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Safety assessment of sandalwood oil (Santalum album L.)
Abstract
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is a fragrant wood from which oil is derived for use in food and cosmetics. Sandalwood oil is used in the food industry as a flavor ingredient with a daily consumption of 0.0074 mg/kg. Over 100 constituents have been identified in sandalwood oil with the major constituent being alpha-santalol. Sandalwood oil and its major constituent have low acute oral and dermal toxicity in laboratory animals. Sandalwood oil was not mutagenic in spore Rec assay and was found to have anticarcinogenic, antiviral and bactericidal activity. Occasional cases of irritation or sensitization reactions to sandalwood oil in humans are reported in the literature. Although the available information on toxicity of sandalwood oil is limited, it has a long history of oral use without any reported adverse effects and is considered safe at present use levels.
... Sandalwood is a root hemiparasitic tree having a place with the family Santalaceae and relies upon have trees to get supplements for its development. The wood is exceptionally sweet-smelling and is the second most costly sort of wood on the planet, later African Blackwood, Dalbergia melanoxylon [16] . Sandalwood fills in tropical Asia, Australia, Pacific islands furthermore, Hawaii. ...
... There are numerous types of sandalwood, one of which the Indian sandalwood (Santalum collection Linn.) ( Figure 1A), called the 'Illustrious Tree' in India [17] , is a wellknown and monetarily significant species, having the most fragrant wood and most elevated oil content. It has been classified as 'defenseless' by the Worldwide Association for Preservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1997 [16] . All things considered, sandalwood is viewed as quite possibly of the most sacrosanct tree and a significant piece of reflection and profound customs of certain religions. ...
... Sculptures of divine beings and portions of numerous antiquated sanctuaries have been made of this wood. The Egyptians involved it in treating the dead and in custom consuming to worship the god [16] . The results of sandalwood have been generally utilized for incense, wood cutting and memorial service fires; in the food business as a flavor fixing, and in bug anti-agents, scents, cleansers, cleansers and beauty care products to add aroma. ...
... The bark extract of S. album contains betulinic acid (0.05%), β -sitosterol, glucose, fructose, and sucrose [38,40]. Although including a low amount of trans-β-santalol, cis-lanceol hydrocarbons, α-santalene, β-santalene, α-bergamotene, epi-β-santalene, as α-curcumene, β-curcumene, γ-curcumene, β-bisabolene and α-bisabolol; cis-α-santalol (53%), cis-β-santalol (23%), α-trans-bergamotol, epi-cis-β-santalol sesquiterpene alcohols are the major components of the sandalwood oil [42][43][44][45][46]. ...
... Regarding skin safety, S. album oil has a good safety profile in terms of patch testing for contact dermatitis in both irritation and allergy. According to Burdock and Carabin [43]; undiluted S. album oil and 10% S. album oil are non-irritant. In five dermatology reports, some allergic reactions have been reported. ...
... Just as the positive effect of EOs depend on their chemical composition, their safety and side effects result from the main phytochemicals and as well as the synergistic action of compounds that are present in lower concentrations. The main components present in the sandalwood EOs, that should be taken into the consideration regarding the safety are α-santalol, β-santalol, β-santalene, Z-α-trans-bergamotol [43,131]. ...
Santalum genus belongs to the family of Santalaceae, widespread in India, Australia, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, and valued as traditional medicine, rituals and modern bioactivities. Sandalwood is reported to possess a plethora of bioactive compounds such as essential oil and its components (α-santalol and β-santalol), phenolic compounds and fatty acids. These bioactives play important role in contributing towards biological activities and health-promoting effects in humans. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown the role of sandalwood extract as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, neuroleptic, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and anticancer activities. Safety studies on sandalwood essential oil (EO) and its extracts have proven them as a safe ingredient to be utilized in health promotion. Phytoconstituents, bioactivities and traditional uses established sandalwood as one of the innovative materials for application in the pharma, food, and biomedical industry.
... Sandalwood oil is one of the most valuable raw materials and is widely used in cosmetics and natural medicine, showing a number of positive effects on the skin and the entire body. e essential oil obtained from East Indian sandalwood, also known as sandalwood (Santalum album L.) [2,3], is considered to be authentic sandalwood oil. e sandalwood is one of the most valuable trees in the world [3]. ...
... e essential oil obtained from East Indian sandalwood, also known as sandalwood (Santalum album L.) [2,3], is considered to be authentic sandalwood oil. e sandalwood is one of the most valuable trees in the world [3]. e raw materials from this tree were used thousands of years ago in India [2], where it can still be found in the wild, as well as in Indonesia, China, and the Malay Archipelago [4]. ...
... Sandalwood oil has a special value in perfumery, and its use guarantees not only an oriental, woody scent but also enhances and preserves the aromatic properties of other fragrance ingredients. It is popular to combine this oil with floral fragrance note oils, such as rose or lavender [3,9]. Sandalwood oil is expensive; in Poland, 1 mL costs more than 20 PLNs; for comparison, citrus essential oils cost approximately 1.2 PLN for 1 mL. ...
Background:
Sandalwood oil is one of the most valuable raw materials worldwide. As a highly valued product, it has its own regulations based on the ISO 3518 standard, which clearly informs producers, distributors, and consumers of the requirements to be met. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of products called sandalwood oil based on the information provided by the manufacturer of the oils on Polish, German, and English websites.
Methods:
A Google search was utilized to collect data on sandalwood oil offered by producers and distributors in Polish and foreign markets. Information from 50 websites in each of the aforementioned languages, including the description of sandalwood oil properties on websites, method for using it, safety limitations, and presence of a product description consistent with the INCI recommendations, was gathered using Microsoft Excel software and was analyzed. The information that enabled us to estimate the quality of the oils was the botanical name of the oil-bearing plant and the price. Good-quality oils were considered to be oils with the botanical name Santalum album in the description and with a price not considerably less than the price of white sandalwood oils sold by reliable distributors who control the quality of the oils by chromatography. Ultimately, the lower price limit for one milliliter of the oil was established as PLN 21. Results and Conclusions. Good-quality sandalwood oils derived from the Santalum album plant at a price equal to or greater than the chromatographically tested items amounted to a negligible percentage of products sold online. Without knowing the botanical name of the essential oil plant and the price range of unadulterated sandalwood oil, the likelihood of buying a reliable product is low on all of the analyzed websites, with the lowest probability being observed on the Polish websites.
... The Phytochemical studies of sandalwood have identified over 100 constituents in its oil. The major constituent is alpha-santalol, which is the chief constituent of oil and responsible for most of the biological activities of Sandalwood essential oil 19 . ...
... Acute Oral Toxicity (LD 50 ) of Sandalwood: The calculated dose of Sandalwood powder considered to be safest, as it has a long history of oral use without any reported adverse effects. Moreover, the acute oral toxicity (LD50) of sandalwood oil in rats has been reported as 5.58 g/kg of body weight 19 . ...
Asgand (Withania somnifera Dunal.) in Unani System of Medicine Jan. 2024, in Communicated to KSCSTE-Kerala Forest Research Institute, Kerala, to publish in a “Comprehensive book on Ashwagandha
... HW, in which EO is synthesized and accumulates, usually takes 6-8 years to form under natural growth conditions (Li, 2003). EO content in the HW of 30-year-old trees meets international standards when (Z)-α-santalol content is > 41 %, and (Z)-β-santalol content is > 16 % (v/w) (Burdock and Carabin, 2008). Since wild S. album resources have been overexploited, it is listed as a vulnerable plant species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (Arunkumar et al., 2019). ...
... The variations in color largely depend on different types of compounds deposited among species, such that HW is faint red in S. album and D. odorifera Cui et al., 2020) but black in D. melanoxylon (Yin et al., 2018). Sandalwood HW contains fragrant EO (Burdock and Carabin, 2008;Jones et al., 2008). However, very little is known about other metabolites stored in HW. ...
Santalum album L. is an economically important species that can produce highly valued essential oil (EO) consisting mainly of santalols in its aromatic heartwood. Elicitors stimulate the production of EO, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. In this study, the regulatory role and ability of a cytokinin (6-benzyladenine, BA) to promote the accumulation of secondary metabolites, was investigated. The levels of EO and total flavonoids increased 2.3- and 1.5-fold, respectively one year after BA treatment. The top significantly enriched Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways of upregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially accumulated metabolites contained ‘terpenoid biosynthesis’, ‘phenylpropanoid biosynthesis’, and ‘flavonoids biosynthesis’, displaying similar profiles to those detected in natural heartwood from 10-year-old trees. Prominently, the content of santalols was increased by approximately 90-fold by BA relative to the control and was associated with the contents of flavonoids and phenolics. BA also enhanced the contents of cytokinins, an auxin (IAA), gibberellins, jasmonic acid and an ethylene precursor while DEGs associated with the biosynthesis and signaling of these hormones were significantly upregulated. Dual-LUC assays confirmed that identified SaMYC2a-2c and three SaERFs activated SaSSY and SaCYP736A167 expression. Moreover, exogenous BA regulated EO biosynthesis in sandalwood suspension cells but could not directly activate the expression of these two genes in these cells. We infer from these findings that exogenously applied BA positively participated in the biosynthesis of sandalwood EO by interacting with other hormones. These findings also reveal details of the regulatory mechanism underlying the cytokinin-induced production of secondary metabolites, which determine the fragrance and color of S. album heartwood.
... These alcohols are responsible of the characteristic odor of sandalwood. Nevertheless, there are minor constituents that should be taken into account, such as sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (6 %), esters (2-4 %), phenols, lactones, terpenes, volatile compounds and fragrant substances (Burdock & Carabin, 2008;Subasinghe et al., 2013). ...
... It also has been approved by the FDA as a natural flavoring substance that can be used in combination with other flavors. Council of Europe added sandalwood to the list of substances, spices, and seasonings (Burdock & Carabin, 2008). ...
Chitosan with sandalwood (Santalum album) essential oil (SEO) using malic acid as solvent were evaluated as an active packaging film. It was applied as sachet to butter packaging. The effects of SEO concentration (0.5 %, 1 % and 2 % v/v) on chitosan film properties were studied by measuring the equilibrium moisture content, solubility, water vapor permeability (WVP), mechanical, optical, heat sealability, antioxidant properties, surface morphology and thermostability. SEO showed a significant effect on the film properties except for the puncture properties and the equilibrium moisture values. SEO promoted a significant decrease in tensile strength from 5.78 to 2.99 MPa, Young’s Modulus (YM) from 35.74 to 6.81 MPa, WVP from 6.70·10⁻¹¹ to 3.34·10⁻¹¹ g/m·s·Pa, and sealability from 195.20 to 107.94 N/m. The antioxidant properties of the films were improved with the presence of SEO. The addition of SEO significantly improved the UV-barrier of the films. The color and transparency of the samples showed significant variations by the addition of SEO. The active packaging film was evaluated as butter sachet. After 3 months of butter storage, a significant decrease of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances was observed, showing a 36 % decrease in the lipid oxidation compared to unpackaged samples. The films are completely water-soluble and can be easily removed from foodstuffs after use without generating solid wastes.
... The Phytochemical studies of sandalwood have identified over 100 constituents in its oil. The major constituent is alpha-santalol, which is the chief constituent of oil and responsible for most of the biological activities of Sandalwood essential oil 19 . ...
