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Photoprotection by clothing
... 19 UPF refers to the ratio of the average effective UVR transmitted through air to the average effective UVR transmitted through the fabric. 25 The maximum UPF available is UPF 50+ which is why this was chosen for the study. A benefit of sun-protective fabric over sunscreen is the lack of variability. ...
... 26 One reason our fabric did not have 100% protection may be because there still are no stretch guidelines for fabrics. 25 It is reasonable to assume a small amount of stretch will allow some UVR to penetrate tiny gaps in the fabric. This is another benefit of having the fabric sit off the nose, rather than laying directly on top where it may stretch and move with the dog. ...
... Factors affecting solar UVR at the Earth's surface include solar elevation, ozone, atmospheric air pollution, aerosols, dust, water vapour, clouds, altitude and surface reflection. 25,26 Changing light reflection with different surfaces could affect readings for the anterior nose. This is more of a practical consideration. ...
Background
Protection from solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation is paramount for some dermatological conditions, yet there are no studies assessing UV nose guards for dogs.
Objectives
Compare the ability of three nasal guards to block solar UV radiation (UVR) from the canine nose, using two commercial products and one created by the authors.
Animals
Four fabric model dogs were used in this prospective controlled trial.
Materials and Methods
Each model had a UV dosimeter applied to the dorsal nose and anterior nasal planum. Three models had nose protectors applied: (1) a mesh hood (OutFox Field Guard, OutFox For Dogs); (2) a fabric nose shield (Nose Protector, Dog Nose Protectors); or (3) a basket muzzle with ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) 50+ fabric developed by the authors. The control had no protective device applied. All the models were placed in direct sunlight and measurements taken over nine 2 h time periods. Total cumulative UVR was analysed for each location and type of guard or control.
Results
All guards provided statistically significant UV protection compared to control at all time points (p < 0.001). The basket muzzle with UPF 50+ guard was consistent in protecting the dorsal and anterior nose, blocking 94.2% and 94.3% UVR, respectively. The fabric nose protector blocked 99.2% UVR from the dorsal and 82.9% anterior. The mesh hood blocked 72.5% of UVR dorsal and 71.4% anterior.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance
Two guards were superior in blocking UVR; however, the choice of UV guard in a clinical setting depends on an individual's disease location and tolerance of the device.
... 7 Melanoma alone is 20 times more common than it was 60 years ago. 10 The reasons for this remain unclear and are likely multifactorial, but some proven associations include increased sun exposure and the use of tanning beds. 4 ...
... The simplest way to limit UVR is sun avoidance, this can be achieved by limiting exposure during peak hours. 10 When avoidance of UVR isn't possible, protective strategies such as appropriate clothing are beneficial. Hats are of particular importance because they protect surfaces that often receive the highest amounts of sun exposure. ...
... 2,6,18 NMSCs that are complex based on location, histology, size or tumor type, as well as all MSCs should be treated with surgical removal. 10 Approaches include excision with defined margins, frozen section or Mohs microsurgery (MMS). MMS is the gold standard, as it preserves maximal tissue while boasting a 5-year cure rate of 97%. ...
Skin cancer is the most common type of neoplasm worldwide. Skin cancer can be classified as non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) or melanoma skin cancer (MSC). NMSCs are more common lesions, and typically carry a good prognosis. MSCs are rarer, but cause the majority of skin cancer-related death and morbidity. The biggest causative factor for any skin cancer is ultraviolet radiation exposure (UVR). UVR comes from the sun or synthetic sources such as tanning beds, making it highly avoidable through behavioral change. Despite this, the incidence of skin cancer in Canada has risen over the past decades at an alarming rate. There are many levels of preventive medicine currently in place attempting to change this trend. Primary strategies include wearing hats and protective clothing, as well as avoiding peak daytime hours and tanning beds. At a secondary level, clinical skin exams and public education work to identify disease at earlier stages to make treatments more effective. Both surgical and destructive management can be effective, but success is highly dependent on the stage of disease. Even with appropriate treatment there is a risk of complications including deformity, recurrence and even death. This emphasizes the best treatment for skin cancer is prevention and further underscores the need for behavioural changes at the population level.
... Sun protection behavior, such as shading out from the sun, lack of physical activity in open environments [58], clothing type [59][60][61][62], and sunscreen use [49,61], can affect UVB-7-dehydrocholesterol interactions by blocking, absorbing, reflecting, or scattering incident UV radiation. ...
... Sun protection behavior, such as shading out from the sun, lack of physical activity in open environments [58], clothing type [59][60][61][62], and sunscreen use [49,61], can affect UVB-7-dehydrocholesterol interactions by blocking, absorbing, reflecting, or scattering incident UV radiation. ...
Sunlight exposure is an essential source of vitamin D for many humans. However, hypovitaminosis D is a global public health problem. This study aimed to develop and validate a sun exposure score (SES) and correlate it with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in women of childbearing age. One hundred and sixty women aged 18 to 45 years residing in Meknes, Morocco, were included. A questionnaire estimating the sun exposure score and blood analysis of serum 25-OHD concentration were performed. The questionnaire’s reliability and construct validity were evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha and factor analysis. Spearman’s test was used to assess the correlation between SES and 25-OHD levels. The score’s reliability and construct validity were good, with Cronbach’s alpha values >0.70 and factorial saturation ranging from 0.696 to 0.948. Serum 25-OHD levels were significantly associated with the total sun exposure score, and all SES domains (Rho was 0.615 (p < 0.0001), 0.307 (p < 0.0001), 0.605 (p < 0.0001), and 0.424 (p < 0.0001) for total SES, indoor exposure domain, outdoor exposure domain, and sun protection practice domain, respectively). In addition, median 25-OHD levels increased significantly when sun exposure was changed from insufficient to sufficient (p < 0.0001). The results suggest that the sun exposure score could be used as a clinical tool to assess vitamin D levels in women of childbearing age.
... For those seeking to minimize skin cancer risk, clothing offers a simple means of protection which, unlike sunscreen, does not require re-application. Although UVR penetration through clothing is dependent on clothing fabric, color, moisture content, additives and condition, most clothing items (except for some types of summer garments (3)) provide sufficient protection from sun damage (4). ...
... Site UPFs for each hat style (broadbrim, bucket, legionnaire, cap and visor) were obtained from Gies et al. (11). A direct coverage UPF of 30 was selected because most clothing fabrics have a UPF at or above this level (4). The BSA of the ears and neck was sourced from Lee and Choi's study (9), and the BSA of the forehead, cheeks, nose and chin was estimated to make up 0.25, 0.5, 0.1 and 0.15 of the remaining facial area, which in those aged 10-14 years is 3.62% of TBSA (regions 3 and 4 in Fig. 1). ...
Clothing modifies ultraviolet radiation exposure from the sun, and has an impact on skin cancer risk and the endogenous synthesis of vitamin D3 . There is no standardized method available for assessing body surface area covered by clothing, which limits generalizability between study findings. We calculated the body cover provided by 38 clothing items using diagrams of body surface area (BSA), adjusting the values to account for differences in BSA by age. Diagrams displaying each clothing item were developed and incorporated into a coverage assessment procedure (CAP). Five assessors used the CAP and Lund & Browder chart, an existing method for estimating BSA, to calculate the clothing coverage of an image sample of 100 schoolchildren. Values of clothing coverage, inter-rater reliability and assessment time were compared between CAP and Lund & Browder methods. Both methods had excellent inter-rater reliability (>0.90) and returned comparable results, though the CAP method was significantly faster in determining a person's clothing coverage. On balance, the CAP method appears to be a feasible method for calculating clothing coverage. Its use could improve comparability between sun-safety studies and aid in quantifying the health effects of ultraviolet radiation exposure. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... The protection factor has been used for the top of the head solely, the only zone directly in contact with the material of the hat. Overall, the UPF depends on many factors (weave density, composition of the fabric, weight per unit area, fabric thickness, colour, additives, tension, condition, moisture content), so according to the literature [30] [31] we chose a low UPF for the cap, usually made in cotton (5), a medium value for the wide brimmed hat (30) and the highest UPF for the helmet, usually made in plastic (50+). We report our results for the anatomical regions in solar protection cases, in a specific exposure situation, with the purpose to investigate further these situations. ...
... The protection factor has been used for the top of the head solely, the only zone directly in contact with the material of the hat. Overall, the UPF depends on many factors (weave density, composition of the fabric, weight per unit area, fabric thickness, colour, additives, tension, condition, moisture content), so according to the literature [30] [31] we chose a low UPF for the cap, usually made in cotton (5), a medium value for the wide brimmed hat (30) and the highest UPF for the helmet, usually made in plastic (50+). We report our results for the anatomical regions in solar protection cases, in a specific exposure situation, with the purpose to investigate further these situations. ...
Excessive exposure to solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the main cause of skin cancer. The dose-response between UV exposure and skin cancer occurrence is not yet fully understood since UV exposure is highly heterogeneous and strongly influenced by host and behavioural factors, such as posture, orientation to the sun, skin complexion and clothing.To address this issue, a three-dimensional (3D) numeric model(SimUVEx) has been developed to assess dose and distribution of anatomical UV exposure. The model uses 3D computer graphics techniques to compute UV radiance on the basis of postural information and ambient irradiation data, without necessitating time-consuming individual dosimetry, ensuring a wide potential use in skin cancer prevention and research. With the purpose to improve simulation capabilities in order to obtain more realistic scenarios and quantify effective sun protection strategies,a new version has been released, SimUVEX v2. Among new features, a specific morphology for the most sun-exposed body area, the head, has been added. We selected three different styles of hat (cap, wide-brimmed hat and helmet) to compare scenarios with and without solar protections considering the relative contribution of the direct, diffuse and reflected radiation.It was found that, sites directly covered apart (e.g., forehead and top of the head), hats with a wide brim are necessary in order to provide reasonable protections around facial zones on which non-melanoma skin cancers commonly occur, such as nose and cheeks.
