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Idealized Media Images and Adolescent Body Image: “Comparing” Boys and Girls
Abstract
Sociocultural theories of body image suggest that body dissatisfaction results from unrealistic societal beauty ideals, and one way of transmitting these ideals is through the mass media. The present research aimed to examine the effect of exposure to images of idealized beauty in the media on adolescent girls' and boys' body image. The participants (595 adolescents) viewed television commercials containing either images of the thin ideal for women, images of the muscular ideal for men, or non-appearance television commercials. Body dissatisfaction was measured before and after commercial viewing. It was found that exposure to idealized commercials led to increased body dissatisfaction for girls but not for boys. Idealized commercials led to increased negative mood and appearance comparison for girls and boys, although the effect on appearance comparison was stronger for girls. Further, participants high on appearance investment reported greater appearance comparison after viewing idealized commercials than those less strongly invested in their appearance. The results suggest the immediate impact of the media on body image is both stronger and more normative for girls than for boys, but that some boys may also be affected.
... 27 Social media platforms often promote the idealization of an ideal body type, with thinness for women and muscularity for men. 27,28 Thus, even though this relationship is more evident in adolescents [26][27][28] young adults may also exhibit these behaviors, influencing their body image satisfaction as observed in the present study. ...
... 27 Social media platforms often promote the idealization of an ideal body type, with thinness for women and muscularity for men. 27,28 Thus, even though this relationship is more evident in adolescents [26][27][28] young adults may also exhibit these behaviors, influencing their body image satisfaction as observed in the present study. ...
Introduction:
Excessive smartphone use has been linked to mental health impairments and may potentially alter human behavior. These effects are particularly pronounced among young individuals, with university students being especially susceptible to the negative influences of smartphone use.
Methods:
This observational, cross-sectional study was conducted in a sample of 781 Brazilian university students. We assessed socio-economic variables, smartphone addiction, depression, anxiety, stress outcomes, eating behavior, body image satisfaction, and self-reported physical activity. MANOVA and Chi-square tests were performed to compare continuous and categorical variables between genders. K-means clustering was used to identify participant profiles based on various self-reported variables, with differences between clusters validated using the Z-test and the silhouette coefficient.
Results:
Three clusters were identified. Cluster 1 featured participants with a significant disparity between their perceived and desired body image, higher scores on eating disorders, smartphone addiction, and mental health questionnaires, and lower engagement in physical exercise. Cluster 2 consisted of older participants who scored lower on smartphone addiction and mental health with a higher body mass index. Cluster 3 included younger participants with a smaller silhouette scale disparity, lower eating disorder scores, and lower body mass index. Smartphone addiction showed significant associations with eating disorders in overall eating disorders classification (X²=13.4; p<0.001), bulimic behavior (X²=20.0; p<0.001), and social pressure to eat (X²=4.3; p<0.001). It also negatively correlated with physical exercise (X²=5.7; p=0.017), but not with dieting concerns (X²=0.23; p=0.688).
Conclusion:
Smartphone addiction is associated with eating disorders, stress, depression, anxiety, and lower levels of physical activity.
... SCT proposes that individuals engage in appearance-related social comparison, and viewing popular and attractive celebrities encourages individuals to evaluate their own appearance in an upward comparison, leading to greater dissatisfaction (Morrison et al., 2004). Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2004) examined the effects of exposure to images of idealised beauty standards on both adolescent girls' and boys' body image. Findings demonstrated that the relationship between media exposure, and greater bodily dissatisfaction was both stronger and more normative for girls than boys. ...
... This restriction of performance opportunities based on the physical presentation of students corresponds to observations of preferences for particular 'types' of bodies in theatre, usually slim and attractive (Horn, 2020;LeBesco, 2004). It is therefore plausible to suggest that the critical and competitive nature of training, which emphasises physical looks, heightens male students' appearance investment via social comparisons with peers who more closely match these bodily ideals (Festinger, 1954;Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). This is reflected in the accounts of prolonged body image disturbances, and dissatisfaction, which participants attributed to their experiences during training. ...
Body dissatisfaction is likely to be particularly salient in aesthetically focused professions, including the performing arts. However, there is a paucity of research involving male theatre performers. This study addressed this omission by exploring how male musical theatre actors experience body image. Interviews were conducted with 7 male performers and analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings illustrate the lasting influence that instructors and the training environment have upon the participants’ perceptions of their bodies, participants’ desire to appear masculine through greater muscularity, and the dissatisfaction that occurs when they perceive that their bodies do not conform to rigid notions of gender and body ideals. This study also provides insight into the nuanced experience of existing within a body of worth, often commodified and sold to audiences. These findings highlight the importance of facilitating a supportive training environment and opening up conversations about body dissatisfaction among male performers.
... Personal dissatisfaction with one's physical appearance might be caused by internalizing cultural beauty standards Melioli, 2016;Rodgers et al., 2011). Furthermore, research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be dissatisfied with their ideal physical appearance (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006;Hargreaves;Tiggemann, 2004). Accordingly, a hypothesis H1d is proposed: short video addiction negatively predicts self-identity. ...
... Personal dissatisfaction with one's physical appearance might be caused by internalizing cultural beauty standards Melioli, 2016;Rodgers et al., 2011). Furthermore, research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be dissatisfied with their ideal physical appearance (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006;Hargreaves;Tiggemann, 2004). Accordingly, a hypothesis H1d is proposed: short video addiction negatively predicts self-identity. ...
Purpose: This study aims to evaluate the attributes of female self-identity, and investigate the correlation between addiction to short videos, self-esteem, objectification of female content, internalization of beauty ideals, and self-identity. The goal is to develop a psychological framework that enhances our comprehension of the self-identity of contemporary Chinese women.