... Acute Oral Toxicity (LD 50 ) of Sandalwood: The calculated dose of Sandalwood powder considered to be safest, as it has a long history of oral use without any reported adverse effects. Moreover, the acute oral toxicity (LD50) of sandalwood oil in rats has been reported as 5.58 g/kg of body weight 19 . ...
Background: In the Unani System of Medicine, Sandal safed (Sandalwood) is used in many cardiac problems as it possesses Mufarreh (exhilarant) and Muqawwi Qalb (cardiotonic) activities. The present study was designed to evaluate the cardioprotective effect of Sandal safed in Isoproterenol-induced Myocardial Infarction. Methods: Male Wistar rats, weighing 150-200gm, divided into five groups of ten in each. Group I and III rats were given 5% gum acacia (vehicle) and Sandalwood powder in the dose of 800 mg/kg body weight, orally once daily for seven days, followed by subcutaneous administration of normal saline on the 8th and 9th day. Group II, IV & V were administered 5% gum acacia, test drug in the dose of 600 & 800mg/kg body weight, orally once daily for seven days, respectively, followed by isoproterenol hydrochloride (50 mg/ kg body weight) subcutaneously, twice at an interval of 24 h on 8th and 9th day. On 10th day, animals were sacrificed, heart and adrenal glands were weighed, and serum cardiac enzymes and lipid profile were analysed. Histopathological study of apex of the heart was carried out. Results: In group-II rats, serum cardiac enzymes, serum cholesterol, TG, LDL, VLDL, and weight of the heart and adrenal gland were found to be increased significantly (P< 0.001), and HDL, cardiac glycogen and adrenal ascorbic acid were decreased significantly along with gross pathological changes in heart tissues, but in group IV & V rats, the above parameters were normal. Conclusion: Sandal safed revealed cardioprotective effect in dose dependent manner without any side effects.
... The active site of MK exists between amino acids 139 and 150 (LPLGSGLGSSAA) in SaMK and is an ATP binding domain sequence of GHMP kinase (Fig. 3a). SaPMK (Fig. 3b) also contains the N-terminal conserved region of GHMP kinase from amino acids 182-252 and has three conserved motifs, GKVLLAGGY (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18), and GGGVPGAGG (448-456). These findings confirmed that SaMK and SaPMK have similar catalytic functional domains to the corresponding MK and PMK from other species. ...
... Its value lies mainly in its heartwood and the essential oil extracted from heartwood 3 . Santalol is responsible for the pleasant fragrance www.nature.com/scientificreports/ of sandalwood 13 and most of the oil's pharmacological activity 68 . Thus, it is important to investigate whether or not SaMK and SaPMK transcripts may be related to the accumulation of santalol in different S. album tissues. ...
Sandalwood ( Santalum album L.) is highly valued for its fragrant heartwood and extracted oil. Santalols, which are the main components of that oil, are terpenoids, and these are biosynthesized via the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway. Mevalonate kinase (MK) and phosphomevalonate kinase (PMK) are key enzymes in the MVA pathway. Little is known about the genes that encode MK and PMK in S. album or the mechanism that regulates their expression. To isolate and identify the functional genes involved in santalol biosynthesis in S. album , an MK gene designated as SaMK , and a PMK gene designated as SaPMK , were cloned from S. album . The sequences of these genes were analyzed. A bioinformatics analysis was conducted to assess the homology of SaMK and SaPMK with MK and PMK genes from other plants. The subcellular localization of SaMK and SaPMK proteins was also investigated, as was the functional complementation of SaMK and SaPMK in yeast. Our results show that the full-length cDNA sequences of SaMK and SaPMK were 1409 bp and 1679 bp long, respectively. SaMK contained a 1381 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a polypeptide of 460 amino acids and SaPMK contained a 1527 bp ORF encoding a polypeptide of 508 amino acids. SaMK and SaPMK showed high homology with MK and PMK genes of other plant species. Functional complementation of SaMK in a MK-deficient mutant yeast strain YMR208W and SaPMK in a PMK-deficient mutant yeast strain YMR220W confirmed that cloned SaMK and SaPMK cDNA encode a functional MK and PMK, respectively, mediating MVA biosynthesis in yeast. An analysis of tissue expression patterns revealed that SaMK and SaPMK were constitutively expressed in all the tested tissues. SaMK was highly expressed in young leaves but weakly expressed in sapwood. SaPMK was highly expressed in roots and mature leaves, but weakly expressed in young leaves. Induction experiments with several elicitors showed that SaMK and SaPMK expression was upregulated by methyl jasmonate. These results will help to further study the role of MK and PMK genes during santalol biosynthesis in S. album .
... As a component of flavoring, ingesting 0.0074 mg/kg of body weight per day of sandalwood oil has never been connected to any adverse side effects, and the oil has been used orally for millennia as a nutritional supplement (Burdock and Carabin, 2008). The sandalwood plant is made up of a variety of different primary and secondary phytochemical components. ...
Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) is more frequently referred to as Indian
Sandalwood, and it is among the ancient and most valuable sources of
natural scent. It also has a significant impact on both medicine and business.
Sandalwood has been cultivated in India for the last twenty-five centuries
and is well regarded around the globe for the long-lasting, pleasant, and
medicinally valuable scented oil it produces. Traditional medical practises
such as Siddha, Unani, and Ayurveda all make use of sandalwood and the
essential oil that is extracted from the heartwood of the sandal tree for diagnosis,
treating, and preventing a broader range of diseases and disorders. The
abundant supply of phytochemicals, in particular sesquiterpeness, is what
gives sandalwood its significant therapeutic and medical value. Sandalwood
has a wide range of applications in healthcare. Recent research in the field
of pharmacology has uncovered a diverse array of pharmacological actions. However, additional research on chemical constituents and the mechanisms
by which they exhibit certain biological activities is required in order to
gain a full understanding of the phytochemical profile of sandalwood or
its oil or the plant. Sandalwood oil and its individual constituents have not
been shown to exhibit any significant toxicity. In this chapter, traditional
applications, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and biological activities
of sandalwood are dissected in order to reveal its medicinal and industrial
usefulness as well as gaps in knowledge that need to be filled by further
investigation.
... The East Indian Sandalwood species (Santalum album L.) is a tropical woody plant of Santalaceae family growing up to a height of 12-15 m 1-4 and known to thrive under a wide range of environmental conditions. Sandalwood accumulates essential oil in the centre of heartwood in 30 years old matured trees 5,6 and is highly valued for the fragrant heartwood and oil, which are used in perfumes, aromatherapy, cosmetics, medicine, [7][8][9][10][11] and in skin cancer prevention. 12 Sandalwood trees within their geographical habitat face significant concerns from overharvesting and illegal felling due to rising demand for sandalwood lumber and essential oils. ...
Sandalwood is an important endemic tree in India. The oil in sandalwood, particularly in the heartwood, is the primary reason for its economic and cultural importance. However, the oil content of heartwood varies greatly between species and even within species. Furthermore, oil concentration varies greatly depending on position where sample is taken. In the present study, we report variations in oil content in a piece of heartwood of a single tree at specified positions both radially and longitudinally from core heartwood to the periphery and from lower side of butt-root to upper side. Further variation in α-santalol and β-santalol content of oil were also estimated. The variation in oil content was found to be in the range of 0.6–5.67% while the total santalol content ranged from 66.7% to 79.5%. This study is aimed towards analysing the variations in santalol content and oil yield across different axes of tree.
... Indian sandalwood has held an important societal status in India since 1772 due to its aromatically fragrant EO 5 . The EO also has a long (~4,000 years) and acclaimed history in perfumery, medicine, religion, and other cultural applications 6 . The EO, or compounds within it, have displayed antioxidant, antitumour, antidepressive and anti-inflammatory activity 7,8 . ...
Santalum album is a well-known aromatic and medicinal plant that is highly valued for the essential oil (EO) extracted from its heartwood. In this study, we present a high-quality chromosome-level genome assembly of S. album after integrating PacBio Sequel, Illumina HiSeq paired-end and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture sequencing technologies. The assembled genome size is 207.39 M with a contig N50 of 7.33 M and scaffold N50 size of 18.31 M. Compared with three previously published sandalwood genomes, the N50 length of the genome assembly was longer. In total, 94.26% of the assembly was assigned to 10 pseudo-chromosomes, and the anchor rate far exceeded that of a recently released value. BUSCO analysis yielded a completeness score of 94.91%. In addition, we predicted 23,283 protein-coding genes, 89.68% of which were functionally annotated. This high-quality genome will provide a foundation for sandalwood functional genomics studies, and also for elucidating the genetic basis of EO biosynthesis in S. album.
... It is also an ingredient in chayvanprasha, anti-dandruff shampoos, anti-wrinkle creams, infant creams, and anti-wrinkle powders. The heartwood is often utilized to make ornamental furniture, wood crafts and mythological figures (Burdock & Carabin, 2008). ...
Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) commonly known as Indian Sandalwood is one of the oldest and precious sources of natural fragrance with immense medicinal and commercial significance. It is a hemi-parasitic tree grown in southern India and Southeast Asia. The present study is undertaken to conserve this species through mass production of seedlings and reintroducing them in their habitats.
... Sandalwood heartwood, as an important raw material used to produce essential oils and spices, has always had a high market heat. In terms of sandalwood, the heartwood contains a unique aroma; it is mainly used in the manufacture of high-end furniture and the essential oil extracted from sandalwood heartwood has increasingly become an important raw material for the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries [2,3]. At the same time, sandalwood, as a medicinal herb, has significant effects on anticancer, antioxidant, and neurological aspects. ...
AREB/ABF/ABI5 (ABA-responsive element-binding protein/ABRE binding factors and ABA INSENSITIVE 5) transcription factors are involved in regulating the expression of ABA (abscisic acid)-related genes and improving plant adaptability to environmental stress. To explore the influence of AREB/ABF transcription factors on santalol synthesis, we conducted a genome-wide analysis of the AREB gene family in sandalwood, identified 10 SaAREB genes, and divided them into five subfamilies. We found that all SaAREB genes encoded unstable hydrophilic proteins and the subcellular localization prediction of SaAREBs was that they are located in the nucleus. AREB/ABF genes belong to the bZIP-A subfamily and we found that the 10 AREB proteins all contained bZIP (basic region leucine zipper) and four potential phosphorylation sites (RXXS/T). According to the collinearity analysis results, four of the SaAREB genes were involved in two fragment duplication events. Through qRT-PCR (real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR), we explored the expression profile of SaAREB in different tissues; the effects of ABA treatment and drought treatment on AREB transcription factors were predicted. From the expression of different tissues, we found that SaAREB1 not only responded to prolonged drought but also was highly expressed in stems. Moreover, SaAREB3, SaAREB7, and SaAREB8 specifically respond to ABA treatment. Based on RNA-seq (RNA sequencing) data, we found that SaAREB6 and SaAREB8 were highly expressed in the sapwood and transition regions. Regarding SaCYP736A167, as a key gene in santalol synthesis, its promoter contains the most ABRE cis-reactive elements. These results provide a basis for further analysis of the role of the Santalum album L. (S. album) ABRE/ABF/ABI5 genes in the formation of santalols.
... Andola et al.,2013). As well as another authenticated reference has reported in research survey or references (Ved et al.,2003;Venkatachalam et al.,2006;Burdock et al.,2008;Warnke at al., 2009;Kareparamban et al.,2010;Nulu et al.,2010;Srivastava et al.,2010;Mandalar et al.,2010;Shah et al.,2013;Sharma et al.,2013;) for identification and conformity of extensive authenticated selective and reported plant species were confirmed and identified with the help of standard athnobotanical flora, species, family as well as these reported active phytochemical constituents of rare and costly raw medicinal plants of India. In the challenging task of Drug controlling and Drug regularity affaires and pharmaco vigilance authority on the aspects for used Misbrand, Adulterated or Substituted, Spurious drugs in ASU. ...