... Ellagic acid and polyphenolic compounds in some plant dyes have a measurable antioxidant effect. More natural plant dyes are found to provide UV protective features, which are influenced by many factors such as the structure and physiochemical nature of fiber, dyes, and finishes, fabric thickness, porosity, and moisture content (Gies, 2007). In addition, some natural dyes have insect-repellent and mildew refrain features, e.g., fungicides derived from maple or eucalyptus tree and indigo for medical applications. ...
Fast fashion uses an excessive amount of synthetic dyes and chemical reagents in textile production, while a large quantity of fast fashion apparel and clothes go to the landfill, posting environmental safety concerns. Natural dyes not only produce delicate and subdued shades but also have the potential of novel features to achieve active textile substrate with performance properties such as deodorizing, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifeedant, UV protection, etc. Developing colored textile products with natural colorants in today's market may enhance consumer interest to an even greater extent. Therefore, finding alternative natural degradable dyes has become one of the leading trends in this field. So far, multiple plants and agriculture byproducts have shown promising results in textile dyeing with increasing sustainability and environmental friendliness. There is no doubt in the general acceptance of natural colorants to be utilized as promising substitutes to synthetic dyes for certain categories of textile products, minimizing the negative impact on the health and the ecosystem. With the continuous advancement of natural dyeing research and technology, the dyes will be elaborated even more with finesse, color yield, stability, and colorfastness. This review gives the present status of natural colorants, natural dyeing and color presentation, natural dyeing methods, technique, and performance, mordants and mordanting for natural dyeing, and selection of suitable Agriculture products/byproducts for natural colorants. We hope to provide readers with specific angles on current natural dyeing applications in the textile and apparel industry.
... Previous research has mainly focused on the optical properties of OBs in detergents but not on the UV properties [3,[19][20][21]. OBs in detergents can provide UV protection properties as an added value of textiles in the washing process [18,[22][23][24][25][26]. Stilbene and biphenyl derivatives are most commonly used as detergent OBs [3,19,20]. ...
The influence of iron ions at concentrations of 0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 g/L on optical brighteners of the groups stilbene and biphenyl in solution and on cotton fabric was investigated. Both groups of optical brighteners are intended for detergent formulations. The influence of iron ions was studied by absorption and fluorescence spectra in solution and by whiteness degree, identifying color differences using CIEL*a*b* coordinates and Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) of cotton fabrics. The obtained results in solutions and cotton fabrics showed different behavior of optical brighteners stilbene and biphenyl in the presence of iron. Stilbene compounds with metal ions produced new species capable of absorbing in the UV-B region of the spectrum. A biphenyl compound in combination with iron had no effect on the absorption properties. Both optical brighteners were influenced by iron ions in the sense of fluorescence quenching. The influence of iron ions in single- and two-bath treatments of cotton fabrics after one cycle on whiteness degree and UPF was negligible.
... A sufficient level of wearing comfort must be considered [4,11]. In addition, an important factor is the color of fibers, dyeing, and printing material [4,[12][13][14], where darker colored materials offer significantly better protection [8,13]. However, it is true that dark (e.g., black) colored textiles absorb UV radiation strongly, which they then convert into heat, making us warmer in such clothing. ...
The paper presents an extension of existed cover factor theory more suitable for the evaluation of light penetration through a net woven fabrics structure. It also introduces a new simplified model of predicting the ultraviolet (UV) protective properties of woven fabrics assuming that the coefficient of reflection (KR), transmission (KT), and absorption (KA) of constitutive yarns are known. Since usually they are not, the procedure of preparation of simulation of proper woven fabric samples without interlacing and with known constructional parameters is also presented. The procedure finishes with a fast and cheap detection of missed coefficient for any type of yarns. There are differences between theoretical and measured results, which are not particularly significant in regard to the purpose and demands of investigation.
... Many dyes absorb UV, which helps to reduce UV exposure. Darker colors tend to absorb more UV than lighter colors, including whites and pastels, but bright colors such as red can also substantially absorb UV rays [4]. White fabric having optical whitening agents strongly absorbs UVR [5]. ...
The effect of sodium lignosulfonate (LS) treatment on nylon fabric for enhancing its ultraviolet protection ability has been studied. Various concentrations of LS were applied on nylon fabric using the exhaust method and the treatment was optimized using Box–Behnken response surface design. The ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is achieved, as high as 62.13 with one such LS-treated nylon fabric. The LS-treated nylon fabrics were characterized using FTIR, FESEM, Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) instruments. The UPF and color-strength (K/S) values are significantly increased with an increase in the concentration of LS without any loss of tensile properties and thermal stability. The LS treatment has excellent wash fastness.
... En général, les vêtements faits d'étoffes épaisses, tissées serrées, comme le polyester et le coton ou le nylon et l'élastane (p. ex., Spandex, Lycra) et les couleurs sombres offrent une meilleure protection 58,59 . Des vêtements ont été conçus pour protéger contre le soleil, avec un facteur de protection anti-UV allant jusqu'à 50 28 . ...
... 33 Typically, thicker clothing with tighter weave fabrics -such as polyester and cotton, or nylon and elastane (i.e., Spandex, Lycra) -and darker colours offer greater protection. 58,59 Clothing has been designed for sun protection with an ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) up to 50. 28 All clothing will become less photoprotective if it is wet or stretched. ...
... Multiple studies have aimed to bridge this gap in evidence between prevention programs and behavioural outcomes, including by measuring program reach [12], monitoring the growing prevalence of sun protection policies and regulations [12], and analysing the association between the dose of campaign advertising and sun protection behaviour [28,31]. Moreover, the programs implemented are underpinned by a strong theoretical foundation including epidemiological evidence that UV causes skin cancer [1,39,48], evidence of the effectiveness of sun protection measures [49][50][51][52][53], and health promotion and behaviour change principles [12,54]. ...
... Multiple studies have aimed to bridge this gap in evidence between prevention programs and behavioural outcomes, including by measuring program reach [12], monitoring the growing prevalence of sun protection policies and regulations [12], and analysing the association between the dose of campaign advertising and sun protection behaviour [28,31]. Moreover, the programs implemented are underpinned by a strong theoretical foundation including epidemiological evidence that UV causes skin cancer [1,39,48], evidence of the effectiveness of sun protection measures [49][50][51][52][53], and health promotion and behaviour change principles [12,54]. ...
Background
Australia has one of the highest skin cancer rates in the world. ‘SunSmart’ is a multi-component, internationally recognised community-wide skin cancer prevention program implemented in Melbourne, Australia, since summer 1988–1989. Following recent reductions in melanoma rates among younger Australian cohorts, the extent of behaviour change and the potential contribution of prevention programs to this decline in melanoma rates are of interest. Sun protection is a multifaceted behaviour. Measures previously applied to monitor change over time in preventive behaviour for this population focused on individual behaviours. The omission of multiple behaviours that reduce exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) may have led to underestimates of behaviour change, meriting further analysis of long-term trends to contribute to this debate.
Methods and findings
A population-based survey was conducted in Melbourne in the summer before SunSmart commenced (1987–1988) and across summers in 3 subsequent decades (1988–2017). During summer months, residents (14–69 years) were recruited to cross-sectional weekly telephone interviews assessing their tanning attitudes, sun protection behaviour, and sunburn incidence on the weekend prior to interview. Quotas were used to ensure the sample was proportional to the population by age and sex, while younger respondents were oversampled in some years. The majority of the respondents reported their skin was susceptible to sunburn. Changes in sun protection behaviour were analysed for N = 13,285 respondents in multivariable models, cumulating surveys within decades (1987–1988: N = 1,655; 1990s: N = 5,258; 2000s: N = 3,385; 2010s: N = 2,987) and adjusting for relevant ambient weather conditions and UV levels on weekend dates. We analysed specific and composite behaviours including a novel analysis of the use of maximal sun protection, which considered those people who stayed indoors during peak UV hours together with those people well-protected when outdoors. From a low base, use of sun protection increased rapidly in the decade after SunSmart commenced. The odds of use of at least 1 sun protection behaviours on summer weekends was 3 times higher in the 1990s than pre-SunSmart (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 3.04, 95% CI 2.52–3.68, p < 0.001). There was a smaller increase in use of maximal sun protection including shade (AOR = 1.68, 95% CI 1.44–1.97, p < 0.001). These improvements were sustained into the 2000s and continued to increase in the 2010s. Inferences about program effects are limited by the self-reported data, the absence of a control population, the cross-sectional study design, and the fact that the survey was not conducted in all years. Other potential confounders may include increasing educational attainment among respondents over time and exposure to other campaigns such as tobacco and obesity prevention.
Conclusions
With an estimated 20-year lag between sun exposure and melanoma incidence, our findings are consistent with SunSmart having contributed to the reduction in melanoma among younger cohorts.
... As it is known dyes absorb UV light, which helps in reducing exposure. Darker colors tend to absorb more UV light than lighter colors, including whites and pastels, but vivid colors such as red can also substantially absorb UV rays [2]. The more vivid the color, the greater the protection; a bright yellow shirt is more protective than a pale one. ...