Methodology: This study employed an online survey with a convenience sampling approach to gather responses from 400 female short video users from four most popular Chinese social media platforms: Sina Weibo, Xiaohongshu, Douban and WeChat, the Chinese equivalents of Twitter, Instagram, Reddit and WhatsApp respectively.
Results: The results suggest that (1) self-esteem played a significant role in mediating the relationship between short video addiction and self-identity; (2) the chain mediating effect of internalisation of beauty ideals and self-esteem was not statistically significant, and (3) the chain mediating effect of objectification of female content and self-esteem was statistically significant. Therefore, the greater the short video addiction, the lower self-esteem, the deeper the appearance anxiety, and thus the higher the likelihood that the individual would not identify with themselves. The results provide a theoretical foundation for gaining a deeper understanding of the factors that influence females’ self-identity. Simultaneously, it offers new ideas for enhancing women’s selfidentity. In addition, previous studies on women’s appearance anxiety have given less attention to self-esteem and self-identity. This study, however, looks more extensively into both aspects, so broadening the investigation of the factors impacting women’s self-identity.
... Parental appearance socialization has indeed been found to be more strongly associated with body image aspects in adolescent girls than in boys (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001). Research also suggests, more broadly, that social pressures to conform to appearance norms, such as thinness and looking attractive, impact girls to a greater extent than boys (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Jones et al., 2004). Although less studied, specific appearance ideals and norms (e.g., being muscular) can negatively impact boys' body image as well (Tylka, 2011). ...
... That we only found an association between parents' and daughters' gender-typical appearance, and not with sons' appearance, fits with the idea that appearance is more important for women than for men (Quittkat et al., 2019) and that girls experience more social pressures to conform to appearance norms, such as the thin-ideal and looking attractive, than boys (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Jones et al., 2004). Therefore, parents with more gender-typical appearance might desire to clearly communicate their daughters' gender to others through their daughter's appearance. ...
The emergence of gender-typical appearance in childhood appears to have important implications not only for child and adolescent social-emotional functioning but also for later working life. In the current study, we examined how parents’ gender-typical appearance and children’s gender similarity (to same- and other-gender peers) were related to young children’s gender-typical appearance. We also explored differences in these associations between boys, girls, mothers, and fathers. Home visits were conducted with 74 Dutch two-parent (mother, father) families with both a son and daughter between the ages 3–6 years (96.6% White, 2.0% Asian, 1.4% other ethnicity). The gender-typical appearance of all four family members was assessed by trained and reliable coders in the videotaped observations from the home visits. As a measure of children’s gender similarity, both parents reported on the similarity of their son and daughter to same-gender and other-gender peers. Generalized estimating equations showed that more gender-typical appearance of parents was associated with more gender-typical appearance of girls, but not of boys. No differences were found between mothers and fathers for the association between parent and child appearance. Moreover, children’s gender similarity, evident in parents’ perceived similarity of their child to peers of the same gender and dissimilarity to peers of the other gender, was associated with more gender-typical appearance in children. To conclude, both children’s gender similarity and parents’ gender-typical appearance appear to play a role in the gender-typical appearance of young children.
... No entanto, as estimativas foram maiores que aquelas identificadas no estudo de Santana et al. (2013) (19,5%), o qual também foi realizado em amostra de adolescente soteropolitanos matriculados em instituições públicas de ensino. Nos resultados estratificados por sexo, foi possível observar maior prevalência entre as meninas, evidência consistente com resultados de estudos anteriores com adolescentes brasileiros Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Estudos evidenciam que o estereótipo de beleza inatingível imposto pela sociedade coloca as meninas em condição de maior insatisfação com o corpo imprimindo sentimentos de descontentamento e frustação com o peso, aparência física e forma corporal (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Miranda, 2011;Silva et al., 2012). ...
... Nos resultados estratificados por sexo, foi possível observar maior prevalência entre as meninas, evidência consistente com resultados de estudos anteriores com adolescentes brasileiros Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Estudos evidenciam que o estereótipo de beleza inatingível imposto pela sociedade coloca as meninas em condição de maior insatisfação com o corpo imprimindo sentimentos de descontentamento e frustação com o peso, aparência física e forma corporal (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Miranda, 2011;Silva et al., 2012). ...
Objetivo: Analisar a associação entre insatisfação com a imagem corporal e autoestima de adolescentes matriculados na rede pública estadual de ensino fundamental em Salvador-Bahia. Método: Participaram deste estudo de corte transversal 860 adolescentes de 10 a 19 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, matriculados do 7º sétimo ao 9º nono ano em 12 escolas de médio porte da rede pública estadual do ensino fundamental em turno integral, do município de Salvador, Bahia. A autoestima foi avaliada por meio da Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg e a insatisfação com a imagem corporal pelo Body Shape Questionnaire. Dados demográficos e socioeconômicos, maturação sexual, estado antropométrico, nível de atividade física e sedentarismo foram também avaliados. A associação entre insatisfação com a imagem corporal e autoestima foi analisada pela regressão multinominal para variáveis politômicas utilizando o programa estatístico SPSS, versão 23.0. Resultados: Entre os adolescentes, 24,8% tinham moderada autoestima e 27,3% apresentaram os menores escores desse constructo. A insatisfação com a imagem corporal foi identificada em 25,2% dos adolescentes. A análise de associação revelou que adolescentes com insatisfação com a imagem corporal possuem 5,61 (IC 95% 3,08-10,24) vezes maior chance em manifestar baixa autoestima para o sexo feminino e 3,83 (IC 95% 2,03-7,25) vezes para o sexo masculino. Ainda entre as meninas, a insatisfação com a imagem corporal permaneceu associada positivamente à moderada autoestima após ajuste do modelo (OR: 2,31; IC 95% 1,21-4,41). Conclusão: Foi observada alta prevalência de níveis baixos e moderados de autoestima e que a insatisfação com a imagem corporal influenciou a baixa autoestima em ambos os sexos e a moderada entre as meninas. Palavras chave: Imagem corporal; autoestima; adolescentes
... Anixiadis et al., 2019;Halliwell, 2013), but chunky and muscular for men (e.g. Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;McCreary, 2012). Fear and negative consequences for fatness are often more important for women (Fikkan & Rothblum, 2012;Murnen & Don, 2012), and it happens that some men want to be heavier, while this rarely happens for women (e.g. ...
