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Dissociation of Cognitive and Emotional Empathy in Adults With Asperger Syndrome Using the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET)

DOI:10.1007/s10803-007-0486-x
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Isabel Dziobek at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Isabel Dziobek
Kimberley Rogers
Kimberley Rogers
Kimberley Rogers
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Stefan Fleck
Stefan Fleck
Stefan Fleck
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Markus Bahnemann
Markus Bahnemann
Markus Bahnemann
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Abstract

Empathy is a multidimensional construct consisting of cognitive (inferring mental states) and emotional (empathic concern) components. Despite a paucity of research, individuals on the autism spectrum are generally believed to lack empathy. In the current study we used a new, photo-based measure, the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET), to assess empathy multidimensionally in a group of 17 individuals with Asperger syndrome (AS) and 18 well-matched controls. Results suggested that while individuals with AS are impaired in cognitive empathy, they do not differ from controls in emotional empathy. Level of general emotional arousability and socially desirable answer tendencies did not differ between groups. Internal consistency of the MET's scales ranged from .71 to .92, and convergent and divergent validity were highly satisfactory.
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Dissociation of Cognitive and Emotional Empathy in Adults with
Asperger Syndrome Using the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET)
Isabel Dziobek Æ Kimberley Rogers Æ Stefan Fleck Æ Markus Bahnemann Æ
Hauke R. Heekeren Æ Oliver T. Wolf Æ Antonio Convit
Ó
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
&
Present Address:
123
Methods
123
Empathy
Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET)
Theoretical Considerations
Independent measurement of cognitive and emotional
empathy
Ecological validity, explicit and implicit questioning
Dissociation of emotional reaction to social as
opposed to context stimuli
Stimuli and Design
123
Realization
Administration and Scoring
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)
Fig. 1
123
Intellectual Functioning
Social Desirability
t
p \
Between Group Differences
Demographic Variables and Social Desirability
Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET) Cognitive Empathy
t p \
Emotional Empathy t
t - p t -
p
Emotional Reaction to Context
t - p
Response Times t
t - p
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)
123
t p \
t p
t - p \
F
p
MET Reliability and Validity
Table 1 n n
p
± ±
± ±
± ±
± ±
p ±
Table 2
n n
p
± ±
± ±
± ±
± ±
± ±
p t ±
Table 3 n
n
p
± ±
± ±
± ±
p t ±
123
Discussion
Table 4
n
-
p \
123
behavioral
123
Acknowledgments
References
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... However, the researchers have now turned their attention towards the affective component as well. Affective empathy, also referred to as emotional empathy (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972), involves vicariously experiencing the emotional state of another individual (Dadds et al., 2008); Dziobek et al., 2008), or one's emotional response to the affective state of another individual (Tone & Tully, 2014). Both of these components of empathy play a significant role in social communication, as they together facilitate the understanding of others' behavior and how to respond appropriately to it (Shalev et al., 2022). ...
... More specifically, ASD has been known to be associated with impairments in cognitive empathy (Blair, 2005;Bins et al., 2013). On the other hand, there have been mixed findings in the domain of affective empathy (Deschamps et al., 2014), with some studies indicating that there is no significant difference between the ASD group and the typically developing (TD) group in their affective empathy skills (Deschamps et al., 2014;Dziobek et al., 2008;Hadjikhani et al., 2014;Schwenck et al., 2012), and others pointing towards limited affective empathic abilities in ASD (Mathersul et al., 2013;McIntosh et al., 2006;Minio-Paluello et al., 2009;Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2002). An integrative literature review that analyzed 26 studies measuring cognitive and affective empathy in ASD suggested that whereas cognitive empathy is reduced in individuals with ASD, no such deficits are exhibited in affective empathy skills (Roza & Guimarães, 2021). ...