This study was designed to explore the relationship between sunlight exposure and the mechanical properties of paragliding fabrics which have different colors, densities, yarn counts, and coating materials. This study exposed 5 different colors of paragliding fabrics (red, turquoise, dark blue, orange, and white) to intense sunlight for 150 hours during the summer from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. for 5 days a week for 5 weeks. Before and after the UV radiation aging process, the air permeability, tensile strength, tear strength, and bursting strength tests were performed. Test results were also evaluated using statistical methods. According to the results, the fading of the turquoise fabric was found to be the highest among the studied fabrics. It was determined that there is a significant decrease in the mechanical properties of the fabrics after sunlight exposure. After aging, the fabrics become considerably weaker in the case of mechanical properties due to the degradation in both the dyestuff and macromolecular structure of the fiber
... Textile protection of the skin is also not considered in our study. Adequate clothing can protect human skin from deleterious UV exposure, the amount of protection depending on the coverage level of the body surface area, and the quality of UV protection offered by the fabric [48,49]. Most of the days in our sample were in autumn and winter when people-due to low ambient temperatures-tend to cover most of their body by clothes offering a high level of UV protection. ...
Overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the main modifiable risk factor for skin cancer. The Global Solar Ultraviolet Index (UVI) was introduced as a tool to visualize the intensity of UV radiation on a certain day, which should enable and encourage people to take appropriate protective measures. The ‘low’ exposure category of the UVI, defined by a rounded UVI value of 0, 1 or 2, was linked to the health message ‘No protection required’ by the World Health Organization and partner organizations. However, published evidence corroborating this advice is not available. To evaluate the erythemal risk of low UVI days, we analyzed 14,431 daily time series of ambient erythemal irradiance data measured at nine stations of the German solar UV monitoring network during the years 2007–2016. We analyzed the proportion of days in the sample for which ambient erythemal doses calculated for various time intervals exceed average minimal erythemal doses (MEDs) of the Fitzpatrick skin phototypes I–VI to assess the potential for erythema arising from sun exposure on days with low UVI values. Additionally, we calculated for each day the minimum exposure duration needed to receive one MED. Our results indicate that on days with a UVI value of 0, risk of erythema is indeed negligible. Conversely, the abovementioned health message appears misleading when melano-compromised individuals (skin type I and II) spend more than 1.5 hours outdoors on days with a UVI value of 2. Under rare circumstances of prolonged exposure, MEDs of the two most sensitive skin types can also be exceeded even on days with a UVI value of 1. Hence, current WHO guidance for sun protection on days with low UVI values needs reconsideration.
... 31 There was an increase in 25-OH-VD with no difference between groups and, as in our study, no effect of age or gender was There is some UVB penetration through clothing, scalp and areas not completely covered by the sunscreen. 35 Moreover, the thickness of sunscreen application employed by most of the population does not reach the recommended 2mg/cm 2 , what leads to a variation in the amount of UVB that reaches the skin according to the thickness of photoprotection coverage and allows for some synthesis of VD. 36,37 Besides, lighter-skinned individuals who are at higher risk for actinic lesions, are also the most effective synthesizers of VD, what minimizes the impact of sunscreen in VD synthesis. 38,39 An important part of the hypovitaminosis D epidemics that affects the world population can originate from inadequate diet and, mainly from leisure activities (for example, shopping malls, gymnasiums, air-conditioned environments) protected from direct in the planet is due to the evolutional gain from VD photosynthesis and to the photolysis of folic acid in the skin by UVA. ...
Background
Most of the organism’s vitamin D (VD) is obtained through the cutaneous synthesis after exposure to the sun’s UVB radiation. Sunscreens are indicated for the prevention of actinic damage to the skin, however, there are few clinical trials assessing the synthesis of cutaneous VD in real-life situations of sun exposure with ordinary clothing and usual photoprotection.
Objectives
To evaluate the synthesis of VD with suberythemal sun exposure in healthy adults using topical photoprotection (SPF 30).
Methods
Quasi-experimental study, conducted at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), during winter, with 95 healthy adults who had 25-OH-VD checked twice, 24 hours apart, and were exposed to the sun (UVB=20 mJ/cm2), according to a randomized grouping: SC - use of SPF 30 on the face, neck and chest (n=64), NO - no sunscreens (n=10), CO - confined from sun exposure for 24h (n=21). The groups were matched according to the propensity score related to gender, age, phototype, body mass index, glycosylated hemoglobin and baseline levels of VD. The outcome evaluated was the variation (ΔVD) in serum level of 25-OH-VD (ng/ml) between the groups.
Results
A statistically significant difference was identified between CO and SC groups [median (p25-p75)]: ΔVD =1.4 (-0.3-3.6) vs. 5.5 (4.8-6.6); p<0.01. There was no difference between SC and NO groups: 5.4 (3.1-6.1) vs. 4.1 (2.5-6.0); p=0.17.
Study limitations
Laboratory analysis technique (chemiluminescence) with great variability, loss of food intake standardatization, unbalanced groups.
Conclusions
Suberythemal sun exposure with sunscreen (SPF 30) provides similar vitamin D serum variation than without photoprotection in healthy adults.
... 7 L'élément fondamental en prévention primaire repose sur les moyens de protection physique contre l'exposition solaire, comme le port d'habits, de chapeau, de lunettes, la limitation de l'exposition et la crème solaire. 8 Il pourrait exister d'autres facteurs protecteurs tels que la prise de vitamine D, d'aspirine et de médicaments hypolipémiants, mais les preuves restent limitées. ...
Melanoma represents the fifth most common cancer in Switzerland and its incidence is rising over the past decades. A new debate is going on about the efficacy of sunscreen against the risk of developing melanoma. Few studies have proven its efficacy with a significant risk of overexposure to sunlight due to the feeling of overprotection offered by those sunscreens. The role of the physician is to explain this risk and to integrate sunscreens among a wide range of other strategies existing in primary prevention of melanoma.
... [24][25][26][27] Similarly, the protection provided against ultraviolet radiations by thicker fabrics is better than thinner ones. 28 Fabric performance against UV is also affected by the color and dye class applied to it. Dark shades provide better protection against UVRs than light shades obtained by the same dyestuff. ...
Harmful effects of ultraviolet rays and protection against them have been long discussed. Numerous synthetic dyes, finishes, UV absorbers and Optical brightening agents (OBAs) are present in the market for decades for achieving UV protection through textiles. However, due to environmental impacts of these chemical agents, textile industry is looking for alternatives. In this regard, some natural dyes and plant extracts have shown promising results. However, use of colorless plant extracts as UV protective finishes is still rare. In this study, UPF rating of bleached cotton fabric has been improved by the application of plant extracts with minimal change in fabric's colour. For this purpose, two medicinal plants i.e. Solanum nigrum and Amaranthus viridis were selected and bleached cotton fabric was treated with their methanolic and aqueous extracts. Fabrics treated with both extracts exhibited excellent UPF ratings.
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... The sun protection practices mentioned least included wearing long-sleeved clothing and sunglasses. Long-sleeved clothes act as a textile shield to UVR and-in contrast to sunscreen-they provide water and sweat resistant sun protection [35,36]. A new index, the Garment Protection Factor, joins the two important aspects for determining the extent of sun protection offered by clothing, namely the quality of UVR blocking offered by the fabric and the coverage level of the body surface area due to clothing design, and informs the public about the sun-protective properties of clothing [37,38]. ...
Minimizing exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is strongly recommended as the most important primary prevention measure regarding skin cancer. The responsibility for adequate sun protection of young children lies with their parents and external caregivers. Since a high proportion of 3- to 6-year-old children in Germany attend nurseries, the practice of sun protection in this setting was assessed. A survey was conducted in 246 nurseries in southern Germany during spring and summer of 2014 and 2015. Shade coverage in the outdoor area of the nursery was assessed by study team members and UVR protective behavior of staff was assessed by an interview with the directors. On average, 52% of the entire outdoor area and 65% of the children’s outdoor play area were covered by shade, with a significant difference between nurseries of different sizes, pointing to a better shade coverage in larger nurseries. The daily outdoor stay was not regularly scheduled before or after peak sun intensity hours around noon to avoid intense UVR exposure. General sun protection rules were present in the majority of the nurseries and addressed predominantly wearing sunhats and applying sunscreen. Our findings show that current sun protection recommendations for children are only partially met in nurseries and indicate a lower level of sun protection in small institutions. Especially, avoidance of excessive exposure to UVR around noon and the importance of shade provision over play structures needs to be emphasized in future information campaigns.
... 5,15 Besides sunscreen use and avoidance of sun exposure in inadequate hours, other types of sunburn prevention include using adequate clothing and staying in the shade. 19 During summer, only 46.3% of the students from Curitiba prefer shades instead of sun, and this preference is statistically significant when females are compared to males, what could be explained by the concern with current beauty standards. In Switzerland, Reinau et al. 5 observed that 32% of the students remained in the shade on sunny days. ...
Background
The greatest sun exposure occurs until adolescence and this is the only factor involved in photocarcinogenesis subject to modification with photoprotection.
Objective
The objective of this study was to evaluate the habits and knowledge of adolescents regarding photoprotection.
Method
Cross-sectional study that included 512 students from primary and high school. Data were collected by questionnaires with questions about habits and knowledge on sun protection. For data analysis, Pearson's Chi-square test and Yates test were applied, with 5% level of significance.
Results
We evaluated 512 students, with a mean age of 14 years old. The teenagers agreed that ultraviolet rays cause skin cancer and aging (96% and 70%, respectively). Knowledge about the occurrence of burns even on cloudy days was recorded in 68% of cases, as well as the need for photoprotection for sports in 72%. The source of information about sun protection were by parents in 55%. In 70% was observed previous occurrence of sunburn, the daily use of sunscreens was found in 15% and 67% used only at the beach. of sunscreens with SPF higher than 30 was reported by 70% of students and 57% reported going to the beach between 10h and 16h. In 68% of cases it was registered insufficient sun protection, attributed, in 57% of the time to forgetfulness.