... These results may be viewed as congruent with the idea that women suffer more from obesity stigma than men (Anixiadis et al., 2019;Halliwell, 2013;Puhl et al., 2008). The body norm for men is different, as the ideal body norm for men is chunkier and more muscular (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Kelley et al., 2010;McCreary, 2012;Thompson & Cafri, 2007), and men even earn more money at higher levels of weight until the point of obesity (Judge & Cable, 2011). Indeed, our findings also align with recent evidence that obese male political candi- dates were evaluated more positively than slim candidates, while obese female political candidates were strongly negatively evaluated (Miller & Lundgren, 2010). ...
Many domains of research suggest that high favorability to social power and low favorability to egalitarian ideals predict more prejudice against other groups. In the present article, we describe theory and evidence suggesting that the relations between power, egalitarianism, and prejudice may be reversed for one group: fat men. Using both implicit and explicit measures, we found across four studies (N = 602) that target gender moderated the relation between values and attitude toward fat people. For male targets, implicitly but not explicitly measured positivity toward power (over egalitarian) values predicted significantly more spontaneous positive attitudes toward fat (over slim) people. Further, implicit attitude toward power (over egalitarian) values predicted the time-pressured decision to choose a fat male. Together, the implicit evaluation of values allows us to identify processes in intergroup attitudes and behaviors that would not be possible to detect using explicit measures of values alone.
... However, the estimates were higher than those identified by Santana et al. (2013) (19.5%), which was also carried out in a sample of teenagers from Salvador enrolled in public educational institutions. In the results stratified by sex, it was possible to observe a higher prevalence among girls, evidence consistent with the results of previous studies with Brazilian adolescents Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Studies show that the stereotype of unattainable beauty imposed by society places girls in a condition of greater dissatisfaction with their bodies, creating feelings of discontent and frustration with their weight, physical appearance and body shape (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Miranda, 2011;Silva et al., 2012). ...
... In the results stratified by sex, it was possible to observe a higher prevalence among girls, evidence consistent with the results of previous studies with Brazilian adolescents Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Studies show that the stereotype of unattainable beauty imposed by society places girls in a condition of greater dissatisfaction with their bodies, creating feelings of discontent and frustration with their weight, physical appearance and body shape (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Miranda, 2011;Silva et al., 2012). ...
... This environment is dominated by ideal body images portrayed by the media: thin, tall, young and full-breasted with some visible muscle tone for women (Frederick et al., 2017); visible muscularity leanness and tall height for men (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005). Overall, the media place more emphasis on women's beauty through the promotion of perfect images of beauty, as well as beauty enhancing products (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Mckay et al., 2018). Research on individuals without disabilities has shown that this tends to have a more significant effect on body image issues in women than it does on men (Argyrides & Kkeli, 2015a;Murnen et al., 2003). ...
... This finding is in agreement with qualitative research suggesting that women are more likely to develop a self-critical perspective of their body image, and experience body image dissatisfaction due to the gendered social context by which they are surrounded (Bailey et al., 2016;Taub et al., 2003). In this context, more emphasis is generally placed on women's physical attractiveness than men's (Argyrides & Kkeli, 2015b;Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004), through both the portrayal of idealistic images by the media and the widespread promotion of beauty enhancing products by the beauty industry (Mckay et al., 2018). Similar differences in the internalization of this thin beauty ideal (with women more likely to inter-nalize than men) have also been observed in individuals without disabilities (Argyrides & Kkeli, 2015b;Murnen et al., 2003), suggesting that having a physical disability does not largely affect the tendency for women to internalize the thin ideal. ...
Body image in individuals with visible physical disabilities appears to be an important area of research and investigation, which has received little attention over the years. The purpose of the current descriptive, cross-sectional study was to investigate relationships between the body image construct, possible media influences on body image satisfaction, self-esteem, and the novel variable of situational body image dysphoria in individuals with visible physical disabilities. One hundred fifty-four men and women responded to the measures of interest. Results indicated that appearance satisfaction, weight-related anxiety, pressures from the media, and the internalization of the thin ideal were significant predictors of situational body image dysphoria. Additionally, when controlling for type of disability, females face more difficulties concerning only some of the variables of interest. These findings have important implications for practice with regards to screening measures, the education of healthcare professionals, as well as intervention and rehabilitation programs.
... Bireyin kendi bedenine dair öznel görüşlerine ve başkalarının bireyin bedenine yönelik tepkilerine göre şekillenmektedir (Cash, 2004). Sosyokültürel yaklaşıma göre toplumlarda kabul gören ideal beden standartları vardır ve bu standartlar çoğunlukla medya aracılığıyla bireylere aktarılmaktadır (Hargreaves ve Tiggemann, 2004;Harrison ve Cantor, 1997;Perloff, 2014;Stice vd., 1994). Geçmişte çoğunlukla moda dergileri ve televizyonda reklamlar aracılığıyla idealize edilen beden, günümüzde internette sosyal medya aracılığıyla tanımlanmaktadır (Vuong, Jarman, Doley ve McLean, 2021). ...