ABSTRACT: Endangered Indian medicinal plants have used as traditional and
alternative Indian system of medicine (ISM.) from last several ancient time. In 20th
and 21th centaury generation are becoming aware of the side effect and adverse
reaction of synthetic drugs and so there is an increasing interest, Scope of innovate
in herbal medicinal plants based Ayurvedic, Sidha, Unani (ASU.) medicinal products. In the continuously using of Adulteration and Substitution, Spurious drugs on the place of original Indian endangered and costly ASU. Herbal medicinal plants
hence today generate the major task of Indian drug regularity affaire, drug
controlling approach as well as herbal industries face burning problem. Resulted
growing high altitude region many endangered and rare costly original medicinal
species such as these are Vatsnabh, (Aconitum Chasmanthumstapfex. Haimes),
Ativishaor Atis, (Aconitumheterophylum Wall. Ex. Royal), Kutki, (Picrorhiza kurroa royleex), Kuth or Kustha, (Saussurea lappa C.B.CL.), Puskarmool,(Inularacemosa Hook.F.), Riddhi, (Hobenariainte media D. Don), Vriddhi,(Habenariaedge worthii Hook.f.ex.Collett), Kakoli, (Roseea purpurrea Smith),Kshirakakoli, (Fritillariar oylei Hook) and (Lilium polyphyllum D. Don), Jeevak,(Crepipiuma cumina tum D.Don.) Szlach.), Meda, (Polygonatum verticillatum Linn.)Allioni), Mahameda, (Polygonatum cirrhifolium (wall.) Royal) and (Polygonatum Vertecillatum Alloi), Rakta Chandana , Sandal Surkh,( Pterocarpus santalinus Linn.), Sveta Chandana, Sandal Safed ,(Santalum album Linn.), Kesar,Keshar or Kum Kum, Zafran ,(Crocus sativus Linn.) etc. completely endangered and incorrect identification of their intestinally or unintentionally, Finally they become effectively adulterated and substituted in condition. The present communication investigate research review has reported their drug regularity affaire and drug controlling, pharmacovigilance approach of Adulteration and Substitution, Spurious drugs with active phytochemical constituents, extensive taxonomical and ethnobotanical authentication, medicinal properties of these several endangered and costly medicinal plants.
... The Food and Drug Administration (FDA, USA) has authorised the use of sandalwood essential oil (SEO) in combination with other tastes for human consumption (24). Due to its antioxidant (25), neuroprotective (26), anti-inflammatory (27), & antibacterial (28) qualities, SEO also possesses a number of additional pharmacological effects. ...
The major focus of this review paper is based on antioxidants' capacity (of various types and supplies, utilizing diverse mechanisms of action) to mitigate oxidative stress and the role of reacting oxygen species in generating oxidative injury to the lipids in cell membranes. According to the definition of oxidative stress, cells' redox equilibrium is out of balance and there is excessive production of reactive oxygen radicals, which antioxidants cannot stop.
... Single drugs, Standard connected text books authenticated references, noted were prepared on their morphological attributes (Krishnamurthi et al., 1969;Zalkaw 1984;Soler et al., 1988;Paraschas, 1990;Wang et al., 1991;Okugawa et al., 1995;Angers et al., 1996;Divivedi et al., 1997;Rastogi et al., 1998;Chouhan, 1999;Sabinsa, 2000;Singh et al., 2004;Joshi et al., 2005;Chatterjee et al., 2005;Kant et al., 2005;Tahir et al., 2007;Robinson et al., 2008;Shah and Seth, 2010;Mohan et al., 2010;Rehman et al., 2011;Javed et al., 2012;Sarkar et al., 2012;Bohuguna et al.,2012&2013;Andola et al., 2013). As well as another authenticated reference has reported in research survey or references (Ved et al., 2003;Venkatachalam et al., 2006;Burdock et al., 2008;Warnke et al., 2009;Kareparamban et al., 2010;Nulu et al., 2010;Srivastava et al., 2010;Mandalar et al., 2010;Shah et al., 2013;Sharma et al., 2013;) for identification and conformity of extensive authenticated selective and reported plant species were confirmed and identified with the help of standard ethnobotanical flora, species, family as well as these reported active phytochemical constituents of rare and costly raw medicinal plants of India. ...
... In addition, several portions of the plant have been demonstrated to exhibit antibacterial and antioxidant activities in vitro and in vivo, which could be related to sesquiterpenoids such as shikimic acid. [61,62,63] Aegle marmelos (Fig.13) are commonly called Stone apples, Golden apples, Japanese bitter orange or Bael. It has a pale brown or grey bark with long straight spines that is smooth or coarsely fissured and flaking. ...
Plants have long been utilised for therapeutic purposes. Most of these plants are regularly utilized by the
public to treat common ailments, and some of them have religious significance. These practices are an
important aspect of the Indian healthcare system, which can be seen throughout the country. Because
they are high in medicinal secondary metabolites and oil, sacred plants is a valuable source of
pharmaceuticals in both traditional and modern medicine. In India, around 3000 plant species have been
identified as having therapeutic properties and are employed in traditional medical systems such as
Homeopathy, Yunani, Siddha and Ayurveda. The remedies are made from all parts of the plant, including
the leaves, stem, bark, root, flower, seed, etc. We've taken sacred medicinal plants from the north, south,
east, and west of India, together with their botanical descriptions and therapeutic components has been
discussed in this paper.
Keywords: Sacred medicinal plants, therapeutic purposes, ayurveda
... Furthermore, sandalwood trees are very economically valuable because of their fragrance (Fatima et al. 2019). Its distinctive aroma makes sandalwood used as a high-priced sandalwood perfume ingredient because it contains sotalol (see also Burdock and Carabin 2008;Diaz-Chavez et al. 2013;Kucharska et al. 2021;. ...
Sandalwood (Santalum album Linn) is an endemic plant of TimorLeste that has high economic value and needs to be developed to achieve prosper society and the country. This research aims to discover people'sperceptions of sandalwood development in Timor-Leste. Data is obtained using questionnaires, surveys, observations, and documentation. The population from this study is 84 respondents consisting of 15% of the family head in both villages Maudemo and Aidabaleten based on the agricultural census 2019. Data was collected using a 15% sample. Data are analyzed descriptively with statistical percentage techniques with every possibility of the answers obtained from sharing the frequency received by the number ofsamples multiplied by 100%. The results showed that 100% of the community knew sandalwood well and its economic value. Many people have not planted and adopted government programs to grow sandalwood, community 8% have land above 1 hectare. The community 100% and 98% in both villages knowthat the government has conducted a planting program. The public has not adopted government programs, with respondents 88% in the village of Maudemo and 36% in the village of Aidabaleten. The community does not have business capital, so it needs seedling subsidies with respondents 100% and 69%, incentives 100% and 95%, and bank credit 100% and 88% in both villages. Massive sandalwood development requires government policies to socialize programs, laws, and regulations on sandalwood development. Therefore, a policy from the government is required to provide seedlings, incentives, and bank credit to the community.
... There is also a long history of using sandalwood in both traditional and modern medicines (Burdock & Carabin, 2008;Subasinghe, 2013). ...
Societal Impact Statement
Sandalwood and other high value tree species are under significant threat from illegal harvest. Illegal logging is an increasing problem contributing to deforestation, biodiversity loss, human rights abuses and funding transnational crime. Successful prosecution of illegal logging is hindered by a lack of methods to provide evidence of the origin of timber. New analytical techniques have been developed to trace timber back to its source. These methods, together with the establishment of sustainable sources of forest resources, can help protect vulnerable species by providing evidence to prosecute illegal harvest and ensure that commercially available forest products come from sustainable sources.
Summary
Sandalwood is highly valued for its fragrant oil and has a long history of cultural and economic importance in many regions of the world. Historical overharvest and poor management have depleted natural populations of sandalwood, which are slow to regenerate. The increasing establishment of plantation sandalwood creates an alternative resource for the sandalwood industry while potentially relieving harvesting pressure on natural stands. Due to the high demand for sandalwood, remaining wild populations are still under threat from illegal logging and methods to identify the source of harvested sandalwood are needed. Laws and regulations aimed at preventing illegal harvest and possession of sandalwood have been put in place but cannot be enforced without the forensic tools to independently verify claimed origin or product quality. The high value of sandalwood combined with the difficulties in enforcing illegal logging laws makes these species particularly vulnerable to poaching. There is an immediate need to develop tools that can identify illegally sourced and adulterated sandalwood products. This paper reviews the current and developing scientific tools that can help identify and control illegal activity in sandalwood supply chains and provides recommendations for future research. Topics include isotope and DNA analysis for tracing illegally harvested sandalwood, chemical profiling for quality control of sandalwood oils, network and policy development to establish a framework for future regulation of the sandalwood trade.
... Sandalwood appears in human consumption in various forms. The ancient Egyptians imported sandalwood for use in royal medicine, embalming, and burning ceremonies for the worship of gods (Burdock & Carabin, 2008); the records in ancient Indian Vamana Purana show that incense wood was recommended for worshiping Lord Shiva, The Brahma Vaivarta Purana records that the goddess Lakshmi lived on the sandalwood tree (Sensarma, 1989), and the Indian ancestors limited the application of sandalwood and its products to Brahmins, Kshatriyas and other high castes, Mysore kingdom in India even named the sandalwood tree as the Royal Tree in 18 th century. It is also the cremation fuel for Indian royal relatives, high officials and dignitaries, as well as religious and rich people. ...
This study is to examine the interaction between humans and sandalwood from the perspective of environmental history. Sandalwood was originally an ordinary plant in nature, growing naturally. When it was discovered and used by human beings, sandalwood was brought into the world of human history. In the long history of human interaction with sandalwood, it has been placed on the consumption end, trade end, and production end, and has formed a good or bad relationship between man and nature. Based on historical documents, records and previous research results, this study uses the method of document analysis to explain the interactive relationship between human and sandalwood, so as to reveal the relationship between man and nature. We found that, the interaction between people and sandalwood has roughly gone through the stages of “the natural consumption of satisfying life”, “excessive consumption of chasing profit”, “protective consumption of promoting sustainable development”. It is also revealed that human beings constantly reflect on themselves and actively seek the sustainable way to live in harmony with nature.
... Chemically, santalol is a phenolic compound with good antioxidant abilities [26]. In addition, it is approved by the FDA for human use and consumption [27,28]. Apparently, there is a lack of information on the pharmacological potency of santalol against tyrosinase activity [29]. ...
This research work focuses on the potential application of an organic compound, santalol, obtained from santalum album, in the inhibition of the enzyme tyrosinase, which is actively involved in the biosynthesis of melanin pigment. Over-production of melanin causes undesirable pigmentation in humans as well as other organisms and significantly downgrades their aesthetic value. The study is designed to explain the purification of tyrosinase from the mushroom Agaricus bisporus, followed by activity assays and enzyme kinetics to give insight into the santalol-modulated tyrosinase inhibition in a dose-dependent manner. The multi-spectroscopic techniques such as UV-vis, fluorescence, and isothermal calorimetry are employed to deduce the efficiency of santalol as a potential candidate against tyrosinase enzyme activity. Experimental results are further verified by molecular docking. Santalol, derived from the essential oils of santalum album, has been widely used as a remedy for skin disorders and a potion for a fair complexion since ancient times. Based on enzyme kinetics and biophysical characterization, this is the first scientific evidence where santalol inhibits tyrosinase, and santalol may be employed in the agriculture, food, and cosmetic industries to prevent excess melanin formation or browning.