Study limitations
The sample refers to two schools of Curitiba (PR), Brazil.
Conclusion
Teenagers know the risks of sun exposure, but they do not adopt the practices for adequate protection.
... So outdoor workers need to be provided with garments that have high UVR protection i.e. UPF 50+ along with use of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as sunscreen products, hat and sunglasses etc [3,4]. Clothing is our first line of defence against the sun's UV rays which are harmful. ...
... However, covering the face or hands may not be a very convenient every-day solution. 15 Alternatives remain inconvenient, such as tinted windows, or systemic antioxidative photoprotectives, which, however, still need to confirm their benefits of protecting from VL and sunscreens. ...
Recently visible light (VL) and vascularization triggered by infrared light (IR) play a role in hyperpigmentation disorders of the skin. The aim of this article is to provide an update on the aetiology of hyperpigmentation disorders and means of prevention against UV, visible (VL) and infrared light (IR). The author conducted a literature review of the most recent data about hyperpigmentation disorders and means of prevention and protection. VL impacts on pigmentation, especially in individuals with phototype III, IV or V and also causes the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), erythema and DNA damage through ROS production as well as photodermatoses. IR is supposed to be involved in melanogenesis throughout the activation of the endothelin receptor B and the mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2, and protein (p)38. To protect from hyperpigmentation caused by VL, sunscreens containing iron oxides are efficient. The development of systemic antioxidants and new UV-VL sunscreens which allow absorption of the energy in the VL spectrum without reflection may provide further protection. With no existing organic or non-organic filters able to absorb or reflect IR, topical antioxidants may be able to provide some protection against damage caused by IR. However, their clinical efficacy still needs to be confirmed. In conclusion, UV, VL and IR light induce pigmentation. To prevent hyperpigmentation, protection using adequate sunscreens on exposed areas is needed. To date, no efficient protection from IR light exists, but topical antioxidants may be able to provide some protection.
... Alternatively, these molecules can be impregnated or dispersed onto the fibres and yarns that will be converted into UV protective textile materials. Various factors affecting UV radiation transmission properties of textiles are structure and physiochemical nature of fibres, dyes and finishing agents, fabric thickness, porosity and moisture content [108,109]. Dyed and finished fibre blocks transmission of sun rays more efficiently as compared to undyed or unfinished one and the efficiency levels increases with the increase in the concentration of dye [110,111]. ...
The worldwide demand for natural dyes is nowadays of great interest due to the increased
awareness on therapeutic potential and wide range of industrial applications such as in engineering,
food, textile, medical and agricultural industries. These environment friendly bioresourse materials produced
from non-food crops have revolutionized all industrial sectors especially pharmaceutical and textile
industries. Natural dyes are derived from naturally occurring sources such as plants, insects, and
minerals without or with least chemical processing. Although, plant based natural dyes are known since
time immemorial for dyeing as well as medicinal properties, the structures and protective properties of
natural dyes have been recognized only in the recent past. The present review, describes the detailed information
about basic chemistry of the major pigments, their medicinal importance and textile applications
of naturally occurring dye yielding plants, which are helpful for further development of pharmaceutical
formulations and development of value added textile materials. Comparative environmental
impact analysis is presented, highlighting the ecofriendliness of natural dyes and adverse ecological
concerns of presently used synthetic colorants.
... The Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF, a parameter to express the shielding capacity of a textile determined in standardized conditions and measured in integers: a UPF 20 means that only a 1/20 of the incident radiation is transmitted across the textile) varies widely among garments, up to 1,000 and even over. A UPF at least 50 is recommended for outdoor workers [75]. In general, dark coloured, thick and tight woven fabrics protect more than light coloured, thin and loose woven fabrics. ...
Occupational exposure to solar radiation may induce both acute and long-term effects on skin and eyes. Personal exposure is very difficult to assess accurately, as it depends on environmental, organisational and individual factors. The ongoing climate change interacting with stratospheric ozone dynamics may affect occupational exposure to solar radiation. In addition, tropospheric levels of environmental pollutants interacting with solar radiation may be altered by climate dynamics, so introducing another variable affecting the overall exposure to solar radiation. Given the uncertainties regarding the direction of changes in exposure to solar radiation due to climate change, compliance of outdoor workers with protective measures and a proper health surveillance are crucial. At the same time, education and training, along with the promotion of healthier lifestyles, are of paramount importance.
... The color of the specimens became darker, redder, and less yellow after laundering. Gies (2007) found that darker colors of the same fabric absorbed UVR more strongly than lighter shades, while Riva, Algaba, Pepió, and Prieto (2009) found that red fabrics provided better UVR protection than yellow fabrics because the red dyestuff absorbed more radiation of the UVB wavelengths (less 400 um) than the yellow dyestuff. This may explain why the fabric could absorb more UVR and provide better UVR protection when the color became darker, redder, and less yellow. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of repeated treatments of perspiration, weathering, and laundering as well as their interactions on the ultraviolet radiation (UVR) protection of a naturally colored cotton lightweight fabric suitable for summer clothing. The research design was a 2 (perspiration) × 3 (weathering) repeated measures (measured before and after each laundering cycle, up to 15 cycles) experimental design. Complicated interactions were found among these three treatment factors. Laundering alone (without weathering) increased the UVR protection, whereas weathering significantly reduced the protection. The conditions in a hot and humid climate facilitated the decline of protection, but perspiration played a role in slowing down the reduction.
... So outdoor workers need to be provided with garments that have high UVR protection i.e. UPF 50+ along with use of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as sunscreen products, hat and sunglasses etc [3,4]. Clothing is our first line of defence against the sun's UV rays which are harmful. ...
The aim of present work was to develop the fabric which provides sufficient protection from ultraviolet rays present in the sunlight specially for those who are exposed to sunlight for long time due to their occupation. Carded Polyester/Viscose Ring yarns with Blend ratios 75/25, 60/40, and 55/45 and Polyester/Viscose/Lycra Ring yarns with blend ratio 70/25/5 having weft linear density of 37Tex were produced. Polyester/Viscose yarn with warp linear density of 20 Tex was produced from blend of 75/25. The fabric samples were woven with constant warp density of 125 ends per inch and for each blend three weft densities (55, 65, 70 picks per inch) were selected. Combining all, twelve different samples of fabric were prepared. These fabrics were first treated with pre-treatment process and then characterization of all samples were carried out. The UPF of the fabric was determined by the in vitro method using an Ultraviolet Transmittance Analyser UV-2000F. Results show excellent UPF along with good air permeability for all fabric samples and provides best protection from UVB and UVA rays and can be appropriate for workwear fabric. Statistical analysis of Mathematical model helps to study influence of thickness, weight and air permeability on UPF.
... As a result, special attention was focused by textile researchers on the fabric permeability to the UVR in the recent years. (12,17) Research indicates that the transmission of UVR through fabric depends on the wavelength. On the other hand, protection the body by clothes varies significantly with type of fiber, compactness, weight, weave, cover and the color of clothing. ...
There is a growing demand in the marketplace for textile apparel Cotton fabric because it is comfortable due to the moisture absorption. Besides this, cotton fabric can protect the skin from ultraviolet radiation (UVR) through the use of colors, which is one of the most influential variables for protection from ultraviolet radiation that causes skin cancer. The effect of treated cotton fabric with natural dyes on permeability UVR was investigated. The result showed that treated cotton fabrics can reduce or almost prevent the diffuse transmittance of UVR.
Objective
We investigated the association between sun protection behaviours and demographic and melanoma risk characteristics of patients attending Australian melanoma specialist clinics. This may assist in targeting and tailoring melanoma prevention patient education for people at high‐risk and specific population subgroups.
Methods
A cross‐sectional analysis of questionnaire data collected from participants attending the dermatology clinics at two major melanoma centres in Sydney, Australia between February 2021 and September 2023. The primary outcome was Sun Protection Habits (SPH) index (a summary score measured as habitual past month use of sunscreen, hats, sunglasses, a shirt with sleeves that covers the shoulders, limiting midday sun exposure and seeking shade, using a Likert scale). The primary analysis considered the SPH index and its component items scored as continuous.
Results
Data from 883 people were analysed. Factors associated with less frequent sun protection behaviours overall included male gender, no personal history of melanoma, lower perceived risk, lower calculated 10‐year risk of developing melanoma, and no private health insurance. People aged >61 years reported lower use of sunscreen but higher use of hats and sleeved‐shirts compared with people in the younger age group. There was no difference in overall sun protection behaviours according to family history of melanoma, country of birth or by lifetime melanoma risk among people without a personal history of melanoma.
Conclusions
These findings highlight the potential for targeting high‐risk individuals with less frequent use of sun protection for patient education, public health messaging and ultimately improving sun protection behaviours.
Exposure to solar radiation is associated with various impacts on human health, affecting millions of people worldwide each year. As a prevention measure, clothing is an attractive and advantageous choice. In this work, natural bioactives were used for photoprotection purposes in textiles. Extracts from the seeds of Bixa orellana (37.5, 25.0, and 12.5% w/v) and powders from Curcuma longa L. (10.0, 5.0, and 2.5% w/v) were applied to raw cotton fabrics (Tc). The dye impregnation was carried out by immersing the fabric samples in the bioactive extract suspensions under heating and magnetic stirring. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results showed the presence of bixin and norbixin, and curcumin; natural dyes associated with anti-UV properties. UV/Vis molecular absorption spectrometry confirmed the presence of bioactives and characterized the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF), where it was observed that dye impregnation improved the UPF of cotton fabric by blocking ultraviolet radiation. Samples Tc + EXBO37.5%, Tc + EXBO25.0%, Tc + EXCL10.0% showed an adequate UPF as recommended by the ABNT NBR 16695 (2018). Finally, it is worth highlighting the importance of using a simple, low-cost, and sustainable methodology that aims to add socioeconomic value and socio-environmental development to the Northeast region of Brazil, which produces the species Bixa orellana and Curcuma longa L., and cotton fabrics through the exploitation of the photoprotective properties of their natural dyes in the production of everyday clothing.