This research aims to examine the relationships between identity statuses, social media
addiction levels, and body perception among individuals in the young adulthood period,
aged 18-35, living in Turkey. In addition to this main objective, the concept of
'’appearance-related social media awareness'’ was also included in the study during the
literature review. The sample group of the study consists of 301 participants. Data were
collected from the participants online using "Personal Information Form", "Ego Identity
Process Scale," "Body Image Scale," "Social Media Addiction Scale," and "Appearance
Related Social Media Awareness Scale" and analyzed using IBM SPSS Pearson
Correlation Analysis, Regression Analysis, and One-Way Analysis of Variance were
applied in the data analysis. According to the results of the correlation analysis, it was
found that as the social media addiction level increased, the body perception of young
adult individuals became more negative, and their awareness of appearance on social
media significantly increased. Furthermore, individuals who used social media in a
controlled manner and had a low addiction level showed higher identity commitment
behaviors. It was also found that individuals with negative attitudes towards their bodies
thought more about their appearance on social media, but contrary to expectations, this
finding was not statistically significant. It was observed that identity statuses and identity
commitment behaviors had no significant effect on young adults' awareness of their
appearance on social media, although individuals with high identity exploration behaviors
thought more about their appearance. As a result of regression analysis, it was found that
identity commitment behaviors, body image, and awareness of appearance on social
vii
media were significant predictors of social media addiction. When examining the
variables according to identity statuses, it was found that individuals with moratorium
and diffuse identity statuses were more addicted to social media platforms, while
individuals with foreclosure and achieved identity statuses had more positive attitudes
toward their bodies. The study concluded that social media use has a negative impact on
identity development processes and attitudes toward the body. The findings of the
research were discussed based on recent studies in the relevant literature.
... Research has reported negative effects of the media on adolescents' body image and body satisfaction (e.g. Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Huang et al., 2021;Spurr et al., 2013), however much of this has investigated body ideals (e.g. flawless skin) and the links to appearance-related dissatisfaction and body image concerns. ...
Background: Chronic skin conditions are common in youth. The developmental transition to young adulthood involves social, psychological and physical changes. Adolescents with chronic skin conditions may experience greater challenges than their healthy peers due to the addition of managing and coping with their condition. Objective: This study explored experiences of transition from adolescence to adulthood in the context of chronic skin conditions. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven young adults with chronic skin conditions (eczema, psoriasis, hidra-denitis suppurativa). An interpretative phenomenological analysis methodological approach was used. Results: Six themes were generated: (1) Navigating a difficult medical journey; (2) Managing a chronic skin condition is all-consuming; (3) Living with a chronic skin condition can be physically limiting; (4) Distressed, isolated and abnormal: How my skin makes me feel; (5) What is wrong with you? Experiences of stigma because of my skin; and (6) The resilience journey when living with a chronic skin condition. Conclusions: Findings highlight the difficulties experienced by young dermatology patients, particularly during adolescence, including challenges with healthcare providers, mobility disruptions and stigmatisation. Findings offer insight into how young people can be supported during their transition into adulthood, for example, treating skin conditions with a psychodermatological approach.
... Some studies find that adolescent girls are more vulnerable to the negative influences of appearance comparisons. For example, adolescent girls are more likely to have higher-level body dissatisfaction when exposed to images of thin ideals of the female gender, 24 whereas adolescent boys are not negatively influenced by idealized male images or discussions with peers. 25 However, research findings in this area are inconsistent, with some studies indicating that both boys and girls are equally impacted by social comparison. ...
Objective
This study aimed to examine the association between appearance comparison and adolescent depressive symptoms, the mediating role of body appreciation, and the moderating roles of gender and body-mass index (BMI) among adolescents in different age groups.
Methods
A cross-sectional sample of 2645 Chinese students aged 12–16 years (44.7% girls) participated. The measurements included depressive symptoms, appearance comparison, body appreciation, weight, and height. Multigroup path analysis was used to examine the moderated mediation model.
Results
Compared with boys, adolescent girls presented greater levels of appearance, which increased with age. Body appreciation mediated the association between appearance comparison and depressive symptoms in girls, whereas appearance comparison directly correlated with depressive symptoms in boys. Body appreciation decreased with increasing BMI in boys but remained relatively stable in girls. Similar patterns were observed among junior and senior high school students.
Conclusion
This study underscores the significant relationship between appearance comparison and adolescent depressive symptoms, suggesting varied mechanisms based on gender and BMI levels.
... The increasing online and offline body image concerns observed in the present sample, even over the relatively short study period (6 months), may have implications for later adolescent and adult body image and mental health (e.g., Blashill & Wilhelm, 2014). Although body image concerns are considered normative during adolescence (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Rodin et al., 1984), body image tends to improve across middle and late adolescence for boys and during emerging adulthood for girls (Lacroix et al., 2023). Future research must explore if and how social media-specific appearance concerns disrupt these normative long-term developmental trends. ...
During early and middle adolescence, individuals are at heightened risk of poor body image and subsequent negative mental health outcomes, and the highly visual nature of social media may play a role in this process. It remains unclear, however, if appearance preoccupation on social media—such as appearance-related social media consciousness (ASMC)—influences offline body image, or if preexisting body image concerns influence online appearance preoccupation. The present study investigated between-person differences and potential bidirectional within-person associations in these experiences among eighth grade adolescents in the United States (n = 1,582; ages 11–15 years old; Mage = 13; 47.5% girls, 45.9% boys, 6.5% another gender identity; 37% Latine, 32% White, 18% Black, 7% Asian, 6% another racial/ethnic identity). Participants completed a longitudinal study over three waves within one academic year. Results indicated that within-person increases in ASMC preceded within-person increases in appearance-contingent self-worth and were bidirectionally associated with worse appearance esteem, with no differences in these associations by gender. Among girls only, self-objectification was associated with subsequent within-person increases in ASMC, but not vice versa. Findings indicate that online appearance preoccupation may influence and be reinforced by general body image concerns.
... Although social comparison promotes body image dissatisfaction in both males and females, some research has suggested that the presentation of idealized beauty impacts body image slightly more negatively for adolescent girls than boys (e.g., Feingold & Mazzella, 1998;Haidt, 2024;Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). This asymmetry likely reflects the nature of intrasexual competition among females, where female reproductive values are strongly indicated by physical appearance and attractiveness (Buss, 1988;Buss & Schmitt, 1993). ...