... In addition, neuroscientific measures, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalogram (EEG), eventrelated potentials (ERPs), etc. have also been used by various researchers to tap onto the empathic abilities of the individuals with autism (Fan et al., 2014;Schulte-Rüther et al., 2011). Yet another type of measure that is often used to assess empathy in individuals include behavioral measures, such as picture viewing paradigms (Westbury & Neumann, 2008), Picture Stories (Nummenmaa et al., 2008), Multifaceted Empathy Test (Dziobek et al., 2008), Video-based tasks (Cicardo, 2015), etc. The research in the domain of empathy in ASD is often dominated by the use of self-reported measures. ...
Cognitive and Affective Empathy in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Meta-analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2023
Research has consistently shown that individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) exhibit Empathy deficits. The aim of this study was to systematically review and meta-analyze the research conducted in the domain of cognitive and affective Empathy in Autism. The author also attempted to see the influence of moderators, such as age, culture, and measure-used, on the effect sizes. To fulfill the objective, the meta-analysis was performed on 35 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria with the help of the Meta-essentials, which is a free excel meta-analysis tool that facilitates the integration of effect sizes from various studies. The results indicated that the ASD group differs significantly from typically developing (TD) group in both cognitive and affective empathy. The effect size for cognitive empathy was very large (1.26), whereas, for affective empathy, the effect size was medium (0.58). Further, there was a significant moderating effect of the type of measure used on cognitive empathy. However, there are a few limitations of the present meta-analysis. Firstly, it does not shed light on how symptom severity in Autism influences empathy. Secondly, all the possible moderating variables influencing empathy could not be considered. Lastly, the generalizability of the findings may be limited owing to the limitations present in the included studies themselves. The present meta-analysis has implications for conceptualizing cognitive and affective empathy appropriately, and developing appropriate measures to assess empathy in the Autism population.
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... Individuals with ASD perform worse on cognitive empathy tasks (Bos and Stokes 2018, Girli 2017, Happ e 1994, Mazza et al. 2014 and affective empathy tasks than control groups (Bos and Stokes 2018, Grove et al. 2014, Pepper et al. 2018. However, several studies indicate that although individuals with ASD have lower scores on cognitive empathy tasks than control groups, their performance on affective empathy tasks does not differ from that of controls (Dziobek et al. 2008, Mul et al. 2018, Rogers et al. 2007, Rueda et al. 2015. ...
... In terms of group differences in affective and cognitive empathy, the results we obtained are in line with previous research (Bos and Stokes 2018, Grove et al. 2014, Pepper et al. 2018) but contradictory results have also been reported for affective empathy (Dziobek et al. 2008, Mazza et al. 2014, Mul et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2015. These contradictions might result from using self-report questionnaires, and lack of objective measures such as psychophysiological recording (Trimmer et al. 2017) and performance tasks (e.g. ...
... These contradictions might result from using self-report questionnaires, and lack of objective measures such as psychophysiological recording (Trimmer et al. 2017) and performance tasks (e.g. Multifaceted Empathy Task by Dziobek et al. 2008) in measuring affective empathy. Furthermore, in contrast to earlier findings concerning differences in anxiety dimensions (Bellini 2004, Gillott et al. 2001, Kuusikko et al. 2008, van Steensel et al. 2013, only measures of GAD in the current study showed higher scores in the ASD group than the TD group. ...
Investigating associations between cognitive empathy, affective empathy and anxiety in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder
Article
  • Jan 2023
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is strongly associated with socio-cognitive impairments that may result in vulnerability to other mental health conditions, particularly anxiety disorders. This study examined the relationship between anxiety disorders and two key socio-cognitive impairments (cognitive empathy, affective empathy) in 60 adolescents (aged 11–18 years) with and without ASD. Adolescents with ASD showed cognitive empathy was negatively associated with separation anxiety disorder, whereas positive associations between affective empathy and generalized anxiety disorder, and positive marginal associations between affective empathy, social phobia, total anxiety, and separation anxiety disorder were observed. These findings suggest that cognitive and affective empathy show different patterns of associations with anxiety-related issues in ASD, and these differences should be considered for interventions and treatment programs.