... In contrast to holoparasitic plants, hemiparasitic plants not only have the ability to perform photosynthesis, but also can grow autonomously, in some cases where no host plants exist [3]. Sandalwood is a rare tree species; its oil and hardwood have significant commercial value, used in perfumes, cosmetics, medicine, and aromatherapy, and recently in the prevention of skin cancer, but this has also led to a sharp decline in wild sandalwood populations [4][5][6]. In nature, there are more than 300 plants that can serve as sandalwood hosts and parasitic angiosperms depend on host root-derived chemical signals to control various stages of development [7,8]. ...
Auxin response factors (ARFs) are essential transcription factors in plants that play an irreplaceable role in controlling the expression of auxin response genes and participating in plant growth and stress. The ARF gene family has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana, apple (Malus domestica), poplar (Populus trichocarpa) and other plants with known whole genomes. However, S. album (Santalum album L.), has not been studied. In this study, we analyzed and screened the whole genome of S. album and obtained 18 S. album ARFs (SaARFs), which were distributed on eight chromosomes. Through the prediction of conserved domains, we found that 13 of the 18 SaARFs had three intact conserved domains, named DBD, MR, Phox and Bem1 (PB1), while the extra five SaARFs (SaARF3, SaARF10, SaARF12, SaARF15, SaARF17) had only two conserved domains, and the C-terminal PB1 domain was missing. By establishing a phylogenetic tree, 62 ARF genes in S. album, poplar and Arabidopsis were divided into four subgroups, named Ⅰ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ and Ⅳ. According to the results of collinearity analysis, we found that ten of the eighteen ARF genes were involved in five segmental duplication events and these genes had short distance intervals and high homology in the SaARF gene family. Finally, tissue-specific and drought-treatment expression of SaARF genes was observed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and six genes were significantly overexpressed in haustorium. Meanwhile we found SaARF5, SaARF10, and SaARF16 were significantly overexpressed under drought stress. These results provide a basis for further analysis of the related functions of the S. album ARF gene and its relationship with haustorium formation.
... At present, it is mainly distributed or planted in humid and hot areas, such as India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Southern China, Northern Australia, the Philippines, and some islands in the Pacific Ocean [1]. S. album is an economically important tree species because its heartwood is used for carving, incense, perfume, and medicine [2][3][4]. S. album has semiparasitic characteristics and its root system must be parasitic on the appropriate host plant root. It needs to obtain necessary water, inorganic salts, and other nutrients through the haustorium connected with the xylem of the host plant root [5]. ...
Santalum album is a semi parasitic plant and its growth is often restricted due to a lack of a host or water during plantation establishment. In this study, the effects of water and the host on the growth of S. album seedlings were studied in pot culture. The results showed that the net photosynthetic rate and height of S. album seedlings decreased significantly under drought stress. Compared with the seedlings of S. album grown without a host, the host could significantly increase the growth of S. album seedlings. The contents of soluble sugar and proline in S. album leaves increased significantly under drought stress. Drought stress resulted in a significant accumulation of malondialdehyde, increments of antioxidant enzymes activity, and non-enzymatic antioxidant substances. Antioxidant capacity was stronger and malondialdehyde content was lower in the seedling leaves of S. album with a host than in the seedlings without a host. RNA-seq was used to analyze the transcription expression profiles of S. album leaves and the results were consistent with the physiological data. These results indicate that the host can promote the seedling growth of S. album and it can increase the antioxidant capacity and osmotic adjustment substance content of the seedlings of S. album, alleviating the damage caused by drought.
... Sandalwood oil have a wide variety of uses including perfumery, pharmaceutical and toiletries, which makes understanding the regulation of high essential oil biosynthesis in sandalwood tree highly important [38,39]. Due to unregulated harvesting many natural sources of elite sandalwood trees have been exhausted, in response to this sandalwood tree plantations have been established in many region of southern India. ...
East Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is highly valued for its heartwood and its oil. There have been no efforts to comparative study of high and low oil yielding genetically identical sandalwood trees grown in similar climatic condition. Thus we intend to study a genome wide transcriptome analysis to identify the corresponding genes involved in high oil biosynthesis in S. album. In this study, 15 years old S. album (SaSHc and SaSLc) genotypes were targeted for analysis to understand the contribution of genetic background on high oil biosynthesis in S. album. A total of 28,959187 and 25,598869 raw PE reads were generated by the Illumina sequencing. 2.12 million and 1.811 million coding sequences were obtained in respective accessions. Based on the GO terms, functional classification of the CDS 21262, & 18113 were assigned into 26 functional groups of three GO categories; (4,168; 3,641) for biological process (5,758;4,971) cellular component and (5,108;4,441) for molecular functions. Total 41,900 and 36,571 genes were functionally annotated and KEGG pathways of the DEGs resulted 213 metabolic pathways. In this, 14 pathways were involved in secondary metabolites biosynthesis pathway in S. album. Among 237 cytochrome families, nine groups of cytochromes were participated in high oil biosynthesis. 16,665 differentially expressed genes were commonly detected in both the accessions (SaHc and SaSLc). The results showed that 784 genes were upregulated and 339 genes were downregulated in SaHc whilst 635 upregulated 299 downregulated in SaSLc S. album. RNA-Seq results were further validated by quantitative RT-PCR. Maximum Blast hits were found to be against Vitis vinifera. From this study, we have identified additional number of cytochrome family in high oil yielding sandalwood accessions (SaHc). The accessibility of a RNA-Seq for high oil yielding sandalwood accessions will have broader associations for the conservation and selection of superior elite samples/populations for further genetic improvement program.
... Reports have demonstrated the antifungal activities of SEO against Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Inouye, Uchida, & Abe, 2006), Microsporum canis (Nardoni et al., 2015), and Trichophyton rubrum (Kim et al., 2017). In the context of safety, SEO has been approved for food application by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA), and the Council of Europe (CoE) (Burdock and Carabin, 2008). This volatile oil is commonly utilized as a food flavoring and adjuvant agent. ...
The properties of an antifungal coating film made from chitosan (CH) combined with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZNPs) and Indonesian sandalwood essential oil (SEO) were investigated. Incorporation of 0.5% SEO or 0.025% ZNPs plus 0.5% SEO into 0.8% CH coating solution showed outstanding effects on the inhibition of both
mycelium growth and spore germination of Penicillium italicum. The antifungal mechanism was explained by measuring the loss of membrane integrity of spores. The antifungal effectiveness was confirmed in vivo by carrying out tests on tangerine fruit. The biocompatibility of these coatings was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and fluorescence microscopy. Significant increases in pH, appearance viscosity, and transparency and a decrease in light transmittance were found with 0.8% CH plus 0.025% ZNPs and 0.5% SEO compared with the control. CH films incorporating SEO and ZNPs can be used as an edible film and coating to reduce chemical use.
... Since ancient times this essential oil served for religious purposes as an incense and used in fragrances, flavorings, and as a traditional medicine for use as an antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, astringent, sedative, as an insecticide, and antiseptic (Burdock GA and Carabin IG 2008). ...
... Dalam lontar ini cendana diceritakan memperkenalkan dirinya pada Mpu Kuturan dengan kata-kata sebagai berikut "Saya bernama pohon (kayu) 'Cendana', wasiat saya sejuk (tis), saya dapat dipakai obat bayi (wong lare), yang sakit cacar (sampar), ambil kulit (asaban) saya atau serbuk saya untuk wedak (boreh) diisi dengan arak sedikit" (Pulasari, 2009). Secara empiris cendana (Santalum album L.) digunakan sebagai antidepresan, antiinflamasi, antijamur, astringent, obat penenang, insektisida, dan antiseptik (Burdock and Carabin, 2008;So, Tang and Epstein, 2010). ...
Secara empiris Cendana (Santalum album L.) digunakan sebagai antidepresan, antiinflamasi, antijamur, astringent, obat penenang, insektisida, dan antiseptik. Penggunaan tanaman obat dapat ditingkatkan kenyamanannya dengan memformulasikan dalam bentuk sediaan obat. Salah satu sediaan topikal yang cocok untuk inflamasi adalah spray gel. Sediaan spray ini lebih praktis dalam penggunaannya dan juga lebih aman sebab tingkat kontaminasi mikroorganisme lebih rendah karena penggunaannya yang disemprotkan tanpa kontak langsung dengan tangan seperti halnya sediaan topikal lainnya. Konsistensi gel yang memiliki daya lekat cukup tinggi membuat waktu kontak obat yang relatif lebih lama dibanding sediaan lainnya. Pada pembuatan spray gel dengan kandungan minyak atsiri diperlukan adanya emulsifying agent. Carbopol sebagai emulsifying agent yang dipilih dalam formulasi spray gel minyak atsiri cendana, akan dapat menstabilkan zat aktif berbentuk minyak dalam basis berair dengan cara menurunkan tegangan permukaan fase air dan fase minyak. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian laboratorium murni dengan observasional eksperimental. Teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan skala pengamatan dan pengukuran. Pengamatan diakukan terhadap organoleptik dan homogenitas sediaan, serta pengukuran dilakukan terhadap pH, pola penyemprotan, daya sebar lekat dan stabilitas mekanik. Dilakukan analisis statistik terhadap data hasil uji bobot pola penyemprotan dan dilanjutkan dengan uji independent t-test. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat disimpulkan bahwa formulasi spray gel minyak atsiri kayu cendana (Santalum album L.) dengan variasi carbopol 0,1% (F1) memiliki pola penyemprotan yang baik, dan dengan carbopol 0,3% (F2) memiliki daya lekat yang baik.
... The sandalwood oil from the heartwood possess about 230 phytoconstituents, a polyethanol / terpenoid (santalol) is found the most prominent active principle and attributed to the fragrance of the sandalwood (Baldovini et al. 2011), and extremely explored in traditional medicinal formulations, aromatherapy, perfumery and food products (Burdock and Carabin 2008;Arunkumar et al. 2012). It has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anticancer properties (Moy and Levenson 2017). ...
Santalum album L. (Indian sandalwood) is an economically important but vulnerable tropical tree species. Cultures were established via direct shoot regeneration from axillary buds on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2.5 mg L⁻¹ 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP). The shoots were multiplied using MS medium containing 1.0 mg L⁻¹ BAP and 0.5 mg L⁻¹ indole-3 acetic acid and rooted on half strength MS medium containing 1.0 mg L⁻¹ indole-3 butyric acid. The rooted plantlets were hardened and acclimatized in greenhouse using soilrite® and cocopeat (1:1) mixture. The concentrations of photosynthetic pigments were analyzed and detected less under in vitro conditions (6.05 μg g⁻¹ FW) as compared to the 4 weeks old hardened (6.91 μg g⁻¹ FW) and 12 weeks old acclimatized plantlets (7.8 μg g⁻¹ FW) under greenhouse (ex vitro) environment. The anatomical evaluation of plantlets at subsequent stages of propagation suggested that the in vitro raised plantlets possessed structural abnormalities such as underdeveloped cuticle, unorganized tissue systems, reduced mesophyll tissues, fewer vascular elements and mechanical tissues, and loosely arranged thin walled paranchymatous ground tissues, which were slowly repaired during ex vitro hardening and acclimatization process to validate the developmental adaptation of micropropagated plantlets for maximum survival in the field (98.0% survival rate). The findings could help in the optimization of high-frequency commercial micropropagation of S. album for year-round production, and supply of this economically prominent vulnerable plant species to the farmers and the industries that rely on it.