From the erosion of mental well-being through incessant comparison, unrealistic portrayals, and addiction, the negative effects of social media are well-documented. However, it is necessary to move beyond the simplistic characterizations of social media as inherently either beneficial or detrimental and, instead, underscore the nuanced mechanisms that underlie its adverse outcomes. To this end, this paper delineates a conceptual framework grounded in evolutionary psychology, designed to explain the prevalent negative repercussions often linked to the utilization of social media. Specifically, we argue that these “social media ills” are manifestations of evolutionary mismatches between social media features and our evolved mechanism designed for social living. We start by reviewing how our psychological mechanisms—sociometer, social monitoring system, and social comparison—facilitate living within complex social situations and fulfill our fundamental need to belong. We then identify features of social media that may hijack these processes to produce the consequences we observe today. We have also recommended several evolutionarily informed directions policymakers and social media companies can undertake to treat social media ills at their root cause. This article concludes by discussing the theoretical implications and interventions the evolutionary mismatch hypothesis provides.
... Research indicates that internalizing appearance ideals increases the risk of developing BI concerns, impacting early childhood development (Nichols et al., 2018). BI development differs between genders, with boys focusing on muscularity, strength, and physical performance, influenced by media representations (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2005), while girls are influenced by societal ideals of thinness and beauty (Papageorgiou et al., 2022). Media and peer interactions further shape girls' BI perceptions (Fischetti et al., 2019). ...
As body image mirrors one’s perception of embodiment, it suggests a link between the onset of disorders - such as Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) - and corporeal experiences. To explore the relationship, an embodied learning intervention is proposed. Children, aged 9 to 11, will participate in various experiences, including activities where the body plays a key role in the learning process. By examining the effects of embodied learning, this work could provide insights to help manage BDD onset.
... In boys, it often involves a focus on muscularity, strength, and physical performance. Media representations of idealized male bodies can shape boys' perceptions of their bodies and influence their desire to attain a similar physique (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). ...
This action research aims to promote the development of a positive body image in a sample of children aged between 9 and 11 years at a primary school in Cassino, Italy. Using a mixed methodological approach, the project includes an initial data collection phase using the Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire (BIDQ) and focus groups to assess the partici-pants' body perception. The main topics addressed in the focus groups include body image, gender differences in body image, body changes over time, the experienced body and the perceived body, and body dysmorphia. Next, an educational intervention based on embodied learning will be implemented, aimed at fostering a better understanding and acceptance of one's own body. A final data collection will be conducted utilizing a second administration of the BIDQ and focus groups to assess the effectiveness of the educational intervention and to verify any changes in the children's body perception. The aim is to provide empirical evidence useful for developing educational strategies aimed at promoting the development of a positive body image from childhood, a vulnerable period for the development of body image.
... Considering our study's findings, we can conclude that this study confirms the studies carried out by [34]. ...
... These results support research done by McLean et al. (2011) stating that anxiety is more debilitating for women than men and research by Barry et al. (2002) stating that women report higher body dissatisfaction. Starting in adolescence, women experience higher adverse impacts of societal body image standards than men (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Once in college, women still display more negative feelings about body image than men (Muth & Cash, 2006). ...
... This statement is important considering that temporary, negative evaluations of one's own body are a common phenomenon. Temporarily perceiving oneself as unattractive or even ugly (i.e., having a negative body image) is a common and clinically irrelevant state (Hargreaves and Tiggemann 2004;Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn 2004). A temporarily negative body image and dissatisfaction with one's appearance can be influenced by external factors (e.g., social encounters, visiting the beach, trying on new clothes; cf. ...
The haptic system encompasses three perceptual dimensions: (1) exteroception (perception of physical and some chemical properties of the external world), (2) interoception/visceroception (processing and regulation of the states of the body and its organ functions), and (3) proprioception (perception of limb and body movements and position in space). While all other sensory systems have specialized receptors that are concentrated in a specific region of the body (eye, ear, nose, mouth), the mechanoreceptors of the haptic system are located in varying concentrations throughout the body, and therefore, the perceptual functions of the haptic system involve the entire body.
This chapter gives detailed information about exteroceptive, interoceptive, and proprioceptive processes of the haptic system, temperature and pain perception, and the development and relevance of body schema and body image.
... 24 The resulting body dissatisfaction tendencies correspond to the impact idealized mass media exposure has on adolescents and their perceived body image. 26 Body image distortion also continues to be a concern in all BMI classifications as 35% of underweight adolescents did not consider themselves thin and 62% of obese adolescents did not see themselves in the correct classification. 24 Lower body satisfaction scores in male and female adolescents predicted higher levels of dieting, unhealthy weight control behaviors, binge eating, lower levels of physical activity, smoking and lower fruit and vegetable intake. ...
... Body dissatisfaction is associated with a drive for thinness, 22 23 dieting 24 and DE patterns. 24 25 The exposure to physical ideals has been seen to have a stronger immediate impact on girls than boys, 26 and preoccupation with weight, maladaptive methods for weight control and body dissatisfaction are known precursors of more serious clinical EDs, both among athletes and in the general population. 11 12 27 However, athletes from leanness-focused sports report higher rates of eating disturbances compared with athletes from non-weight sensitive sports. ...
Introduction
Rock climbing is a rapidly growing sport in which performance may be affected by participant’s weight and leanness, and there may be pressure on athletes with respect to their eating behaviour and body weight. However, there is sparse research performed on climbers, constituting a knowledge gap which the present study aims to fill. The primary outcomes of the study are to examine disordered eating and overuse injuries in rock climbers. Secondary variables are body image, indicators of relative energy deficiency, mental health problems, compulsive training, perfectionism, sleep quality and bone density.