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... In the cognitive domain, ASD patients are assumed to have difficulty taking the perspective of others, and there are notable impairments in theory of mind (TOM) abilities with egocentric bias [13,14]. In the affective domain, individuals with ASD have been found to experience higher emotional contagion, in that they tend to conflate others' feelings with their own [15][16][17]. At the behavioural level, many examples of egocentricity can be found, e.g., the use of another's hand, echolalia (involuntary repetition of another person's vocalizations), echopraxia (involuntary repetition of another person's actions), and abnormalities in person deixis and pronoun reversal ("you" instead of "I") [18]. ...
Self/other distinction in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) assessed with a double mirror paradigm
Article
Full-text available
Background Self/other distinction (SOD), which refers to the ability to distinguish one’s own body, actions, and mental representations from those of others, is an essential skill for effective social interaction. A large body of clinical evidence suggests that disruptions in SOD may be key to social communication deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In particular, egocentric biases have been found in cognitive, affective, behavioural, and motor domains. However, research in this area is scarce and consists of recognition paradigms that have used only static images; these methods may be insufficient for assessing SOD, given the increasing role of embodiment in our understanding of the pathophysiology of ASD. Method A single-centre, prospective pilot study was carried out to investigate, for the first time, self-recognition and SOD in seven adolescents with ASD compared with matched, typically developing controls (TDCs) using the "Alter Ego" TM double mirror paradigm. The participants viewed a double mirror in which their own face was gradually morphed into the face of an unfamiliar other (self-to-other sequence) or vice versa (other-to-self sequence); participants were instructed to indicate at which point the morph looked more like their own face than the other’s face. Two judgement criteria were used: 1) M1: the threshold at which subjects started to recognize their own face during the other-to-self morphing sequence; 2) M2: the threshold at which subjects started to recognize the other’s face during the self-to-other morphing sequence. Results Consistent with the predictions, the results showed that the participants with ASD exhibited earlier self-recognition in the other-to-self sequence and delayed other-recognition in the self-to-other sequence, suggesting an egocentric bias. SOD impairments were also marginally correlated with ASD severity, indicating earlier face recognition in more severely affected individuals. Furthermore, in contrast with that of TDCs, the critical threshold for switching between self and other varied with the direction of morphing in ASD participants. Finally, these differences in face recognition and SOD using mirrors, unlike previous research using static images, support the central place of bodily self-consciousness in SOD impairments. Conclusions Although additional research is needed to replicate the results of this preliminary study, it revealed the first behavioural evidence of altered SOD in ASD individuals on an embodied, semiecological face-recognition paradigm. Implications for understanding ASD are discussed from a developmental perspective, and new research and therapeutic perspectives are presented.
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... Empathy is defined as the ability to recognize, empathize, and respond appropriately to the internal state of others (Saxena et al., 2017). In this regard, empathy is viewed as a multidimensional construct that includes affective and cognitive components ( (Davis, 1983b;Dziobek et al., 2008). However, the interplay of both components is complex, which points toward the fact that empathy does not seem very suitable as a universal generic term. ...
Empathy Training for Student Teachers -Design, Structure and Initial Results
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
This pilot study represented a first attempt at developing a training designed to promote the ability of perspective-taking in student teachers. For this purpose, we conducted 7 training sessions, all of which demonstrated and trained the process of perspective-taking in various school and everyday situations on the one hand, and elaborated on the benefits of empathic behavior in the school context on the other. The sample consisted of a total of 48 student teachers, 25 in the control group and 23 in the experimental group, respectively. To measure empathy, in particular the ability to adopt others' perspectives, we used two questionnaires: first, the Saarbrücken Personality Questionnaire, a German translation of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and a self-developed form of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy, which we translated and adapted to the school setting. Posttest results showed significant improvements in both students' perspective-taking ability and general attitudes toward empathic behavior when dealing with students and school problem situations. The increase in perspective taking ability is independent of the gender of the subjects and develops at almost identical rates in both genders.