Nowadays, individuals with cow's milk allergy have shown greater interest in plant‐based (PB) milk alternatives. This study addresses this issue by producing cow's milk yogurt, lupin‐based yogurt, and a hybrid of cow's and PB milk yogurt. In addition, a safe food formulation was developed by incorporating probiotic bacteria and sandalwood oil into these yogurt types. Statistical analysis revealed that the type of milk significantly influenced the physicochemical properties of the yogurts ( p < 0.05). The highest mean syneresis (6.78 mL/25 g) was observed in the cow's milk yogurt (C2), whereas the combination of dairy and lupin‐based yogurt (CL2) exhibited the greatest water‐holding capacity (WHC) (3933 cP). The total phenolic content (TPC) across all yogurt samples ranged from 6.67 to 19.58 mg GAE/g, with the lupin‐based yogurts showing the highest values. Specifically, the lupin‐based yogurt (L4) displayed the highest antioxidant activity of 34.14%, compared to 9.49% in dairy yogurt (C1). Throughout the storage period, Lactobacillus acidophilus counts remained above 8.45 log cfu/mL in dairy yogurt and 7.78 log cfu/g in lupin‐based yogurt. The firmness, cohesiveness, and viscosity index values of lupin‐based yogurts were higher than those of the other yogurt types. Organoleptic analysis indicated that PB yogurts were similarly well‐received as dairy products.
Indonesia is known for its rich biodiversity and the production of several endemic essential oils that are popular in the cosmetics industry. Essential oils are highly concentrated aromatic liquids derived from various plant materials, such as flowers, leaves, bark, stems, or roots. The pleasing fragrance, therapeutic effects, and potential benefits for skin care make essential oils a common ingredient in cosmetics. Various essential oils in Indonesia are native to the region and frequently applied in cosmetics. These include patchouli, clove, citronella, cananga, vetiver, lemongrass, oud, sandalwood and benzoin oils. Other common oils include lavender, tea tree, chamomile, rose, peppermint, and frankincense. Various methods for extracting essential oils include steam distillation, cold pressing and solvent extraction. The chemical composition can vary significantly depending on species, growing conditions, extraction method, and harvest time. Essential oils comprise a complex mixture of volatile organic compounds, including terpenes, aldehydes, phenols, ketones, alcohols, esters, and oxides. These compounds possess numerous beneficial properties, such as antimicrobial, analgesic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Essential oils can also have antifungal and sedative effects, contributing to their pleasant aroma. They are often employed in skin care products like creams, lotions, and serums to help with skin irritation and relaxation. Some essential oils are highly valued for their pleasing aroma and are applied in perfumes, hair care items, and moisturizers. The biomass of certain plants can also be involved in cosmetics, including leaves, flowers, stems, and other parts. However, it is crucial to properly formulate and understand the potential effects on the skin, as essential oils are highly concentrated and should be diluted appropriately before application. It is advisable to perform patch tests and consult a qualified expert to ensure safety and efficacy.
Salinity is one of the most significant abiotic stress that affects the growth and development of high-value tree species, including sandalwood, which can also be managed effectively on saline soils with the help of suitable host species. Therefore, the current investigation was conducted to understand the physiological processes and antioxidant mechanisms in sandalwood along the different salinity gradients to explore the host species that could support sandalwood growth in salt-affected agro-ecosystems. Sandalwood seedlings were grown with ten diverse host species with saline water irrigation gradients (ECiw~3, 6, and 9 dS m−1) and control (ECiw~0.82 dS m−1). Experimental findings indicate a decline in the chlorophyll content (13–33%), relative water content (3–23%), photosynthetic (27–61%) and transpiration rate (23–66%), water and osmotic potential (up to 137%), and ion dynamics (up to 61%) with increasing salinity levels. Conversely, the carotenoid content (23–43%), antioxidant activity (up to 285%), and membrane injury (82–205%) were enhanced with increasing salinity stress. Specifically, among the hosts, Dalbergia sissoo and Melia dubia showed a minimum reduction in chlorophyll content, relative water content, and plant water relation and gas exchange parameters of sandalwood plants. Surprisingly, most of the host tree species maintained K+/Na+ of sandalwood up to moderate water salinity of ECiw~6 dS m−1; however, a further increase in water salinity decreased the K+/Na+ ratio of sandalwood by many-fold. Salinity stress also enhanced the antioxidative enzyme activity, although the maximum increase was noted with host plants M. dubia, followed by D. sissoo and Azadirachta indica. Overall, the investigation concluded that sandalwood with the host D. sissoo can be successfully grown in nurseries using saline irrigation water and, with the host M. dubia, it can be grown using good quality irrigation water.
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is a high-value tree species known for its fragrant wood and oil and has been widely used in traditional medicine, cosmetics, and religious ceremonies. Over the years, the demand for this species is increasing which needs for commercial plantation of this species beyond its natural habitat especially in the agroforestry systems. The sandalwood is a root hemi-parasite and is unable to absorb the water and most of nutrients (macro- and micro-nutrient) required for its growth directly from the soil due to lack of root hairs. Thus, a suitable host is required to improve the growth, survival, and yield of sandalwood as the transfer nutrients between sandalwood and host also depend on the particular host species. Simultaneously, in recent years, the soil salinity is increasing at a very fast pace leading to think about the establishment of sandalwood plantations in the saline environment. However, it is imperative to have the knowledge about tolerance of sandalwood to salinity stress with particular host, including its morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses along with haustorial anatomy, as sandalwood responds differently toward its hosts at the molecular level. Moreover, the transfer of nutrients between sandalwood and host also depends on the particular host species. Overall, the potential for sandalwood to thrive under salinity stress conditions can offer an opportunity for timber growers to diversify their crops and contribute to sustainable land use practices.
Breast cancer continues to be one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers around the world. Despite the decrease in mortality, there has been a steady increase in its incidence. There is much evidence that naturally occurring phytochemicals could prove to be safer alternatives aimed at prevention and development of breast cancer. In the present review, we discuss important phytochemicals, namely capsaicin, alpha-santalol and diallyl trisulphide that are shown to have chemopreventive and anti-tumour properties against breast cancer development. We examined current knowledge of their bioavailability, safety and modulation of molecular mechanisms including their ability to induce apoptotic cell death, promote cell cycle arrest, and inhibit cellular proliferation in different breast cancer cell lines and in vivo models. This review emphasises the importance of these naturally occurring phytochemicals and their potential of becoming therapeutic options in the arsenal against breast cancer development provided further scientific and clinical validation.
The use of nanotechnology in the food industry provides facilities such as
encapsulation, targeted transfer of plant compounds and extracts without
unfavourable sensitive effects. In this study, the essential oil (EO) of
Santalum album (Santalum album linn.) was used to prepare a nanoemulsion.
The nanoemulsion characteristics were evaluated and the data was optimized.
To conduct the research, Design
-Expert 12, statistical method of response
surface, Central composite designwith variables such as ultrasound frequency
(25
-31 kHz), ultrasound duration (10
-20 sec.), and Santalum album EO (1%
-
10%) were used. After extraction of EO and identification of its effective
compounds; percentage of antioxidant activity, viscosity, color indexes and
the particle size of nanoemulsions tests were done. After optimization,
stability test was performed on the optimized sample. The optimization results
showed that with 5.5% Santalum album EO, ultrasound frequency of 28 KHZ,
ultrasound duration of 15 seconds a nanoemulsion having optimum
characteristics can be produced. After repeating the experiments for the
obtained point, resulted in production of a nanoemulstion having particle size
of 230 nm, the viscosity of 3.10 mPa.s, the brightness index of 78, the
whiteness index of 58, and the antioxidant activity of 70%. It is believed these
nanoemulsions have the potential to be used in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical
and food industries.
Sandalwood trees are small, evergreen, hemiparasitic plants. One of the most extensively and commonly used essential oil can be extracted from sandalwood trees known as sandalwood essential oil. Sandalwood essential oil is one of the most valuable essential oil. It is largely used in perfumery, cosmetics, and aromatherapy industries. The utilization of naturally occurring substances has been encouraged not only due to their nontoxic behavior but also due to their capability to modulate various signaling pathways involved in the growth of multiple diseases. Sandalwood essential oils are used for the treatment of fever, common colds, burns, headaches, infection of the urinary tract, bronchitis, etc. It is also used as antiseptic, antispasmodic, vaginitis, urethritis, gonorrheal recovery, antipyretic, antiscabietic, expectorant, stimulant, and diaphoretic agent. The importance of this plant is not only confined to industrial and therapeutic applications, this plant has a role in various cultural rituals of Asian households. The essential oil extracted from this plant is very costly, and researchers are still working on a daily basis to improve the quality and quantity of the essential oil so that it can meet the enormous demand of the international market. This chapter is an attempt to rediscover and rearrange all the relevant literature associated with production, method of extraction, chemical composition, properties, storage, therapeutic benefits, toxicity, regulation, potential, and future prospects of sandalwood essential oil in a single place so that it will help anyone interested in this topic to conduct future studies.
The commercial value of Santalum album L. lies in its aromatic heartwood and essential oil. Sesquiterpenes are the main components of sandal essential oil, and these are synthesized through the plant’s mevalonate (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways. In this study, the first key rate-limiting enzyme, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (SaDXS), was investigated to provide a theoretical molecular basis for the sandalwood MEP sesquiterpene biosynthetic pathway. The biofunctions of SaDXS were also analyzed. SaDXS promoters were successfully cloned from a seven-year-old S. album tree. SaDXS1A/1B promoter activity was verified by a β-glucuronidase (GUS) assay and by analyzing cis-acting elements of the promoters, which carried light- and methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-responsive signals. In an experiment involving yellow S. album seedlings, exposure to light upregulated SaDXS1A/1B expression and increased chlorophyll and carotenoid contents when overexpressed in Arabidopsis thaliana. Analysis of the expression of SaDXS1A/1B and SaSSy, key genes of santalol biosynthesis, revealed SaDXS1A expression in all tissues whereas SaDXS1B was expressed in tissues that contained photosynthetic pigments, such as stems, leaves and flowers. Sandal seedlings exogenously treated with two hormones, MeJA and ethylene, revealed similar expression patterns for SaDXS1A/1B and SaSSy. Sandal seedlings were treated with an inhibitor of DXS, clomazone, but showed no significant changes in the contents of α-santalene, β-santalene and α-santalol between treatment and control groups. These results suggest that SaDXS1A/1B play a role in the synthesis of sandalwood sesquiterpenes, providing carbon for downstream secondary metabolites. SaDXS1A/1B also play a role in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and primary metabolites.
Naturally produced sandalwood oil (N-SWO) is prized for its use, both in perfumery as well as for skin benefits. However, its availability has been severely restricted in recent years due to overexploitation. The industry has responded by using biotechnology to produce santalol—the key molecule in N-SWO. Using such biotechnology-derived and natural ingredients, an oil that mimics the composition of N-SWO was created. This reconstituted oil called Sacrosantola was compared to N-SWO for its safety and skin benefits, using various in vitro models. Compared to N-SWO, Sacrosantol showed a similar safety profile, photo-protective and anti-inflammatory benefits, as well as antibacterial properties. Thus, Sacrosantol can be used as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to natural sandalwood oil.