Sesbania aculeata (Dhaincha), a lignocellulosic bast fiber, has been explored here as an ultraviolet blocker due to the presence of natural lignin of about 19% on its surface. Various woven fabrics are prepared with various dhaincha/jute-blended yarns as weft to measure ultraviolet (UV) protection ability, drying rate, and thermal conductivity. Effect of linear density of blended yarn, blend ratio, and pick density of the prepared fabrics on UV protection ability, drying rate, and thermal conductivity have been studied and optimized using 3³ Box–Behnken response surface design. The optimum level of these parameters to obtain high UV protection, high drying rate, and high thermal conductivity are reported. The UV protection factor (UPF), drying rate, and thermal conductivity of the fabric are achieved as high as 92.68, 0.3589 ml/H, and 0.185754 W/mK, respectively. The presence of lignin in jute and dhaincha fibers is evidenced by FTIR study. This research work establishes the new application of dhaincha fiber in the field of textiles for UV protection and thermal comfort.
Care of the aging man is not complete without expert dermatologic care. Skin problems, ranging from skin cancers to dermatoses, are extremely common with age, and some common problems, such as photoaging, are more prominent in men. Men are increasingly seeking cosmetic treatments, mostly procedures with fast recovery times.
Clothes are one of the most effective measures to minimize health hazards due to the current levels of UV radiation
on the earth’s surface. Fabrics made of natural fibers and dyed with natural pigments are an excellent means to reduce UV
exposure. In this study, the UV protection properties were tested on a vegetal fiber fabric (hemp) dyed with water extracts
from madder, chestnut, onion, inula, and logwood, at three increasing concentrations. Dyeing extracts were obtained from
different sources: agro-food industry residues (chestnut and onion), spontaneous (inula), and commercial dyeing plants
(madder and logwood). The quantitative characterization of water dye extracts was performed to evaluate the amount of dye
in pre- and post-dyeing solutions as well as the dye fastened to the fabric. The percentage values of dye fastened to the fabric,
in relation to the plant dry weight, were relatively low for all the considered species. The fabric Ultraviolet Protection Factor
(UPF) was evaluated using both a laboratory spectrophotometer and a spectroradiometer in outdoor conditions. A
progressive increase in UPF with the increase of the dye-bath concentration was shown. Chestnut and onion, reaching the
minimum protection level (UPF=15) at the highest dye-bath concentration, can be considered the most effective. The UPF
persistence of the fabrics was also evaluated after sun exposure and repeated washing. Colors and UV protective properties
obtained by the dyeing procedure tested in this research can provide added value to hemp fabric and meet the demands of an
expanding “eco-friendly” market.
Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure is well established as the major environmental risk factor for the development of melanoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), and basal cell carcinoma (BCC). Additional risk factors including genetic mutations, other environmental agents, and immune status are important in modulating the effects of UVR. Dermatologists advocate a multi-pronged approach to minimizing UVR exposure including lifestyle modifications, UVR protective clothing, and topically applied sun-protective products, i.e. sunscreen. New Federal Drug Administration (FDA) regulations on sunscreen have brought certain long-standing ingredients in sunscreen products under scrutiny. The FDA's proposed rule for over the counter (OTC) monograph states that the inorganic sunscreens, zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, were found to be "generally recognized as safe and effective," but cite insufficient evidence to grant organic sunscreens the same designation. This proposed rule by the FDA and our increasing understanding of multifactorial mechanisms of UVR damage are an impetus for innovation and advances in sun protective technology. A complete set of strategies designed to limit the risk of UV-induced skin cell malignant transformation and tumor development must address the fuller consideration of genetic, environmental, and immune factors that cooperatively drive cutaneous carcinogenesis. Recent advances in our understanding of the biochemical processes underpinning UVR associated cutaneous cellular damage, genotoxicity, and clonal expansion provide investigators with a spectrum of opportunities for technologic innovation in the prevention of skin cancer. Strategies to improve upon current topical sunscreen formulations have strived for broader UVR spectral coverage, more favorable aesthetics, increased adherence, and minimal penetration into the living epidermis. In addition to improved sunscreens, future topical therapies may target processes within the epidermis that contribute to carcinogenesis. These include reactive species quenching, delivery of DNA repair enzymes, and targeting of cytokines essential to the proliferation of mutant keratinocytes.
Photoprotection by clothing is one of the most effective protective measures against solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR), and the related concept of UV protection factors (UPF) for fabrics has proven itself for decades. Although immense work has been carried out regarding factors influencing textile sun protection, the idea of UPFs for artificial UVR, if necessary with different action spectra, is payed little attention. In this work, a modified UPF equation is proposed utilizing welding arcs and the ICNIRP action spectrum. These welding UPFs (wUPF) were calculated for some workwear as a function of welding power, technique, and welded material. No wUPF welding power dependence existed. By means of normalized standard emission spectra, that were further clustered with regard to welding technique, it was found that the wUPF depends exclusively on the fabric’s transmittance and the ICNIRP weighting function yielding a reduced wUPF formula. Finally, a comparison of solar and welding UPFs, based on either their full or reduced equations, is discussed.
Ultraviolet (UV) exposure, from the sun and sunbeds, is the main cause of skin cancer and the only cause of photoaging. Photoprotection involves a complex set of behaviours decreasing UV exposure by a wide range of means. The tools for photoprotection, especially sunscreens, have improved dramatically over recent years. There is limited evidence that photoprotection with sunscreen protects against skin cancer. Major barriers to good photoprotection remain, because photoprotection involves a complex set of behaviours, which are crucially dependent on psychosocial and societal factors.
Recently in Canada, there has been an effort to create consistent messaging about sun safety as there is a lack of up-to-date evidence-based guidelines regarding sun-protection measures. This review aimed to provide updated, evidence-based recommendations on sunscreen application, safety, and sun protection regarding the following topics for which there is clinical uncertainty: physical barriers, sunscreen properties, sunscreen application, and risk-benefit analysis.
This paper proposes a rain coat design and development process based on objective analysis of user needs. The proposed raincoat is developed aiming at children for age group 7-8 years. The proposed design process starts with personal interviews and participant observation. The user needs analysis will be realized in this process regarding the user need categories of functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs.These needs led to the further development of design criteria.These criteria were then translated into raincoat attributes and used in the development of a raincoat prototype. Finally, the raincoat prototype was evaluated regarding the design criteria. The final design combines the desired functional, expressive, and aesthetic attributes as outlined by the design criteria. © 2018 Inst. Nat. Cercetare-Dezvoltare Text. Pielarie. All rights reserved.
Protective textiles are saving human beings from various adverse environmental conditions like fire, heat, bullets, microorganisms, mosquito bites, etc. In connection with flame-resistant textiles, fish DNA, casein, whey protein, and wastage plantbased bio-macromolecules, such as spinach juice, banana pseudostem sap, coconut shell extract, and so on, are well reported as flame-resistant materials on cellulosic, lignocellulosic, and protein-based textile products. Apart from it, different nanobased metal oxides are also very popular because of their fire-retardant efficacy at low add-on percentage. Recently, bulletproof and the stab-resistant textile materials are also capturing the defense market very quickly. Concerning this area, designing lightweight bulletproof materials is the major target for the researchers for its wide application. As regards mosquito-repellent protective textiles, different synthetic-based products and eco-friendly plant-based oils (like citronella, clove, eucalyptus) are explored by researchers for their efficient mosquito- repellent properties. Besides, to evaluate the efficacy of mosquito repellency, cone tests, cage tests, etc., are also developed by research societies. Wastage plant extracts like coconut shell extract, neem, aloe vera, etc., are reported to have excellent microorganism protective efficacy when it is applied on the fabric surface.
Linked Article: Downs and Harrison. Br J Dermatol 2018; 178:958–964.
The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) produced guidelines on exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in 2004. The 2004 ICNIRP guidelines list exposure limits for all of the different wavelengths of UVR that provide protection for both the skin and the eyes from acute effects of exposure. There are now numerous countries around the world that have in place requirements regarding basic legal requirements for occupational safety and health in workplaces and require the employer to do an assessment of risks in the workplace and design preventative measures and procedures. Numerous countries around the world have had existing sunscreen standards for many years. Australia introduced the world's first standard on sun-protective clothing in 1996. This standard covers both recreational wear and clothing for occupational purposes. Solaria have been a worldwide health issue for a considerable time, as shown by the evidence from numerous research studies that link solaria to melanoma induction in solaria users.
The main aspects that play a role in the prevention of ultraviolet (UV)-induced skin cancer and photodermatoses by means of clothing are discussed. In vitro and in vivo test methods are reviewed. Furthermore, we describe various fabric parameters (e.g., composition, construction, dye) and other factors that have an influence on the UV-blocking properties of clothing. Standards on sun protective clothing are briefly introduced as well.
