performance and assigned to two groups of similar ability (n = 8 in each). Both groups received verbal instructions with an external focus on either movement dynamics (movement form) or movement effects (e.g. ball trajectory relative to basket). The participants also observed a skilled model performing the task on either a small or large screen monitor, to ascertain the effects of visual presentation mode on task performance. After observation of six videotaped trials, all participants were given a post-test. Visual search patterns were monitored during observation and cross-referenced with performance on the pre- and post-test. Group effects were noted for verbal instructions and image size on visual search strategies and free throw performance. The 'movement effects' group saw a significant improvement in outcome scores between the pre-test and post-test. These results supported evidence that this group spent more viewing time on information outside the body than the 'movement dynamics' group. Image size affected both groups equally with more fixations of shorter duration when viewing the small screen. The results support the benefits of instructions when observing a model with an external focus on movement effects, not dynamics.
The authors examined how the effectiveness of feedback for the learning of complex motor skills is affected by the focus of attention it induces. The feedback referred specifically either to body movements (internal focus) or to movement effects (external focus). In Experiment 1, groups of novices and advanced volleyball players (N = 48) practiced "tennis" serves under internal-focus or external-focus feedback conditions in a 2 (expertise) x 2 (feedback type) design. Type of feedback did not differentially affect movement quality, but external-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy of the serves than internal-focus feedback during both practice and retention, independent of the level of expertise. In Experiment 2, the effects of relative feedback frequency as a function of attentional focus were examined. A 2 (feedback frequency: 100% vs. 33%) x 2 (feedback type) design was used. Experienced soccer players (N = 52) were required to shoot lofted passes at a target. External-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy than internal-focus feedback did. In addition, reduced feedback frequency was beneficial under internal-focus feedback conditions, whereas 100% and 33% feedback were equally effective under external-focus conditions. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of effect-related, as opposed to movement-related, feedback and also suggest that there is a need to revise current views regarding the role of feedback for motor learning.
We examined whether the attentional focus induced by a suprapostural task has an influence on the learning of a dynamic balance task. Participants balanced on a stabilometer and were required to hold a tube horizontal with both hands. In Experiment 1, the tube contained a table tennis ball, whereas it was empty in Experiment 2. Participants were instructed to focus on either their hands (internal focus) or the tube (external focus). We measured balance performance as a function of attentional focus on the suprapostural task. Participants practised for 2 days, and on Day 3 they performed a retention test (with tube) and a transfer test (without tube). In both experiments, the external focus groups demonstrated more effective retention and transfer than the internal focus groups (and than the control group in transfer in Experiment 2). In addition, in Experiment 1 the external group was superior in keeping the tube horizontal. This suggests that the performer's attentional focus regarding the suprapostural task affects performance and learning not only of the suprapostural task itself, but also of the postural task.
Two experiments are reported that investigate the response structure and effector transfer of repeated movement sequences. Participants moved a lever to targets sequentially presented on the computer monitor. In Experiment 1 the learning of 10- and 16-element sequences (identical movement pattern) was contrasted. After 1 day of practice the 10-element sequence was organized into fewer subsequences and, thus, performed more rapidly than the 16-element sequence. The imposed organization appeared to be coded in a relatively abstract way, as evidenced by effector transfer that was as good as that on the retention test. In Experiment 2 the 16-element sequence was studied after more extensive practice. By the end of 4 days of practice the participants produced relatively seamless responses void of obvious transitions between subsequences, but the control of the movement was less effector independent than observed earlier in practice. The results suggest that the process of consolidating the sequence, which led to more fluent response production, also resulted in the utilization of effector specific information.
The performance and learning of motor skills has been shown to be enhanced if the performer adopts an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) compared to an internal focus (focus on the movements themselves) [G. Wulf, W. Prinz, Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: a review, Psychon. Bull. Rev. 8 (2001) 648-660]. While most previous studies examining attentional focus effects have exclusively used performance outcome (e.g., accuracy) measures, in the present study electromyography (EMG) was used to determine neuromuscular correlates of external versus internal focus differences in movement outcome. Participants performed basketball free throws under both internal focus (wrist motion) and external focus (basket) conditions. EMG activity was recorded for m. flexor carpi radialis, m. biceps brachii, m. triceps triceps brachii, and m. deltoid of each participant's shooting arm. The results showed that free throw accuracy was greater when participants adopted an external compared to an internal focus. In addition, EMG activity of the biceps and triceps muscles was lower with an external relative to an internal focus. This suggests that an external focus of attention enhances movement economy, and presumably reduces "noise" in the motor system that hampers fine movement control and makes the outcome of the movement less reliable.