The essential oil extracted from the Santalum genus, known as sandalwood oil is one of the most valuable plant-derived secondary metabolites. It is obtained from the steam distillation of the heartwood of the sandalwood tree. The high value of this oil mainly stems from the limited supply, caused by difficulties in the cultivation of the plant and other socio-economic conditions. All species of the Santalum genus, including the highest oil-producing Santalum album (east Indian sandalwood), are very slow-growing that takes about 15 to 20 years to form heartwood from which oil is distilled. Combined with the loss of cultivatable land and poaching of wild trees make sandalwood oil is very valuable. This oil has seen various applications in the aroma, perfume, cosmetic, flavour and pharmaceutical industries. Though the essential oil of sandalwood constitutes several terpenes and terpene alcohols, the main fragrance-defining constituents of the oil are sesquiterpene alcohols (Z)-α-santalol, (Z)-β-santalol, (Z)-epi-β-santalol and (Z)-α-exo-bergamotol, which are derived from their corresponding sesquiterpenes. In this chapter, we summarise the biosynthetic pathways involved in the formation of terpenoids and genes involved in the formation of key constituents of sandalwood essential oil. We cover different studies carried out towards the complete understanding of the pathway involved in sandalwood oil formation. We also take a look at how the deciphering of the sandalwood oil pathway has enabled bio-engineering approaches for enhanced and sustainable production using various biotechnological strategies.
This book provides a global perspective of Indian Sandalwood categorized as ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It deals with history, distribution, propagation, chemistry, utilization, improvement, trade, and conservation in the present context. This book explores ways and means for restoring its past glory by creating awareness for its conservation and sustainable utilization. The content encompasses informative tables, appropriate graphs and figures, and illustrations with photographs and line drawings. This compendium would be useful for foresters, forestry professionals, botanists, policymakers, conservationists, NGOs, and researchers in the academia and the industry sectors.
The essential oil produced by steam distillation from the heartwood of East Indian sandalwood trees (Santalum album) has been used as a traditional medicine for centuries due to its broad spectrum of biological properties. Recent biochemical studies have begun to elucidate the specific mechanisms of action of the oil and its major components. The creation of guidelines for the development of botanical drugs as a special category by regulatory agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has allowed the development of complex mixtures such as sandalwood oil as potential pharmaceutical agents. Sandalwood oil has been shown in several early Phase 2 clinical trials in the USA to give promising results. Extensive pivotal clinical studies are required to confirm the beneficial activity and favourable safety profile seen in these early human studies.
In this chapter, we focus on the current status of knowledge on the floral biology of Santalum album and the role of flower visitors in its pollination and fruit set. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and epigynous, borne on axillary or terminal panicles. Based on the position of stigma, three types of flowers are observed: pin (stigma above the level of anther), thrum (stigma at a lower level) and homostylous (stigma and anther at the same level). A flower lasts for about three days, and its colour gradually changes from pale green or white to dark red with age. Though the ovary has 2‒4 embryo sacs, only one matures. From flowering to fruit maturation, it takes 80‒85 days, and the berries are eaten by birds, especially the Asian Koel, which may also be involved in the dispersion of seeds. There appear to be some contradictions concerning pollination, though many workers suggest that S. album is an obligate outcrossing species. However, the per cent fruit set under open pollination conditions appears to be very low, indicating a deficit in pollinators. Of the 46 species of flower visitors recorded, syrphids, calliphorids and honey bees have been reported as the most frequent visitors. However, there have been no studies to identify efficient pollinators, as most of the reports are subjective and are not supported by hard data. We also discuss the methods to be followed in sandalwood pollination studies.
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) management can lead to various benefits for community livelihood and forest sustainability. However, such management has not been carried out optimally and sustainably in Indonesia, due to various limiting factors including ineffective policies, undeveloped cultivation technologies, and inadequate innovation in processing technologies. Further, the diversity of NTFPs species requires that policy-makers determine the priority species to be developed. Agarwood (Aquilaria spp. and Gyrinops spp.), benzoin (Styrax spp.), sandalwood (Santalum album L.), and cajuput (Melaleuca cajuputi Powell) are aromatic NTFPs species in Indonesia that forest-dwellers have utilized across generations. This paper reviews the current governance, cultivation systems, processing and valuation, and benefits and uses of these species. We also highlights the future challenges and prospects of these NTFPs species, which are expected to be useful in designing NTFPs governance, in order to maximize the associated benefits for the farmers and all related stakeholders.
Introduction
Psoriasis is an auto-immune inflammatory skin disease that affects people worldwide. Its topical therapy via different nanoformulations helps in avoiding the long-term side-effects of conventional formulations. Nanocarriers, especially solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), pose extra benefits in topical drug delivery due to their lipid constituents. Although both natural and synthetic anti-psoriatic drugs have been successfully incorporated in these nanoformulations, yet further studies including dual drug-loadings are being carried out for assessing their anti-psoriatic efficacy.
Areas covered
This review aims at describing the different aspects of SLNs and NLCs in psoriasis including their skin permeation behavior and the various drug molecules incorporated. The recent studies with single-and dual drug-loaded SLNs and NLCs have also been discussed in the review.
Expert opinion
SLNs and NLCs have been very effective in mitigating psoriasis when compared to commercial formulations. Interestingly, they have also shown promising results when loaded with two drugs, thus overcoming the drawbacks of traditional combination therapy. Therefore, various drug/antibody/siRNA combinations can be selected in the upcoming research works to evaluate their synergistic performance against psoriasis. However, the conclusions drawn so far are only based on the pre-clinical studies and hence further investigations are required to obtain their clinical trial outcomes.
A novel composite edible coating film was developed from 0.8% chitosan (CS) and 0.5% sandalwood oil (SEO). Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were used as a stabilizer agent of oil-in-water Pickering emulsion. We found four typical groups of CNF level-dependent emulsion stabilization, including (1) unstable emulsion in the absence of CNFs; (2) unstable emulsion (0.006–0.21% CNFs); (3) stable emulsion (0.24–0.31% CNFs); and (4) regular emulsion with the addition of surfactant. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was performed to reveal the characteristics of droplet diameter and morphology. Antifungal tests against Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium digitatum, between emulsion coating stabilized with CNFs (CS-SEOpick) and CS or CS-SEO was tested. The effective concentration of CNFs (0.24%) may improve the performance of CS coating and maintain CS-SEO antifungal activity synergistically confirmed with a series of assays (in vitro, in vivo, and membrane integrity changes). The incorporation of CNFs contributed to improve the functional properties of CS and SEO-loaded CS including light transmission at UV and visible light wavelengths and tensile strength. Atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were employed to characterize the biocompatibility of each coating film formulation. Emulsion-CNF stabilized coating may have potential applications for active coating for fresh fruit commodities.
Sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) is an important tree species that exhibits high medicinal, cosmetic, and commercial values. Indian sandalwood is available mostly from Karnataka and Tamilnadu states of India. Due to its wide uses in various industries, wood is high in demand in the international market. The commercial aspect of sandalwood is being regulated by the forest authorities. It also shows numerous uses in cosmetic industries including the manufacturing of beauty products, face packs, moisturizers, face wash, skin creams, etc. Sandalwood is an important requirement in various rituals in almost all religious ceremonies. Sandalwood oil is being traditionally used in curing various diseases and ailments. It shows antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, antifungal, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activity. Aromatherapy is one of the important medicinal uses of sandalwood. This chapter discusses the commercial, cosmetic, and medicinal importance of sandalwood.
Santalum album L. (Sandalwood) is one of the pharmacologically valued tree species. The essential oil derived from its heartwood has much more commercial importance, and is an active ingredient in various traditional medicine systems for the management and prevention of various illnesses all over the world. The versatile therapeutic and healthcare importance of Sandalwood is attributed to the rich source of phytochemicals, particularly sesquiterpenes. A variety of biological properties and impending health benefits of Sandalwood have been testified, including anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic activities, and protecting properties on the gastric mucosa, liver and nervous system. No significant toxicity has been indicated by Sandalwood oil or its individual constituents. The present chapter discusses traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Sandalwood. Also, it provides an understanding of Sandalwood oil extraction methods, chemistry of the compounds and their medicinal importance.
Vedas and Puranas are the oldest codified literature in Indian Philosophy, and such treatises quote the uses of Sandalwood for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. The essential teachings of Jainism and Buddhism too advocate oral and external uses of Sandalwood. Kautilya’s text on the ancient Indian economics considers Sandalwood as a precious forest product. Pre-Christ era of Indian medicinal texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita along with a major post-Christ era text Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita describes detailed mentioning on Sandalwood uses. Even after 2000 years, Sandalwood is still used as a household remedy across the Indian societies. The commonly used incenses, including Sandalwood materials are being used for the religious purposes, and also for healing, particularly in the management of mental disorders. Such uses are also known to prolong the longevity as well as calm down the agitated mind.
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) a prestigious timber species in India is considered as one of the most precious plants in the biosphere. The heartwood of the tree is a treasure trove of santalol, which gives it a distinct and unique aroma, and is best suited for carvings and handicrafts. Sandalwood oil is widely used in perfumes, cosmetics, and ayurvedic medicines. The monopoly of Sandalwood trade by the Governments of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala and its consequences have resulted in severe exploitation to drive Sandalwood into the vulnerable grouping of the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. The inherent variability in different wood properties, and also the chemical components inside the wood enhances its versatile utility. The highly priced heartwood is commercially used to extract the essential oil by using the process of distillation. A considerable genotypic variability in wood properties exists across different sites. It is imperative that a deeper understanding of the relationship between wood properties and rate of growth of Sandalwood will help to prioritize the important traits, while selecting superior plus trees for tree improvement programmes. This chapter attempts to understand the variation in wood property of Sandalwood which will help in the efficient utilization of the species for varied end uses.
Essential oils and essential oil components offer an attractive alternative to synthetic acaricides for the control of Varroa jacobsoni. They are generally inexpensive and most pose few health risks. Terpenes (mainly monoterpenes) are the main components of essential oils, comprising about 90 % of the total. More than 150 essential oils and components of essential oils have been evaluated in laboratory screening tests. Very few of them, however, have proven successful when tested in field trials. Thymol and thymol blended with essential oils or essential oil components offer a promising exception. Mite mortality obtained with these formulations typically exceeds 90 % and often approaches 100 %. In addition, residues in honey are low, even after long-term treatments. The exact conditions under which these formulations will yield reliable and effective control, however, have only been determined for certain European regions. Based on the available studies, relying solely on a single treatment with an essential oil or essential oil component is generally not sufficient to maintain mite populations below the economic injury level. Therefore, efforts are necessary to optimize the use of these substances and to incorporate them, along with other measures for limiting mite populations, into an integrated pest management strategy for control of Varroa jacobsoni. © Inra/DIB/AGIB/ Elsevier, Paris
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The in-vitro activity of a range of essential oils, including tea tree oil, against the yeast candida was examined. Of the 24 essential oils tested by the agar dilution method against Candida albicans ATCC 10231, three did not inhibit C. albicans at the highest concentration tested, which was 2.0% (v/v) oil. Sandalwood oil had the lowest MIC, inhibiting C. albicans at 0.06%. Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil was investigated for activity against 81 C. albicans isolates and 33 non-albicans Candida isolates. By the broth microdilution method, the minimum concentration of oil inhibiting 90% of isolates for both C. albicans and non-albicans Candida species was 0.25% (v/v). The minimum concentration of oil killing 90% of isolates was 0.25% for C. albicans and 0.5% for non-albicans Candida species. Fifty-seven Candida isolates were tested for sensitivity to tea tree oil by the agar dilution method; the minimum concentration of oil inhibiting 90% of isolates was 0.5%. Tests on three intra-vaginal tea tree oil products showed these products to have MICs and minimum fungicidal concentrations comparable to those of non-formulated tea tree oil, indicating that the tea tree oil contained in these products has retained its anticandidal activity. These data indicate that some essential oils are active against Candida spp., suggesting that they may be useful in the topical treatment of superficial candida infections.