Method and analysis
This prospective longitudinal study aims to recruit Swedish competitive rock climbers (>13 years) via the Swedish Climbing Federation. A non-athlete control group will be recruited via social media (n=equal of the climbing group). Data will be collected using streamlined validated web-based questionnaires with three follow-ups over 2 years. Inclusion criteria for rock climbers will be a minimum advanced level according to International Rock-Climbing Research Association. The non-athlete control group is matched for age and gender. Exclusion criteria are having competed at an elite level in any sport as well as training more often than twice per week. Statistical analyses will include multinominal logistic regression, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and structural equation modelling (SEM). We will assess effect measure modification when relevant and conduct sensitivity analyses to assess the impact of lost to follow-up.
Ethics and dissemination
The Rock-Climbers’ Longitudinal attitudes towards Injuries, Mental health and Body image study, CLIMB, was approved by the Swedish ethics authority (2021-05557-01). Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed research papers, reports, research conferences, student theses and stakeholder communications.
Trial registration number
NCT05587270 .
... Body dissatisfaction is associated with a drive for thinness, 22 23 dieting 24 and DE patterns. 24 25 The exposure to physical ideals has been seen to have a stronger immediate impact on girls than boys, 26 and preoccupation with weight, maladaptive methods for weight control and body dissatisfaction are known precursors of more serious clinical EDs, both among athletes and in the general population. 11 12 27 However, athletes from leanness-focused sports report higher rates of eating disturbances compared with athletes from non-weight sensitive sports. ...
Introduction Rock climbing is a rapidly growing sport in which performance may be affected by participant’s weight and leanness, and there may be pressure on athletes with respect to their eating behaviour and body weight. However, there is sparse research performed on climbers, constituting a knowledge gap which the present study aims to fill. The primary outcomes of the study are to examine disordered eating and overuse injuries in rock climbers. Secondary variables are body image, indicators of relative energy deficiency, mental health problems, compulsive training, perfectionism, sleep quality and bone density.
Method and analysis This prospective longitudinal study aims to recruit Swedish competitive rock climbers (>13 years) via the Swedish Climbing Federation. A non-athlete control group will be recruited via social media (n=equal of the climbing group). Data will be collected using streamlined validated web-based questionnaires with three follow-ups over 2 years. Inclusion criteria for rock climbers will be a minimum advanced level according to International Rock-Climbing Research Association. The non-athlete control group is matched for age and gender. Exclusion criteria are having competed at an elite level in any sport as well as training more often than twice per week. Statistical analyses will include multinominal logistic regression, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and structural equation modelling (SEM). We will assess effect measure modification when relevant and conduct sensitivity analyses to assess the impact of lost to follow-up.
... Groesz, Levine, and Murnen's (2002) meta-analysis of 25 experiments testing the effects of exposure to ideal-body media imagery on various indices of body image found a modest but significant drop in body satisfaction, and the effect size was greater for those under age 19. And Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2004) found that girls 13-15 who viewed 20 television commercials containing "idealized images" reported significant body dissatisfaction, but the same was not true for boys. ...
This thematic analysis is an exploration of one anonymous Twitter user’s documentation of her struggles with eating disorders over the course of eight months. Examining the language and images in @Anaforlife55’s tweets, as well as her interactions with other anonymous Twitter users also battling food demons, the goal of this paper is to determine whether the notion that eating disorders can be considered a contagious disease has merit. Whereas eating disorders are not developed quickly through a sharing of germs in the classical sense of contagion, the ways in which the media, communication scholars, and the infected discuss the “whys” and, more importantly, the “hows” can spread just as easily. This analysis examines the romanticized and competitive, yet simultaneously tight-knit, support system that encourages and enables eating disordered social media users to feed their disease via Twitter. @Anaforlife55 is quickly approaching her tenth year with an eating disorder, but this eight-month snapshot of her journey before and after entering rehabilitation provides support for the “contagious disease” argument. Themes are discussed in terms of language, relationships, and visual elements such as photos of various body parts.
... Ralph-Nearman et al. [15] stated that these whole-body images fail to include body image assessments that include the perceptual details about individual body concerns, emotions, distress, or specific body areas (e.g., stomach, thighs and bust). Furthermore, research conducted by Hargreaves and Tiggemann [17] and Ralph-Nearman et al. [15] stated that they are lacking considerable body details, rendering, at best, a gestalt proxy for whole body perception. Conversely, previous studies have shown that through BMI, female athletes perceived their BMI as higher than their actual BMI [9,18]. ...
Introduction: Research surrounding body image has shown that when researchers use body mass index (BMI) as an estimate of their perceived BMI, participants typically overestimate. Therefore, the main objective of this investigation was to determine the correlation between actual and perceived BC in the overall, upper, trunk and lower body within female footballers. Method: n=10 female footballers aged between the ages of 18-25 years competing in the National League Division One South West were recruited via selective and purposeful sampling. Six anthropometric skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, anterior thigh and medial calf) were taken and then used in a pre-selected calibration model to calculate actual BC. A questionnaire containing 2D images of different components of BC were used to assess participants perceived BC. P value was set at < 0.05 and a paired Student t-Test was used to test for the difference and a Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient test was then used to test the strength of the correlation between the actual and perceived BC. Results: Actual whole BC ranged from 55–111 (x̄ 79.2±20.5 mm) whereas participants whole body perceived BC ranged from 60–100 (x̄ 82±0.5 mm). Sectional analysis revealed that the biggest difference in data was in the trunk (P=0.001). Conclusion: Results indicated that perceived BC was higher than participants actual BC within overall and in sectional analysis, suggesting that female footballers competing at an elite level typically have negative body image perceptions. Recommendations: It is suggested that future research continues to understand in greater depth which parts of the body athletes are dissatisfied with, in order prevent health consequences such as eating disorders.