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... Longitudinal studies are therefore needed to confirm and replicate the present findings, also by beneficially considering alternative, www.nature.com/scientificreports/ more objective, measures (e.g., assessing empathy with behavioral tasks, as in the Multifaceted Empathy Test, which would reduce bias due to impression management and socially desirable responding 73 ). Complementary measures could be of particular interest for components of affective empathy that may be partially automatic and not always dependent on conscious control 15 . ...
Differential associations of the two higher-order factors of mindfulness with trait empathy and the mediating role of emotional awareness
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Empathy enables us to understand the emotions of others and is an important determinant of prosocial behavior. Investigating the relationship between mindfulness and empathy could therefore provide important insights into factors that promote interpersonal understanding and pathways that contribute to prosocial behavior. As prior studies have yielded only inconsistent results, this study extended previous findings and investigated for the first time the associations of two important factors of mindfulness (Self-regulated Attention [SRA] and Orientation to Experience [OTE]) with two commonly proposed components of empathy (cognitive empathy and affective empathy). Using a community sample of N = 552 German-speaking adults, the two mindfulness factors were differentially associated with cognitive and affective empathy. SRA correlated positively with cognitive empathy (r = 0.44; OTE: r = 0.09), but OTE correlated negatively with affective empathy (r = − 0.27; SRA: r = 0.11). This negative association was strongest for one specific aspect of affective empathy, emotional contagion. Revisiting previously reported mediating effects of emotion regulation, we found that emotional awareness mediated the associations with both components of empathy, but only for SRA. Together, these findings imply that mindfulness benefits the cognitive understanding of others’ emotions via two distinct pathways: by promoting emotional awareness (SRA) and by limiting the undue impact of others’ emotions on oneself (OTE).
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... A computer-based task battery was implemented during peak subjective effects to determine the differential impact of psilocybin and 2C-B on domains of cognition: Motor Control Task (MCT, sensorimotor coordination) 50 , Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT, sustained attention) 51 , Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST, overall cognitive impairment) 52 , Tower of London (executive functioning) 53 , the immediate and delayed (+30 min), Spatial Memory Test (SMT, spatial memory) 54 56 . Parallel versions of the DSST, TOL, SMT and MFFT were provided for each dosing day. ...
Assessment of the acute effects of 2C-B vs psilocybin on subjective experience, mood and cognition
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Feb 2023
2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B) is a hallucinogenic phenethylamine derived from mescaline. Observational and preclinical data have suggested it to be capable of producing both subjective and emotional effects on par with other classical psychedelics and entactogens. Whereas it is the most prevalently used novel serotonergic hallucinogen to date, it′s acute effects and distinctions from classical progenitors have yet to be characterised in a controlled study. We assessed for the first time the immediate acute subjective, cognitive, and cardiovascular effects of 2C-B (20 mg) in comparison to psilocybin (15mg) and placebo in a within-subjects, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 22 healthy psychedelic-experienced participants. 2C-B elicited alterations of waking consciousness of a psychedelic nature, with dysphoria, subjective impairment, auditory alterations, and affective elements of ego dissolution largest under psilocybin. Participants demonstrated equivalent psychomotor slowing and spatial memory impairments under either compound compared to placebo, as indexed by the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), Tower of London (TOL) and Spatial Memory Task (SMT). Neither compound produced empathogenic effects on the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET). 2C-B induced transient pressor effects to a similar degree as psilocybin. The duration of self-reported effects of 2C-B was shorter than that of psilocybin, largely resolving within 6 hours. Present findings support the categorisation of 2C-B as a subjectively ″lighter″ psychedelic. Tailored dose-effect studies are needed to discern the pharmacokinetic dependency of 2C-B′s experiential overlaps.
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... In one study, elevated personal distress in ASD was associated with a reluctance to adopt utilitarian solutions in emotionally salient moral dilemmas 29 , suggesting an emotional bias on the decisions of individuals with ASD. This is in line with ASD profile of increased self-reported personal distress during socioemotional situations [30][31][32] , also manifested as hyperactivity in cortico-limbic regions 19,33 , which would hinder 'rational' moral judgments 3,29,34 . However, other works failed to show such emotional influences on ASD moral judgments 35,36 , and the only evidence on the neural bases of the processing of emotional moral situations reveals a combination of hypo-and hyperactivation in limbic (i.e. ...