Increased incidence of skin cancers worldwide has expedited the development and research of ultraviolet (UV)-protective clothing. Clothing acting as a ‘second skin’ for human beings provides a more durable protection against harmful UV radiation than sunscreen creams. The market value of UV-protective clothing is worth considering. This paper will provide important information to textile designers, manufacturers, and consumers about the production and selection of UV-protective knitwear. Although various factors that affect UV protection of fabrics have been studied by researchers, most of them focused on woven fabrics and chemical approaches for improving UV protection. Knitwear in the form of daily wear is an indispensable form of clothing in summer but there has been limited research concerning the UV-protective properties of weft-knitted fabrics to date, in particular the influence of fabric construction on UV protection factor (UPF) and fabric structural properties. This issue of Textile Progress reviews the major factors that affect UV protection by fabrics, including fibre types, yarn characteristics, fabric construction, colouration, chemical additives, wetness (rather than just the moisture absorbed into the fibres), the stretching that may occur in clothing, and the effects of laundering. Methods for evaluating the UV-protective ability of fabrics are also addressed. There is also an attempt to fill a research gap by investigating the influence of different knitted structures on a fabric's UPF, through incorporation of the three major stitch types in weft-knitted fabric constructions, namely the knit, tuck, and miss stitches.
ABS TRACT The sun which is the source of our light and heat emits UV radiation (UVR). UVR has
acute and chronic effects on the skin depending on its wavelength. Acute exposure to UVR on the
skin leads to sunburn and tanning whereas chronic exposure results in photoaging, immune supression
and photocarcinogenesis. Herein, the importance of sun protection and basic sun protection
methods will be discussed.
Key Words: Sun; protection; method; skin cancer; ultraviolet radiation
Turkiye Klinikleri J Cosm Dermatol-Special Topics 2015;8(4):17-20
The UV radiation is associated with the development of acute and chronic skin changes, such as sunburn, immune-suppression, changes in pigmentation, photoaging and skin cancer. The main measure to minimize the damage caused buy UV, is the solar protection. Many factors affects UV transmission in human skin, and solar protection (including sunscreen, free radicals scavengers, and others) minimizes these changes.
Informações: www.sbd-sp.org.br relacoespublicas@sbd-sp.org.br
Language Portuguese.
This chapter discusses the main aspects playing a role in the prevention of ultraviolet (UV)-induced skin cancer and photodermatoses by means of clothing. The chapter first reviews the in vitro and in vivo test methods and standards on sun-protective clothing. It then describes various fabric parameters (e.g. composition, construction, dye) and other factors that can have an influence on the UV-blocking properties of clothing. The chapter concludes with a brief outlook on the future of sun-protective garments.
The effect of fabric type, color, fit and wetness on transmission of solar erythemal ultraviolet radiation through garments was investigated using laboratory testing and during simulated wear using a multivariate experimental design. The effect of fabric type, color, and wetness on UVB transmission (280-320 nm) through fabrics was determined under laboratory conditions using a spectrophotometer. Garments were also evaluated under conditions of simulated use in Queensland, Australia using polysulphone dosimeters. Dosimeters, placed against the 'skin' at selected sites on the torso and on the adjacent outer surface of the covering garment, were used to measure solar UVB. During simulated wear the fabric type, fit and color were the main variables affecting UVB transmission through the garments. To optimize protection, dark fabrics with good cover should be constructed into garments with positive design ease, and be selected and worn as loosely-fitting styles that maximize the surface area covered.
An analysis is made of experimental ultraviolet erythemal solar radiation data measured during the years 2000 and 2001 by the Spanish UV-B radiation evaluation and prediction network. This network consists of 16 Robertson-Berger type pyranometers for evaluating solar erythemal radiation and five Brewer spectroradiometers for evaluating the stratospheric ozone. On the basis of these data the Ultraviolet Index (UVI) was evaluated for the measuring stations that are located either in coastal regions or in the more densely populated regions inland on the Iberian Peninsula. It has been checked that in most cases the maximum irradiance values corresponded to solar noon, although there were exceptions that could be explained by cloudiness. The maximum experimental values of the UVI were around 9 during the summer, though frequently passing this value at the inland measurement stations. The annual accumulated dose of irradiation on a horizontal plane has also been studied, as well as the evolution through the year in units of energy, standard erythemal doses and minimum erythemal doses, according to different phototypes.
In 1999, the authors began recruitment for a randomized controlled intervention trial aimed at preventing melanocytic nevi
(moles) by minimizing sun exposure through the use of sun-protective clothing. The study involves 652 Caucasian children (75.6%
response) aged 0–35 months from 25 child-care centers (n = 13 intervention and n = 12 control) living in the high-solar-irradiance environment of Townsville, Queensland, Australia. Children attending intervention
centers wear investigator-provided garments made from fabrics with ultraviolet protection factors rated very good to excellent.
Control centers continue to offer usual care. Three-year follow-up of all children will be completed in 2005. The main outcome
measure is the number of new melanocytic nevi. At baseline, the two groups were similar with respect to nevi, phenotype, age,
demographic characteristics, sun-protection habits, and history of sun exposure, except that more children from control versus
intervention centers (2% and 0%, respectively; p = 0.006) had experienced painful sunburn with blistering. Higher melanocytic nevus counts were associated with more time
spent outdoors and a history of sunburn, while sunscreen use, particularly during the mild winter months, appeared to have
a protective effect. These findings further substantiate the hypothesis that nevus development in young children is related
to sun exposure.
The number of melanocytic nevi is the most important risk factor for cutaneous melanoma. This 1998 cross-sectional study of 1,812 children aged 2-7 years from 78 day-care centers in Germany analyzed the protective effect of sunscreen and clothing on the number of melanocytic nevi. Total body nevi were counted, and pigmentary features were assessed. Parents underwent a standardized interview concerning their children's sun exposure and sun-protective behavior. Almost 95% of the children had used sunscreen previously. Children who used sunscreen and wore more clothing spent significantly longer periods on holidays in sunny climates (p < 0.001 and p = 0.006, respectively) and had a higher outdoor activity score at home (p < 0.001 and p = 0.012, respectively). Multivariate analysis adjusted for confounders showed no significant protective effects of applying sunscreen. Examination of the potential protective effect of clothing revealed an inverse dose-response correlation between the number of clothes worn at the beach or outdoor swimming pool and the number of melanocytic nevi (p < 0.001, adjusted for confounding). Randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these results. Meanwhile, public education should aim to protect children primarily by sun avoidance and protective clothing, while sunscreen should also be used.
The UV protection factors of twenty commonly used textiles were determined. Protection factors varied between 1.3 and 1700, which shows the importance of giving careful advice to light-sensitive and psoralensensitized patients, regarding suitable clothes.
Most people would answer yes. Awareness thus still has to be created: the answer is definitely no. Textiles provide only limited protection against UV radiation unless they are specially treated.
Solar UVR is the most important source of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) to which the world’s population is exposed. The long-term effects of these UVR exposures are dealt with in later chapters but a brief description of the biological effects of UVR is given here and an overview of the measurement of UVR is also provided. The chapter provides a detailed exploration of the range of factors that affect solar UVR at the earth’s surface and includes a summary of solar UVR levels around the world. The role of personal behavior when outdoors, perhaps the most important factor determining an individual’s exposure to solar UVR, is then examined as being the main potential avenue to modify and reduce these exposures. The chapter concludes with an overview of artificial sources of UVR and their associated hazards.
The results of tests on the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) of elastane fabrics when stretched and wet are reported. The work was undertaken to determine the appropriateness of giving a UPF rating to a garment if the garment is worn in a stretched state and may also be worn when wet. The results suggested that the UPF of elastane-based fabrics for tight-fitting wear should be measured when stretched by at least 10% in both directions.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation is the most significant environmental factor for the production of skin cancer in human beings. Sun protection must therefore involve a combination of sun avoidance and the use of suitable textiles, hats, sunglasses, sun-block creams, etc. Australia has led the way for the development of a standard for the determination of the ultraviolet protection factors of apparel textiles. This article reviews recent and continuing work in this field undertaken at the University of New South Wales.
Too much exposure to UV radiation can result in skin damage such as sunburn, premature skin ageing, allergies, and even skin cancer, particularly in white-skinned people. Textiles can provide effective protection against such damage. Unlike cosmetics, using textiles to protect the skin or enhance skin protection has only recently been researched. Work on the sun protection factors (SPFs) of cotton, wool, silk, polyester, polyamide, and polyamide/elastan fabrics and their improvement by means of UV absorbers is described. A fabric's SPF is determined by the chemical structure of its constituent fibers and the substances present on and in them (additives and textile processing aids) and by its structural characteristics (porosity, thickness, dimensional stability, elastic properties, etc.). Fabrics of cotton, silk, polyamide, and polyamide/elastan (these last two with only a low delustrant content), particularly in pale shades, were found to give too little protection against intense UV radiation. If they are closely woven or knitted, that is if their porosity is low, their performance can be markedly improved by treatment with UV absorbers. A reactive UV absorber for cotton is described.
Manufacturers of sun-protective clothing face a confusing array of information because the published literature contains many contradictory claims. This study was undertaken to shed more light on the influence of fiber type, fabric porosity, thickness, and thread count on the UVR-blocking properties of undyed fabrics. Results of this study show that fabric porosity, as estimated by image analysis, was the single best predictor of an undyed woven fabric's UVR-blocking properties. Fiber type and thickness also proved to be important determinants. Polyester, silk, and wool fabrics exhibited better UVR-blocking properties than cotton or rayon when porosity and thickness were taken into account. These findings will prove useful to manufacturers of sun-protective clothing who supply clothing to skin cancer victims and patients undergoing radiation and chemotherapy. Designers of protective clothing for industrial welders and astronauts could also find the image analysis technique described useful for quantifying fabric porosity.