... Adolescents are more likely to have negative body intentions when they are exposed to the media's ideal body type portrayal [2]. A woman's likelihood of experiencing negative feelings like unhappiness with her appearance increases in direct proportion to the amount of time and effort she devotes to social media [3]. Video-sharing platforms like Netflix and YouTube are examples of popular social software that serve not just to entertain users but also to disseminate societal norms and values. ...
Adolescents' lives are more colorful and splendid than ever thanks to the pervasive commercialization of mass media, which fosters interpersonal connections and expands entertainment options. However, adolescents' moral construction is negatively impacted by their heavy use of social media, which has a double negative effect on their physical and psychological health (depression, anxiety, jealousy, comparison). Consequentially, mass media culture grows more and more unfavorable as a result of long-term exposure to negative impacts. This paper will then go on to examine, from a more in-depth perspective and with a more subjective orientation toward media commercialization, the negative effects and consequences of passive social media use on the bodies and minds of adolescents using various social media platforms (such as Instagram and Tiktok).
... The selection of such images suggests that many of the participants conflated physical activity and health with body shape and weight. The concern here is that young people could begin to compare themselves against unrealistic appearance ideals which, in turn, could lead to body dissatisfaction [46,47] as well as to unhealthy practices/habits. In their work on body image, Grogan [48] found body dissatisfaction in male and female adolescents to correlate with unhealthy weight management strategies, such as reducing calorie intake to low levels while increasing the volume of exercise in efforts to achieve a desirable body shape. ...
Background:
Despite documented evidence of the benefits of leading a physically active life, it is reported that less than half of young people in Europe meet the physical activity recommendations. Schools, and in particular physical education (PE), are viewed to be at the forefront of addressing inactive lifestyles and educating young people about physical activity. Nonetheless, given advancements in technology, young people are increasingly exposed to physical activity information "beyond the school gates". Consequently, if PE teachers are to support young people to understand the information they receive surrounding physical activity online, then they need to be able to address any misconceptions about health they may have.
Methods:
In this study, fourteen young people (7 boys and 7 girls) in year 9 (13-14 years old) from two secondary schools in England participated in a digitally-based activity and semi-structured interviews which aimed to explore their conceptions of physical activity for health.
Results:
It was found that the young people had limited and narrow conceptions of what it means to be physically active.
Conclusions:
It was suggested the findings could be partly attributed to limitations in students' learning and experiences with respect to physical activity and health in the PE curriculum.
... Furthermore, visual content shared online has a certain impact on younger generations and when this promotes wrong, false or distorted myths, the implications for social relations and personal identity can be devastating. Visual contents often promoted in advertisements dealing with body image and body icon representations (Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2004), sexuality (Charteris et al., 2018) and depression or anxiety (Keles et al., 2020) can be highly controversial. Being aware of what kind of visual features can affect individuals' attitudes and behaviours such as liking, commenting on and sharing visual content in social media can help communication managers to avoid the production of content that negatively affects people's beliefs. ...
... There seems to be a strong association between sociocultural messages and body image. Studies show that idealized media images may increase negative affect such as body dissatisfaction and anxiety (Algars et al., 2009;Birkeland et al., 2005;Blanco Vega, et al., 2022;Halliwell, Dittmar, & Orsborn, 2007;Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;Paquette & Raine, 2004) while personal body ideals are related to perceived cultural standards for thinness (Bessenoff & Snow, 2006). This seems to be the case in exercise services, as well, such as in fitness centers, where the promotion of an "ideal" body image, may increase anxiety rates (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005). ...
The concept of body image is multidimensional and concerns the attitude of each person towards their body and their appearance. The aim of this research was to study how Greek fitness center members evaluate their body image, and whether this evaluation is differentiated in terms of gender, age and BMI. Moreover, the study aimed to survey whether fitness center members’ body image may predict their intention to maintain their fitness center membership. The research sample consisted of 220 adult members of fitness centers in a Greek city. For the needs of this research, the MBSRQ-Appearance scale was used (Cash, 2000), including 4 factors: i) satisfaction with appearance (7 items), ii) investment in appearance (12 items) iii) anxiety with appearance and weight (4 items) iv) weight self-categorization (2 items) and v) satisfaction with body parts (9 items). The MBSRQ has been previously adapted to a Greek population with satisfactory validity results. For the intention to continue participating in a fitness center, one question based on the Theory of Planned Behavior was used: I will use the fitness center services again next year. All responses were given on a five-point Likert scale. For the needs of this research, the questionnaire gathered additional demographic characteristics of the sample’s gender, age and Body Mass Index (BMI). No statistical differences of the body image evaluation occurred depending on the sample’s sex and age. Instead, differences emerged in the way members of the sample perceived their body image, and more specifically their “Self-categorization of weight” depending on whether they were classified as "normal" based on their BMI, "overweight" or "obese". As for the intention to continue their membership, it may be predicted by the Satisfaction with body parts factor. Attracting clients to fitness services should stop focusing on promoting a fit and flawless body, encouraging people who underestimate their body image to take advantage of their services. Key Words: fitness centers, body image, customer intentions, fitness center members
... Advertisements shape the ideal of beauty perception, playing an active role in determining individuals' attitudes toward body and appearance (Bordo, 2003;Cash et al., 1990;Grogan, 1999;Lennon et al., 1999). Studies (Cash et al., 2002;Hargreaves et al., 2003;2004;Jung et al., 2003;Richins, 1991) have stated that individuals experience mental problems in the face of the idealized beauty promoted by advertisements. Some studies (Grogan, 1999;Levy-Navarro, 2009;Milkie, 1999) show that women are highly critical when media images differ from reality. ...