View
... In one study, elevated personal distress in ASD was associated with a reluctance to adopt utilitarian solutions in emotionally salient moral dilemmas 29 , suggesting an emotional bias on the decisions of individuals with ASD. This is in line with ASD profile of increased self-reported personal distress during socioemotional situations [30][31][32] , also manifested as hyperactivity in cortico-limbic regions 19,33 , which would hinder 'rational' moral judgments 3,29,34 . However, other works failed to show such emotional influences on ASD moral judgments 35,36 , and the only evidence on the neural bases of the processing of emotional moral situations reveals a combination of hypo-and hyperactivation in limbic (i.e. ...
Emotional descriptions increase accidental harm punishment and its cortico-limbic signatures during moral judgment in autism
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present difficulties in integrating mental state information in complex moral tasks. Yet, ASD research has not examined whether this process is influenced by emotions, let alone while capturing its neural bases. We investigated how language-induced emotions modulate intent-based moral judgment in ASD. In a fMRI task, 30 adults with ASD and 27 neurotypical controls read vignettes whose protagonists commit harm either accidentally or intentionally, and then decided how much punishment the protagonist deserved. Emotional content was manipulated across scenarios through the use of graphic language (designed to trigger arousing negative responses) vs. plain (just-the-facts, emotionless) language. Off-line functional connectivity correlates of task performance were also analyzed. In ASD, emotional (graphic) descriptions amplified punishment ratings of accidental harms, associated with increased activity in fronto-temporo-limbic, precentral, and postcentral/supramarginal regions (critical for emotional and empathic processes), and reduced connectivity among the orbitofrontal cortex and the angular gyrus (involved in mentalizing). Language manipulation did not influence intentional harm processing in ASD. In conclusion, in arousing and ambiguous social situations that lack intentionality clues (i.e. graphic accidental harm scenarios), individuals with ASD would misuse their emotional responses as the main source of information to guide their moral decisions. Conversely, in face of explicit harmful intentions, they would be able to compensate their socioemotional alterations and assign punishment through non-emotional pathways. Despite limitations, such as the small sample size and low ecological validity of the task, results of the present study proved reliable and have relevant theoretical and translational implications.
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Development of reliable and valid short forms of the marlowe-crowne social desirability scale
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Development of reliable and valid short forms of the Marlow–Crowne Social Desirability Scale
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1982
Developed from 608 undergraduates' responses to the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, (MCSDS) 3 short forms of 11, 12, and 13 items. The psychometric characteristics of these forms and 3 other short forms developed by R. Strahan and K. C. Gerbasi (see record 1973-28133-001) were investigated. Internal consistency reliability, item factor loadings, short form with MCSDS total scale correlations, and correlations between MCSDS short forms and the Edwards Social Desirability Scale were conducted. Results indicate that the 13-item short form can be used as a viable substitute for the regular 33-item MCSDS. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Disordered recognition of facial identity and emotions in three Asperger type autists
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In this report we aim to explore severe deficits in facial affect recognition in three boys all of whom meet the criteria of Asperger's syndrome (AS), as well as overt prosopagnosia in one (B) and covert prosopagnosia in the remaining two (C and D). Subject B, with a familially-based talent of being highly gifted in physics and mathematics, showed no interest in people, a quasi complete lack of comprehension of emotions, and very poor emotional reactivity. The marked neuropsychological deficits were a moderate prosopagnosia and severely disordered recognition of facial emotions, gender and age. Expressive facial emotion, whole body psychomotor expression and speech prosody were quasi absent as well. In all three boys these facial processing deficits were more or less isolated, and general visuospatial functions, attention, formal language and scholastic performances were normal or even highly developed with the exception of deficient gestalt perception in B. We consider the deficient facial emotion perception as an important pathogenetic symptom for the autistic behaviour in the three boys. Prosopagnosia, the absent facial and bodily expression, and speech prosody were important but varying co-morbid disorders. The total clinical picture of non-verbal disordered communication is a complex of predominantly bilateral and/or right hemisphere cortical deficits. Moreover, in B, insensitivity to pain, smells, noises and internal bodily feelings suggested a more general emotional anaesthesia and/or a deficient means of expression. It is possible that a limbic component might be involved, thus making affective appreciation also deficient.