Clothing has long been considered an important method of sun protection. Recently, sun protection clothing items have entered the market place in the U.S. and Canada. However, little research has been conducted to evaluate sun protectiveness of different clothing materials. We conducted studies using an in vitro estimate of fabric protection and compared protectiveness of the same fabrics by in vivo human studies using a solar simulator. Some clothing that might be considered sun protective (i.e. shirts provided for lifeguards) was poorly protective and would be expected to allow solar induced skin damage after only two hours of summer sun exposure. Other specially woven material proved to be highly protective in both in vitro and in vivo assays? suggesting that standards be established for clothing sun protection properties.
This article presents an edited version of a paper presented at the 14th Symposium of the SDCANZ-Textiles - a colourful future. The paper examines an ultraviolet protection factor grading scheme, which has been effective in Australia since May 1994, for the labelling of clothing and textiles. The Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF), and its background are described, as a measure of how much protection a particular fabric will provide from the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. The effects of fabric colour, fibre type, UVR absorbers, wear and tear, laundering and dry versus wet fabrics, are examined in this paper.
This book was written for energy analysts, designers of thermal devices, photovoltaic engineers, architects, agronomists, and hydrologists who must calculate an amount of solar radiation incident on a surface. Includes reading lists, diagrams, a subject index and tables with useful data. Contents, abridged: Sun-earth astronomical relationship. The solar constant and its spectral distribution. Extraterrestrial solar irradiation. Solar spectral radiation under cloudless skies. Solar radiation under cloudy skies. Grand albedo. Solar radiation measuring instruments. Appendices. Index.
A special study of the potential skin hazards arising from the transmission through fabrics of actinic UV generated from various welding processes was conducted by the US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency as part of a cooperative effort with the Industrial Safety Equipment Association, The Aluminum Association, and the American Welding Society Committee on Safety and Health. It was determined that most fabrics transmit less than 0.01 percent—considered adequate. But potentially hazardous UV from welding arcs could be transmitted by several of the woven fabrics that were evaluated. The fabrics studied included leather, cotton, denim, Nomex®, and other materials common in work clothing used in industrial environments. Two lightweight fabrics (FR-8® Breeze and Nomex Green and Yellow) showed transmission values approaching 1 percent. Only these latter fabrics would transmit sufficient UVR from a welding arc to result in exposure of the skin to UVR exceeding present occupational exposure limits (ELs). It is recommended that welders be taught the reason for the use of proper clothing; that fabrics showing visible light transmission not be worn; and that welding instruction manuals be updated with this information.
The solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposures of three groups of outdoor workers, physical education (PE) teachers, ground staff/gardeners and lifeguards were measured using UVR-sensitive polysulfone (PS) film badges. The exposures all took place on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland over 5 consecutive weekdays in November 1992. For the three groups, the shoulder badges received greater UVR exposures than the chest badges, in agreement with previous studies. The PE teachers received the highest UVR exposures while the lifeguards received the least. One of the 5 days of the study was overcast with some rain showers and UVR doses for this day for all groups were significantly lower than on the other 4 days, however the ratio of exposure to ambient remained relatively constant. All groups had measured UVR exposures in excess of occupational guidelines, indicating that protective measures, including education and behavior modification, which are becoming much more common in occupational situations in Australia, are both timely and necessary.
The spectral transmission of ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range 290–320 nm has been measured in various samples of common clothing fabrics. The transmission data have been combined with estimates of the spectral irradiance of sunlight and the erythema action spectrum in order to derive a‘protection factor’for each material. The results show that the structure, or weave, of a material is the most important factor in determining the protective nature of the material, and that colour and thickness are a poor guide to actinic protection.
S ummary
Clothing represents a significant though underutilised form of sun protection but the literature reveals few studies dealing with this subject. This study used a solar simulator to assess in vivo sun protection factors (SPF) for two clothing items of beachwear ‐ a synthetic surf shirt and a combination cotton/polyester T‐shirt. The tests showed that the T‐shirt had a relative SPF of 15, and the surf shirt an SPF of 36. This however decreased by a factor of 1/3 in both cases when the material was wet. Overall, this compares favourably with conventional sunscreens and also has the advantage of a wide spectrum of cover.
Laboratory testing of the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) provided by fabrics normally utilizes a collimated source of UV radiation and either a broadband sensor or spectroradiometer to detect the radiation, both unattenuated and after passing through the fabric sample held in a flat tensionless state. We report the results of an in vivo study of UV transmission through various T-shirts at several sites on the trunk and arms of a life-size mannequin irradiated with diffuse radiation and using UV sensitive polymer films as the sensor. We found a variation in UPF by a factor of two or more at different anatomical sites for a given T-shirt, with lower UPFs seen at sites where the fabric is stretched; and found that at every site and for each T-shirt this in vivo UPF was higher than the conventional in vitro UPF determined using collimated radiation.
The Colombian population is exposed to extreme UVR all year round. Colombia, located at the northwest of South America, between latitudes 12oN and 4oS, has extreme levels of UVR during 365 days a year. The UV levels of the 12 largest cities of Colombia are presented, as well as the experimental measurements taken at the city of Medellin (Altitude: 1,470 m, Latitude: 7oN, Population: 2,000,000). The UV Index normally reaches high about 9 points: the extreme category according to the internationally established UV Index scale, considering that clear sky conditions dominate. Also presented are the statistical records of skin diseases related to UVR exposure, taken at the Hospital Universitario San Vicente de Paul in Medellin, during the past 20 years. There is a strong commitment in creating a culture of UV awareness and protection among the Colombian population. These very high levels of continuous UV radiation are a good reason to do so.
With the increase of skin cancer the fact that not all apparel is sufficiently protective against UV Radiation is becoming
better know to the public. There is an emerging market for UV protective clothing. Its need is not commonly accepted. Understanding
of the influencing factors is low. To the consumer it is not always clear what is fact and what is fiction. This paper answers
six frequently asked questions. (1) The need for improving UV protection by clothing is demonstrated by UV transmittance measurements
in public. (2) A pitfall in the generally recommended 'see through' assessment test is shown. (3) When a garment gets wet
its UV protection is not necessarily poor. (4) The reduced UV protection of stretched knitwear can be accounted for. (5) A
real life study confirms that UV protection is not washed out. (6) UV protection can be washed in with special additives to
laundry products.
The protection provided by clothing against solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) has been the subject of considerable recent research. In general, rated clothing is tested according to standards using laboratory based in vitro measurements of the fabric spectral UVR transmittance and weighting this with the erythemal effectiveness of the CIE (1987) to determine an Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF). While in vitro test methods provide a precise determination of protection, there were some concerns they could overestimate the protection in comparison to in vivo measurements. This paper details a comparison of UPFs derived from the in vitro tests for 16 fabric samples against in vivo SPF tests. Agreement between the two sets of results is very good, with no statistically significant difference between the two data sets and with only one misclassification of protection category between the SPFs and UPFs.
The main source of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is the sum and individual habits with respect to solar radiation exposure are important in assessing personal risk associated with UVR exposure. Measurements of solar radiation have been made worldwide for many years to obtain information regarding terrestrial solar UVR. Many of these measurement programmes have been concerned with environmental issues, such as predicted increases in UVR due to stratospheric ozone depletion. However, generally these measurements have not been coordinated and provide only a limited data base on personal exposure to solar UVR for epidemiological studies. In addition, few programmes have involved continuous measurements over long periods, most measurements being made sporadically on a range of instruments with little or no interlaboratory comparisons. Within the UK, the National Radiological Protection Board has measured visible, ultraviolet UVA and erythemally weighted UVR from the sun simultaneously and continuously using broad-band detectors at Chilton (latitude (50 oN), Leeds ((54 oN) and Glasgow ((56 oN) since May 1988. During the past few years, the measurement network has been extended to cover the range of latitudes (from (50 oN to (60 oN at approximately every 2 o of latitude) appropriate to the whole of the UK. This was achieved by establishing additional measurement sites at Meteorological Office locations at Camborne ((50 oN), Kinloss ((58 oN) and Lerwick ((60 oN). In addition, spectroradiometric measurements have commenced on a continual basis at Chilton and Glasgow. All these measurements are intended to provide information regarding the range of variation of solar radiation at different latitudes in the UK with the time of day and year and to establish baseline levels for natural UVR.
The degree of sun protection provided by various styles of hat at different anatomical sites on the head was measured using model headforms and ultraviolet-sensitive film badges. It was found that hats with a small brim, such as the flat cap favoured by elderly male photosensitive patients, provided negligible protection at all sites apart from the vertex and forehead. Peaked baseball-style caps offer good protection to the nose but are relatively ineffective at other sites on the face. Hats with a wide (greater than 7.5 cm) brim are necessary in order to provide reasonable protection factors (greater than 3) around the nose and cheeks.
The spectral transmission of ultraviolet radiation was measured through natural textiles (cotton, wool, silk) and human-made textiles (acrylic, viscose, polyester). Each textile exhibited a characteristic spectral transmission curve, but the protection afforded by a given fabric depended more on the nature of the weave than on the particular type of textile.
An estimated 400,000 non-melanoma skin cancers occur each year. A majority of them will develop on sun-exposed areas of the face, head, and neck. By virtue of having assignments that involve outdoor duty, often in areas of high ultraviolet radiation exposure, military personnel are at increased risk of developing these cancers. Hats provide a means of sun protection; however, some styles are more protective than others. Two styles of hats currently used by the military are compared.
The UV protection factors of twenty commonly used textiles were determined. Protection factors varied between 1.3 and 1700, which shows the importance of giving careful advice to light-sensitive and psoralensensitized patients, regarding suitable clothes.
By use of personal dosimeters incorporating polysulphone film, the proportions of ambient UVR received at several anatomical sites have been investigated in five occupations and nine outdoor recreational activities. The results suggested that both environmental and behavioural factors were of importance in determining overall levels of exposure and distribution by site. A closer examination of the risks of skin cancers associated with UVR exposure in humans should be possible in the near future.