Sandalwood oil, the essential oil of Santalum album L., was tested for in vitro antiviral activity against Herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2. It was found that the replication of these viruses was inhibited in the presence of the oil. This effect was dose-dependent and more pronounced against HSV-1. A slight diminution of the effect was observed at higher multiplicity of infections. The oil was not virucidal and showed no cytotoxicity at the concentrations tested.
It is known that certain fragrance materials and other chemical compounds induce delayed allergic contact dermatitis in humans and experimental animals. Studies were carried out to determine whether Bacillus subtilis spore rec-assay can be used as a simple screening test taking the place of animal methods for detection of the allergenicity; in this assay, spores of the strains H17 (rec+) and M45 (rec-) which have been found efficient in detecting chemical mutagens were used. Specific activity (SA) in spore rec-assay was determined from the size-ratio of the inhibition zone (mm) on the plates of these bacterial strains. A total of 234 substances were tested and tentatively classified according to SA values into allergic (SA ≥ 1.0) and non-allergic (SA < 1.0) substances. The results of approximately 79% of the 234 substances by the tentative classification corresponded well to the results of human maximization test (HMXT) and human patch test (HPAT) cited from the literature. Out of 170 substances classified as non-allergic by SA value (< 1.0) in spore rec-assay, 17 (10%) were positive either in HMXT or in HPAT according to the literature. Thus, in the classification by SA values in spore rec-assay, 10% were false-negative: this should not be overlooked. In maximization test of 38 randomly selected chemical compounds on guinea pigs, all of 17 substances having SA ≥ 1.0 caused skin reaction; however, 11 (52%) out of 21 substances having 0 ≤ SA < 1.0 also caused skin reactions. Two (18%) out of the 11 substances having caused skin reaction in guinea pigs caused skin reactions in the HMXT. The discrepancy among SA values, maximization tests in guinea pigs and HMXT should not be neglected. In fact, Bacillus subtilis spore rec-assay gave false-negative results in 18% of the chemical compounds inducing delayed allergic contact dermatitis. These results suggest that the spore rec-assay may be useful as a simple screening test in determining whether chemical compounds produce delayed allergic contact dermatitis. It remains for further study to improve the spore rec-assay to reduce the discrepancies of the positive and negative results among this assay, whole animal methods and human tests (HMXT and HPAT).
The perceptional change of fragrance of essential oils is described in relation to type of work, i.e. mental work, physical work and hearing environmental (natural) sounds. The essential oils examined in this study were ylang ylang, orange, geranium, cypress, bergamot, spearmint and juniper. In evaluating change in perception of a given aroma, a sensory test was employed in which the perception of fragrance was assessed by 13 contrasting pairs of adjectives. Scores were recorded after inhaling a fragrance before and after each type of work, and the statistical significance of the change of score for 13 impression descriptors was examined by Student’s t-test for each type of work. It was confirmed that inhalation of essential oil caused a different subjective perception of fragrance depending on the type of work. For example, inhalation of cypress after physical work produced a much more favorable impression than before work, in contrast to orange, which produced an unfavorable impression after physical work when compared with that before work. For mental work, inhalation of juniper seemed to create a favorable impression after work, whereas geranium and orange both produced an unfavorable impression then. From these studies, together with those conducted previously with lavender, rosemary, linalool, peppermint, marjoram, cardamom, sandalwood, basil and lime, we thus concluded that the sensory test described here might serve not only as a screening test for efficacy of aroma but also as a categorized table for aroma samples which can act as a reference to each other.
In order to find sensitizers additional to the current fragrance mix (FM) a series of fragrance materials (series II) was evaluated in 6 dermatological centres in Europe. 11 of the test materials were essential oils, the remaining 7 being either mixtures of isomers or simple chemicals of frequent usage in the perfume industry. 1606 patients were consecutively tested with series II and 8% FM. Each patient was classified regarding a history of adverse reactions to scented products: certain, probable, questionable, none. Reactions to FM occurred most frequently in 11.4% of the subjects. The 6 materials with the highest reactivity after the FM were ylang-ylang oil (YY) I (2.6%), YY II (2.5%), lemongrass oil (1.6%), narcissus absolute (1.3%), jasmine absolute (1.2%) and sandalwood oil (0.9%). 48 (3.0%) of the patients reacted only to materials of series II and not to FM. 6.0% of 1606 patients gave a history of adverse reactions to fragrances which was classified as certain. This group reacted to FM only in 22.9%, to series II and FM in 15.6% and to series II only in 5.2%. 63.5% of the patients reacting to both FM and 1 of the materials of series II had some type of positive fragrance history, which was higher in comparison to those with isolated reactions to FM (46.2% of 121) or to series II, respectively, (45.8% of 48). However, this difference was not statistically significant. In conclusion, the materials of series II identified a further subset of patients with a fragrance problem, which would have been missed by the current FM as the single screening tool for patch testing.
The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of responses to selected fragrance materials in consecutive patients patch tested in 6 dermatological centres in Europe. 1855 patients were evaluated with the 8% fragrance mix (FM) and 14 other frequently used well-defined fragrance chemicals (series I). Each patient was classified regarding a history of adverse reactions to fragrances: certain, probable, questionable, none. Reactions to FM occurred in 11.3% of the subjects. The 6 substances with the highest reactivity following FM were Lyral® (2.7%), citral (1.1%), farnesol P (0.5%), citronellol (0.4%), hexyl cinnamic aldehyde (0.3%), and coumarin (0.3%). 41 (2.2%) of the patients reacted only to materials of series I and not to FM. 6.6% of 1855 patients gave a history of adverse reactions to fragrances which was classified as certain. This group reacted to FM only in 41.1%, to series I and FM in 12.0% and to series I only in 7.2%. 74.3% of the 39 patients reacting to both FM and 1 of the materials of series I had any type of positive fragrance history, which was significantly higher in comparison to those with isolated reactions to series I (53.6% of 41), p = 0.04. The study identified further sensitizers relevant for patch testing of patients with contact dermatitis, of which Lyral® is the most important single chemical.
Toxicity of various essential oils and their volatile components against the mushroom sciarid, Lycoriella mali was determined. The most potent fumigant toxicity was found in essential oil from thyme followed by the oils of sage, eucalyptus, and clove bud. α-Pinene was the most toxic fumigant compound found in thyme essential oil (LD50=9.85μl/l air) followed by β-pinene (LD50=11.85μl/l air) and linalool (LD50=21.15μl/l air). The mixture of α- and β-pinene exhibited stronger fumigant toxicity than α- or β-pinene itself against the mushroom fly adults. Therefore, thyme essential oil, α- and β-pinene could be potent fumigants to control mushroom flies during mushroom cultivation.
The synthesis and odour properties of the new santalol analogue, methyl-β-santalol, are described. The additional methyl group adjacent to the hydroxyl function of the standard molecule, β-santalol, deprives the new compound of the sandalwood note. The synthesis and the odour evaluation of this compound supports the proposed model for sandalwood fragrance as it shows that the methyl group located at the osmophoric center prevents association of the molecule with the hypothetical receptor.
The incidence of allergic contact dermatitis was analysed in 79 dentists and 46 dental nurses referred during 1990–2000 for consultation to our institute. Allergic contact dermatitis was diagnosed from the positive results of patch tests and type I allergy to latex and common environmental allergens from the positive results of prick tests. We have found that the dental personnel was hypersensitive primarily to components of disinfectants, metals, rubber and fragrances. Acrylates caused allergy only in the dentists (20–25% of all examined patients). Among 20 acrylate-sensitive dentists, 20 reacted to ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate. There was also a high incidence of allergy to nickel (25.3%), cobalt (20.2%), fragrances (17.2%), formaldehyde (15.2%), potassium dichromate (13.9%), thimerosal (12.6%), thiurams and Peru balsam (11.4%) as well as glutaraldehyde (10.1%). As much as 12 of 46 dental nurses developed allergy to glutaraldehyde, 6 were allergic to formaldehyde and 3 to glyoxal. Nickel produced a positive reaction in 10 patients, fragrances, thimerosal, potassium dichromate in 5 each, thiurams and eugenol in 4 each. In our opinion, acrylates in the dentists and disinfecant aldehydes in the dental nurses constitute the major sources of allergy among dental personnel. Type I allergy to natural latex was diagnosed in 6.3% dentists and 8.7% dental nurses.
Three osmophoric points have been postulated to be necessary for the sandalwood scent of β-santalol derivatives. One of these points, close to the hydroxyl group, is highly specific on the stereochemistry and, in particular, on the molecular shape. The role of the 2-methyl group in the side chain of β-santalol derivatives was studied by replacement through a hydrogen atom, an ethyl or an isopropyl group. It turns out that any change at the 2-methyl substituent leads to the complete loss of sandalwood odour.
Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects influence the motility of mice in inhalation studies under standardized conditions. A significant drop in the motility of mice was registered following exposure to these fragrances. The same results were achieved when the mice were artificially induced into overagitation by intraperitoneal application of caffeine and subsequently subjected to inhalation of fragrance compounds and essential oils. These results proved the sedative effects of these fragrants via inhalative exposure in low concentrations. Blood samples were taken from the mice after a 1-h inhalation period. Chromatographic and spectroscopic methods were used to detect and characterize the actual effective compounds after solid-phase extraction. Serum concentrations of 42 different substances, including fragrance compounds, were found in low ranges (ng/mL serum). The results contribute to the correct interpretation of the term aromatherapy (i.e., a stimulating or sedative effect on the behaviour of individuals only upon inhalation of fragrance compounds).