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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for multidimensional approach.
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  • Jan 1983
To facilitate a multidimensional approach to empathy the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) includes 4 subscales: Perspective-Taking (PT) Fantasy (FS) Empathic Concern (EC) and Personal Distress (PD). The aim of the present study was to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of these 4 subscales. Hypothesized relationships among the IRI subscales between the subscales and measures of other psychological constructs (social functioning self-esteem emotionality and sensitivity to others) and between the subscales and extant empathy measures were examined. Study subjects included 677 male and 667 female students enrolled in undergraduate psychology classes at the University of Texas. The IRI scales not only exhibited the predicted relationships among themselves but also were related in the expected manner to other measures. Higher PT scores were consistently associated with better social functioning and higher self-esteem; in contrast Fantasy scores were unrelated to these 2 characteristics. High EC scores were positively associated with shyness and anxiety but negatively linked to egotism. The most substantial relationships in the study involved the PD scale. PD scores were strongly linked with low self-esteem and poor interpersonal functioning as well as a constellation of vulnerability uncertainty and fearfulness. These findings support a multidimensional approach to empathy by providing evidence that the 4 qualities tapped by the IRI are indeed separate constructs each related in specific ways to other psychological measures.
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The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation of Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences
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Empathy is an essential part of normal social functioning, yet there are precious few instruments for measuring individual differences in this domain. In this article we review psychological theories of empathy and its measurement. Previous instruments that purport to measure this have not always focused purely on empathy. We report a new self-report questionnaire, the Empathy Quotient (EQ), for use with adults of normal intelligence. It contains 40 empathy items and 20 filler/control items. On each empathy item a person can score 2, 1, or 0, so the EQ has a maximum score of 80 and a minimum of zero. In Study 1 we employed the EQ with n = 90 adults (65 males, 25 females) with Asperger Syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA), who are reported clinically to have difficulties in empathy. The adults with AS/HFA scored significantly lower on the EQ than n = 90 (65 males, 25 females) age-matched controls. Of the adults with AS/HFA, 81% scored equal to or fewer than 30 points out of 80, compared with only 12% of controls. In Study 2 we carried out a study of n = 197 adults from a general population, to test for previously reported sex differences (female superiority) in empathy. This confirmed that women scored significantly higher than men. The EQ reveals both a sex difference in empathy in the general population and an empathy deficit in AS/HFA.
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Cross-validation of a short form of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale
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Presents a cross-validation and extension of W. M. Reynold's (see record 1982-08895-001) short form of Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, using data obtained from undergraduate ( n = 304) and graduate ( n = 132) students. Unlike Reynolds, the authors administered the 13 items as a separate entity. Data indicate that this 13-item short form is a viable alternative to the full scale. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Investigated the psychophysiological responsiveness of children with autism and comparison groups to distress cues, threatening and neutral stimuli. 20 children (mean age 11.95 yrs) with autism, 20 children (mean age 10.9 yrs) with moderate learning difficulty and 20 normal developing children (mean age 6.27 yrs) were shown slides of these 3 types of stimuli and their electrodermal responses were recorded. The children with autism showed appropriate electrodermal responses to the distress cues. However, and surprisingly, the children with autism were hyporesponsive to the threatening stimuli. The results are interpreted with reference to the violence inhibition mechanism model (R. J. R. Blair, 1995) and possible frontal lobe dysfunction in autism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Accurate prediction of individual intellectual functioning by the Shipley-Hartford
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59 psychiatric patients and 55 control adult Ss were given the Shipley-Hartford (SH), the Wechsler-Bellevue, and the WAIS. The results indicate that the SH is a good predictor of average or better individual functioning, and that it can be used as a screening instrument. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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