The weekday and weekend outdoor ultraviolet exposure of young people from primary and secondary schools in three geographically distinct regions of England was determined over a 3-month period in summer. Ultraviolet exposure was measured using personal film badges worn by each young person, and time spent outdoors, in hourly intervals, assessed using exposure records. In each area a class of 9-10-year-old children from a primary school and a class of 14-15-year-old adolescents from a secondary school took part, giving a total of 180 subjects. We found that primary school children received higher outdoor ultraviolet exposure than young people in secondary schools, and geographical differences in exposure could not be accounted for solely by differences in ambient ultraviolet. There was little difference between the exposure of males and females. Children and adolescents did not behave as homogeneous groups with regard to exposure.
In an attempt to reduce the incidence of skin cancer, cancer foundations have run educational campaigns which encourage the general population to limit their solar UVR exposures. An important part of these campaigns, in particular in Australia, but also more recently in Europe and the U.S., has been the adoption of protective measures such as sunscreens, hats, sunglasses and clothing. The protective properties of fabrics and clothing against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) have been known for some time, but recently there has been considerable interest in quantifying the degree of protection. This has been generated, in part, by the requirements for occupational protection for outdoor workers as well as the provision of UVR protection for the recreational market. The quantification of UVR protection has been laboratory based using in vitro test methods. Development of a standard test method has become an important part of the testing process, and this paper presents results from an intercomparison involving five independent testing laboratories. Agreement is good, in particular for samples with protection factors below 50. Technical difficulties and sources of errors associated with the measurements are discussed.
The ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposures of primary school children in Brisbane, Toowoomba and Mackay (latitudes 27 degrees 30', 27 degrees 33' and 21 degrees 15' south, respectively) were assessed over a period of 2 weeks at each location using UVR-sensitive polysulfone (PS) film badges attached at the shoulder. The students filled in questionnaires on their time spent outdoors for each day of the study. These data in conjunction with the ambient UVR measured by a detector/datalogger unit at each site were used to correlate the calculated exposures with those measured using the PS badges. Overall, the questionnaires indicated that the males spent more time outdoors and had higher measured UVR exposures than females. For both boys and girls at each location, there was a strong correlation between the mean measured UVR exposure and the ambient solar UVR at that location.
One of the most important elements in the prevention of skin cancer is the use of comfortable UV-protective clothing. Owing to their low weight, cotton fabrics, and especially viscose fabrics made from filament yarns, are ideal for summer clothing and in fact enjoy a high degree of acceptance among consumers. Two methods are available for determining the UV protection factor (UPF) of textiles: the in vitro method is based on the spectrophotometric determination of the transmission of UV radiation through these fabrics; the in vivo method is based on the determination of the minimal erythema dose for a test subject with and without textiles.
This study was performed to assess the UPF of lightweight cotton and viscose fabrics and whether the use of these two methods to determine the UPF of viscose fabrics and cotton fabrics produces congruent results.
We tested 7 different viscose fabrics and 7 different cotton fabrics. Three of the viscose fabrics (ENKA SUN) had been specially treated, by depositing pigments in the fibers, to confer UV-protective properties. The determination of the in vitro and in vivo UPF was performed with a spectrophotometer and sun simulator, respectively.
The in vivo measurements on the untreated viscose fabrics produced UPF values lower than those obtained from the in vitro measurements. For one of these untreated viscose fabrics, the difference between the in vivo UPF and the in vitro UPF was statistically significant (P <.05). In contrast, the in vivo measurements on the specially treated viscose textiles and on the cotton fabrics resulted in UPF values higher than the in vitro UPF values. For one specially treated viscose fabric and 4 cotton fabrics, this difference was statistically significant (P < .05).
Our results suggest, however, that-depending on the type of fabric-determination of the UPF by the in vitro method is not in agreement with the in vivo method. In vivo measurements made with lightweight specially treated UV-protective clothing showed in contrast to the untreated viscose fabrics that these garments offer very good protection against UV radiation. These results underscore the importance of developing and refining such UV-protective materials.
The solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure of 30 children and adolescents in three age groups (4-6 years, 7-9 years and 13-14 years) was measured for 1 week in late summer (February-March) in Durban, South Africa, using UVR-sensitive polysulfone film badges (PSFB) attached to the lapel region of the body. The mean and median values for all ages over the study period were 2.0 and 1.2 standard erythemal dose (SED) units, respectively, where 1 SED = 100 J x m(-2). Individual PSFB doses were analyzed as a function of age, gender and behavior. No significant statistical differences were found between different age groups; however, there was a statistical difference between males and females, with males generally receiving higher PSFB doses. Subjects completed UVR exposure journals documenting their time outdoors, shade versus sun conditions, nature of their activities, clothing worn and their use of sunscreen for each day of the study. Activity patterns were noted as the most important factor influencing individual UVR dose. Ambient erythemal UVR was measured by a Yankee Environmental Systems UVB pyranometer, and a relationship between ambient UVR and individual UVR dose was derived. On average, subjects received a dose of 4.6% of the total daily erythemal UVR. Based on this factor, the potential dose of an individual over a full annual cycle was estimated. Accordingly, there were 139 days during the year when an individual with skin type I (light skin) would be likely to experience minimal erythema and 97 and 32 days for individuals with skin types II and III, respectively.
The sun is essential for life. Yet, sunlight can also be a source of such deleterious effects as sunburn, and suntanning, as well as premalignant and malignant lesions. These may all occur in individuals with normal responses to sunlight. In addition, there exist a variety of 'abnormal' photosensitivity responses to sunlight that may result from either endogenous imbalances (e.g. the porphyrias) or from added exogenous factors (e.g. drug photosensitivity). The 'normal' responses to sunlight, by and large, are produced preferentially by UVB (290-320 nm), with minor contribution by UVA (320-400 nm) wavelengths. In contrast, the 'abnormal' photosensitivity responses are, for the most part, elicited predominantly by long UVA and, in some cases, visible light. In the last 20 years or so, considerable attention has been paid to the use of fabrics as photoprotective materials. The vast majority of work in this area has been concerned with fabric protection against sunburn. In addition to in vivo measurement of fabric SPF, in vitro evaluation of fabric UPF has been carried out in numerous laboratories around the world. The UPF is estimated from the wavelength-dependent transmission of the fabric, the solar UV spectrum and the erythemal action spectrum over the wavelength region 290-400 nm. Depending on the fabric, UPF values range from 2 to several thousand. More recently, it has become clear that such environmental influences as laundering, solarization, humidity, wetting and degree of stretching may play a major role in fabric protection. Protection also may be altered by addition of dyes, UV absorbers and fluorescent whitening agents. To date, there have been relatively few studies of fabric protection for endpoints other than sunburn erythema. Yet, many fabrics that provide good protection against sunburn may provide inadequate protection against photosensitization by intrinsic or extrinsic absorbing molecules or against (pre)malignant lesions. Future work should explicity address the efficacy of protective fabrics against photosensitivity diseases that are activated by long UVA or visible wavelengths.
The risk to outdoor workers of exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) has been known for some time, particularly in the building and construction industry, where workers often use little in the way of protection against solar UVR. In recent years there have been attempts by authorities in Australia and in Queensland in particular, where UVR levels in spring and summer are very high to extreme, to instigate and to encourage the use of personal UVR protection by outdoor workers. To quantify UVR exposure of building and construction industry workers involved in typical outdoor work, a study was conducted using UVR-sensitive polysulphone film badges. The results indicated that the doses were significant, often well in excess of recommended exposure limits. The measured exposures varied between trades. Data on the use of personal UVR-protective equipment and the skin type of workers were also collected. Many of the workers had skin types that were sensitive to UVR and showed signs of sunburn. In summary, the study found that at-risk individuals were exposed to extreme levels of UVR, in most cases without adequate and appropriate sun protection.
The 2002 revision of the UV index (UVI) issued by the World Health Organisation (WHO), the World Meteorological Office (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) (World Health Organization [2002] Global Solar UV Index: A Practical Guide. WHO, Geneva) was motivated by the need to further standardize the use and presentation of the UVI. Awareness of the hazards of solar UV radiation (UVR) is generally high in Australia, but more effective use of the UVI will assist in promoting further changes to the population's sun exposure behavior. UVI levels for a number of cities around Australia as measured by the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA), covering the time period 1996-2000, are presented. Also shown are UVI forecasts from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM). Agreement between the BOM data and the measurements varies depending on the location but is within 2 UVI units approximately 75% of the time. UVI levels are supplied to the media, and in summer values in excess of 12-14 are regularly recorded, although the more northerly locations occasionally reach 16 and 17. The factors affecting the solar UVR environment and the measured UVI are also discussed and compared against measurements from the UK.
The importance of protection against solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in childhood has lead to SunSmart policies at Australian schools, in particular primary schools, where children are encouraged and in many cases required to wear hats at school. Hat styles change regularly and the UVR protection provided by some of the hat types currently used and recommended for sun protection by the various Australian state cancer councils had not been previously evaluated. The UVR protection of the hats was measured using UVR sensitive polysulphone film badges attached to different facial sites on rotating headforms. The sun protection type hats included in this study were broad-brimmed hats, "bucket hats" and legionnaires hats. Baseball caps, which are very popular, were also included. The broad-brimmed hats and bucket hats provided the most UVR protection for the six different sites about the face and head. Legionnaires hats also provided satisfactory UVR protection, but the caps did not provide UVR protection to many of the facial sites. The highest measured UVR protection factors for facial sites other than the forehead were 8 to 10, indicating that, while some hats can be effective, they need to be used in combination with other forms of UVR protection.
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