Three new campherenane-type (1, 4, 7) and three new santalane-type (9, 11, 12) sesquiterpenoids, and two aromatic glycosides (21, 22) together with 12 known metabolites including α,β-santalols (14, 18), (E)-α,β-santalals (15, 19), α,β-santaldiols (16, 20), α-santalenoic acid (17), and vanillic acid 4-O-neohesperidoside were isolated from Santalum album chips of Indian origin. The structures of the new compounds, including absolute configurations, were elucidated by 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopic and chemical methods. The antitumor promoting activity of these isolates along with several neolignans previously isolated from the same source was evaluated for both in vitro Epstein–Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation and in vivo two-stage carcinogenesis assays. Among them, compound 1 exhibited a potent inhibitory effect on EBV-EA activation, and also strongly suppressed two-stage carcinogenesis on mouse skin.Graphical abstract
We report the annual results of patch testing with lavender oil for a 9-year period from 1990 to 1998 in Japan. Using Finn Chambers and Scanpor tape, we performed 2-day closed patch testing with lavender oil 20% pet. on the upper back of each patient suspected of having cosmetic contact dermatitis. We compared the frequency of positive patch tests to lavender oil each year with those to other fragrances. We diagnosed contact allergy when patch test reactions were + or <+ at 1 day after removal. The positivity rate of lavender oil was 3.7% (0–13.9%) during the 9-year period from 1990 to 1998. The positivity rate of lavender oil increased suddenly in 1997. Recently, in Japan, there has been a trend for aromatherapy using lavender oil. With this trend, placing dried lavender flowers in pillows, drawers, cabinets, or rooms has become a new fashion. We asked patients who showed a positive reaction to lavender oil about their use of dried lavender flowers. We confirmed the use of dried lavender flowers in 5 cases out of 11 positive cases in 1997 and 8 out of 15 positive cases in 1998. We concluded that the increase in patch test positivity rates to lavender oil in 1997 and 1998 was due to the above fashion, rather than due to fragrances in cosmetic products.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the incidence and etiology of cutaneous reactions caused by cosmetics, with an emphasis on perfume sensitivity, 19 control subjects and 31 patch test clinic patients (16 with a history of adverse cosmetic reactions) were examined for sensitivity by history, open and patch testing using the North American Contact Dermatitis Group (NACDG) fragrance screening series and 11 other common allergens found in cosmetics. Contact urticaria was very frequent to certain chemicals; however, patients with a history of cosmetic sensitivity were not found to have a significant increase in positive reactions when compared M controls or patients with eczematous skin. 12 subjects had positive patch test reactions, most of which were not clinically relevant, 3 patients with a history of cosmetic sensitivity had positive reactions, only 1 of which was in the fragrance screening series (cinnamic alcohol). There were 6 reactions in patients with eczematous skin, 4 of which were to preservatives, 3 controls had positive reactions, each to thimerosol. A history of cosmetic sensitivity was not confirmed by open and closed skin testing in our subjects.
Molecular surface comparison seems to be a very suitable tool for the investigation of small differences between biologically active and inactive compounds of the same structural type. A fast method for such comparisons, based on volume matching followed by the estimation of comparable surface dots, is presented and applied on a few selected sandalwood odour molecules.
Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) seed oil, which occurs to about 50% of the weight of the seed kernels, contains 30–35% of total fatty acids (FA) as ximenynic
acid (XMYA). This study was designed to obtain basic information on changes in tissue FA composition and on the metabolic
fate of XMYA in mice fed a sandalwood seed oil (SWSO)-enriched diet. Female mice were randomly divided into three groups,
each receiving different semisynthetic diets containing 5.2% (w/w) fat (standard laboratory diet), 15% canola oil, or 15%
SWSO for 8 wk. The effects of SWSO as a dietary fat on the FA composition of adipose tissue, brain, and liver lipids were
determined by analyses of FA methyl ester derivatives of extracted total lipid. The FA compositions of the liver and adipose
tissue were markedly altered by the dietary fats, and mice fed on a SWSO-enriched diet were found to contain XMYA but only
in low concentration (0.3 3%) in these tissues; XMYA was not detected in brain. Oleic acid was suggested to be a principal
XMYA biotransformation product. The results were interpreted to suggest that the metabolism of XMYA may involve both biohydrogenation
and oxidation reactions.
The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of responses to selected fragrance materials in patients with suspect fragrance allergy and to evaluate risk factors and associations with such responses. The validity of using specific fragrance ingredients versus a mixture of fragrances was evaluated in terms of predicting allergy to different fragrance ingredients. One hundred sixty-seven subjects were evaluated in seven centers worldwide with a fragrance mix, the eight ingredients in the fragrance mixture, six other well-known fragrance allergens, balsam of Peru, and 15 lesser studied fragrance materials. The age of the patients was 44.9 ± 17.5 years (mean ± SD). More than 85% were women. A relatively high proportion gave a past history of atopic disease. Facial eruptions (40%) and hand involvement (26.7%) were the most common topographic sites. All but 4 of the 35 fragrance materials produced a positive response in > 1%. A reaction to fragrance mix occurred in 47.3%. Seven of the 34 ingredients tested produced an allergic response in more than 10% of those tested. Men were more likely than women to exhibit a positive response to five fragrance ingredients. White persons were more likely to react to perfume mix (52.8% versus 25.3%) and certain ingredients in the mix than Asian persons. Allergy to benzyl salicylate was more common in Japan than in Europe or the United States. The age at which patients with perfume allergy present for evaluation is similar to that of other contactants. Atopic individuals may be overrepresented in this group of patients. Face involvement is likely. White persons are more likely to react to fragrance mix, whereas in Asian patients benzyl salicylate was a more frequent allergen. Fragrance mix coreacted with 85.6% of positive responses to fragrance ingredients. The addition of ylang ylang oil, narcissus oil, and sandalwood oil to fragrance mix would be expected to pick up 94.2% with positive responses to fragrance materials; adding balsam of Peru increases this to 96%.
Transmammary exposure of suckling mouse pups to the oil from the tree, Santalumalbum, Linn. and its ability to modulate hepatic neonatal xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes was examined. Sandalwood oil, at the dose levels of 5 ul and 10 ul per animal per day, was fed by oral gavage to lactating Swiss albino mice from day 1 of lactation. Treatment continued for 14 and 21 days, at the end of which, dams and pups were sacrificed. The oil was able to significantly increase (P<0.01) the acid soluble sulfhydryl content in the liver of dams receiving the oil as well as in the liver of their F1 progeny. Hepatic glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase and glutathione peroxidase activities were significantly enhanced (P<0.01) in the F1 progeny of dams who received 5 ul sandalwood oil/day for 21 days and those who received 10 ul sandalwood oil/day for 14 and 21 days. Cytochrome P-450 content decreased (P<0.05) in liver of the dam on the higher dose of oil for 21 days and her pups. Hepatic cytochrome b5 content increased (P<0.01) in all the groups. The observed changes in hepatic enzyme levels suggest that sandalwood oil its constituents or its metabolites pass via mother's milk and modify the hepatic detoxifying machinery.
Determination of the minimum inhibitory concen-trations (MIC) of 212 common soap fragrance raw materials demonstrated that
the paper disc-petri plate technique does not reflect the relative anti-microbial activity of these materials. Commonly used
soap bacteriostats were shown to be 100 to 1000 times more effective than the most active fragrance materials. Of 521 fragrance
materials initially screened by the petri plate method, 44% were inhibitory against one of the three test organisms, and 15%
were effective against all three(Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans). Of a selected number (212) of these positive materials, subsequently screened against a lipophilic diphtheroid organism(Corynebacterium sp.), 64 materials (30%) were positive against all four test organisms. However, only nine materials (4%) had a MIC as low
as 50 ppm compared to the common soap bacteriostat TCC, which had a MIC of 0.08 ppm (vs.S. aureus). In hand-degerming tests, no reduction of bacterial counts was obtained with a soap containing the most active fragrance materials.
These results demonstrate that creation of a practical antimicrobial soap fragrance does not appear to be possible.
The standard series and 35 essential oils were tested on 450 patients with dermatitis. It was found that those simultaneously sensitive to essential oils are more frequently negative than positive to balsam of Peru. The remaining 3 balsams, however (colophony, turpentine and wood tars), are also screening agents for essential oils. All four balsams reveal sensitivity to essential oils in most of the subjects tested. In patients negative to all 4 balsams of the standard series, attempts to find an essential oil with which tests would be simultaneously frequently positive with those for other essential oils failed.
After inhalation experiments with sandalwood oil and the pure fragrance compounds coumarin and alpha-terpineol, substances were detected and measured in the blood samples of test animals (mice) using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (MID) in connection with GC/FTIR (SWC), GC/AES (carbon and oxygen trace) and flame ionization detection/gas chromatography. Using tiglinic acid benzyl ester as the internal standard the following concentrations in serum could be found: alpha-santalol 6.1 ng/mL, beta-santalol 5.3 ng/mL and alpha-santalene 0.5 ng/mL. In separate inhalation experiments with coumarin and with alpha-terpineol the corresponding concentrations were 7.7 ng/mL and 6.9 ng/mL, respectively.
A 63-year-old male school teacher with itchy depigmented macules on his left dorsum manus, left shoulder and abdomen presented at our clinic on 8 July 1986. He had practiced the incense ceremony for about 15 years, and had burnt several incenses and sandalwood. 48 h closed patch testing revealed perfume in the incenses was the cause. We assumed that perfume in the incense was volatized in air when incense was burnt; skin surface contact occurred with airborne particle, which dissolved in sebum; thus allergic contact dermatitis accompanied by depigmentation might arise.
Although photosensitivity disorders have been well described, their incidence in a referral institution had not been studied.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the incidence of photosensitivity disorders, including photocontact dermatitis, in an academic medical center.
The results of the assessment of 203 consecutive patients, all of whom had phototests, referred for the evaluation of photosensitivity disorders during a 7.3-year period were reviewed.
The mean age was 50 years, and 63% of the patients were women. The most frequent diagnoses were polymorphous light eruption (26% of the total patient population), chronic actinic dermatitis (17%), photoallergic contact dermatitis (8%), systemic phototoxicity to therapeutic agents (7%), and solar urticaria (4%). Positive photopatch reactions, patch test reactions, or both were observed in 40 (29%) of the 138 tested patients. The frequencies of the positive photopatch test reactions were sunscreens (57%), fragrances (18%), and antimicrobial agents (13%). Of the positive patch test responses, fragrances elicited 47% of the total positive reactions, followed by sunscreens (39%) and antimicrobial agents (7%).
Polymorphous light eruption, chronic actinic dermatitis, and photoallergic contact dermatitis were the most frequently made diagnoses. Sunscreens, fragrances, and antimicrobial agents were the most common clinically relevant photoallergens and allergens.
The effect of the oil from the wood of Santalum album on glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity and acid soluble sulphydryl (SH) levels in the liver of adult male Swiss albino mice was investigated. Oral feeding by gavage to mice each day with 5 and 15 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days exhibited an increase in GST activity in time- and dose-responsive manners. Feeding a dose of 5 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days caused, respectively, a 1.80-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.93-fold (P < 0.001) increase in GST enzyme activity, while feeding a dose of 15 microliters of the oil per day for 10 and 20 days induced, respectively, 4.73-fold (P < 0.001) and 6.10-fold (P < 0.001) increases in the enzyme's activity. In addition, there were 1.59-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.57 (P < 0.001) increases in acid-soluble SH levels in the hepatic tissue of the mice following feeding of the oil at the dose levels of 5 and 15 microliters for 10 days. Furthermore, mice fed on a diet containing 1% 2(3)-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (positive control) also showed an increase in hepatic GST activity and SH levels. Enhancement of GST activity and acid-soluble SH levels are suggestive of a possible chemopreventive action of sandalwood oil on carcinogenesis through a blocking mechanism.
The synthesis and odour properties of the new santalol analogue, methyl-beta-santalol, are described. The additional methyl group adjacent to the hydroxyl function of the standard molecule, beta-santalol, deprives the new compound of the sandalwood note. The synthesis and the odour evaluation of this compound supports the proposed model for sandalwood fragrance as it shows that the methyl group located at the osmophoric center prevents association of the molecule with the hypothetical receptor.
The essential oil, emulsion or paste of sandalwood (Santalum album L) has been used in India as an ayurvedic medicinal agent for the treatment of inflammatory and eruptive skin diseases. In this investigation, the chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil (5% in acetone, w/v) on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-(DMBA)-initiated and