This study discusses how television viewers' definitions of beauty are affected by advertisements. The media effects on the perception of beauty and truth are explained in detail as the investigation unfolds. In November 2021 and May 2022, the study collected data through individual interviews with 22 women aged 18 to 63. The data gleaned from these interviews was interpreted with Stuart Hall's coding-encoding theory using Peircein trichotomy and Foucault's truth relations and truth games. The study found that one of the new functions of advertising is to enable female viewers to make personal evaluations of physical beauty standards and concluded that beauty is not truth but is a construct manufactured by advertisements. Female audiences read women shown in ads with multiple dimensions of significance and sensibility to experience the presentation and representation of the women. Moters grožio standartų suvokimas: suvokimo tyrimas, paremtas Foucault tiesos santykiu ir tiesos žaidimais Santrauka. Šiame tyrime aptariama, kokią įtaką reklama daro televizijos žiūrovų suvokimui apie grožį. Tyri-me išsamiai analizuojamas medijų poveikis grožio ir tiesos suvokimui. Tyrimas buvo vykdomas nuo 2021 m. lapkričio iki 2022 m. gegužės, o duomenys buvo surinkti pasitelkiant individualius pokalbius su 22 moterimis nuo 18 iki 63 metų amžiaus. Gauti duomenys buvo interpretuojami naudojant Stuarto Hallo kodavimo / deko-davimo modelį bei Peirce'o trichotomiją ir Foucault tiesos santykį ir tiesos žaidimus. Tyrimo metu nustatyta, kad viena iš naujų reklamos funkcijų yra suteikti galimybę žiūrovėms asmeniškai įvertinti fizinio grožio standartus, ir padaryta išvada, kad grožis nėra tiesa, o reklamos sukurtas konstruktas. Moterų auditorija mato moteris, vaizduojamas reklaminiuose skelbimuose, įvairiais reikšmingumo ir jautrumo aspektais.
... Nuestra sociedad rinde un gran culto al cuerpo, y todos estos mensajes socioculturales impactan en el comportamiento y pensamientos de las jóvenes (Rivarola, 2003). El descontento con la imagen corporal puede deberse a la transmisión de ideales de belleza irrealistas a través de medios de comunicación masivos, que se tienden a asumir como verdaderos e identificables (Hargreaves y Tiggemann, 2004 importante mencionar como base la Teoría de la Comparación Social de Festinger (1954). Las personas tienden a establecer a los otros como estándares con los que compararse a ellos mismos y a su progreso. ...
La insatisfacción corporal está asociada a un mayor riesgo de suicidio y una peor calidad de vida. Esta puede generarse por comparación social y exposición a modelos corporales irreales por redes sociales. Este estudio es una replicación de una investigación de los Países Bajos (Kleemans et al., 2018) donde se analizaba la influencia de la exposición a fotos editadas de Instagram sobre la percepción de la imagen corporal en adolescentes. Se ha replicado el estudio con 104 jóvenes universitarias españolas que fueron expuestas de forma aleatoria a fotos editadas, fotos originales, o fotos de paisajes. Después se midió la percepción de la imagen corporal de las jóvenes. Respecto al artículo original se introdujo una tercera condición con fotos de paisajes, se midió la atención de las participantes y se realizó un cuestionario previo para evaluar la edición de las fotos estímulo. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los grupos. Se plantean las variables asociadas a la edad como influyentes en la relación entre la exposición a fotos en redes sociales y la percepción de la imagen corporal.
This chapter probes into the sociology of non-conforming bodies and more specifically those to whom the idiom of an “eating disorder” is attached. It explains how, across different historical and geographical contexts, bodies come to be perceived as divergent in their atypical and “unhealthy” eating practices and behaviors and how society endeavors to regulate these rebellious bodies. Drawing extensively from sociological literature on bodies, with a focus on feminist studies, the chapter considers historical and contemporary perspectives on how we shape our own bodies and how societal influences impact them. Topics explored include the concept of embodiment in relation to the disordered body, the body as a project for the body under medical scrutiny, and the commodification of the bodies in the context of neoliberalism and post-feminism. The chapter concludes with a brief consideration of the impacts of artificial intelligence (AI) and other forms of technologies which can be used for surveillance on the construction and perception of bodies, both by corporate entities and by the broader public.
According to current research, adolescent girls always have a more negative body image compared to boys of the same age, but this is of crucial importance for the stabilization of their self-confidence and the development of a stable identity. This study analyzes risk factors that negatively influence the development of young girls, such as societal expectations of femininity, social norms, and beauty ideals conveyed by the media. These factors can lead to pressure, anxiety, and body image disorders during adolescence. On the other hand, both body-related, and body-independent protective factors such as a supportive environment and the development of resilience are developed and discussed in terms of the extent to which these can be used as an opportunity to counteract the adolescent insecurity of young girls, especially as a professional in the school context. Through interviews with three female experts, the specific insecurity experienced by young girls during adolescence and various negative factors influencing their body awareness were examined. This included the problematization of the increasing use of modern media, as they particularly influence female recipients due to the omnipresent depiction of unrealistic female bodies. In addition, the experts were asked about the possibilities of school interventions and preventive measures to promote a positive body image. The results of online interviews with female experts confirm the vulnerability of female adolescents in this phase, as well as the negative influence of social ideals and norms of femininity on the body image of adolescent women. By teaching knowledge about biological body processes during adolescence and fostering an understanding that independent engagement with body characteristics should serve as a benchmark for their self-perception, rather than constantly comparing themselves with media body ideals, among other things, female students can be supported by school staff during this phase of their lives when they are feeling insecure. These findings underline the urgent need to implement supportive measures, programs and safe spaces for female adolescents as an integral part of school education and upbringing.
Bu araştırma #thinspiration ve #fitspiration ile ilişkili olan sosyal medya içeriklerini takip eden ve etmeyen 18–40 yaş arası bireylerin karşılaştırma yönelimi, bedeni beğenme, sosyal görünüş kaygısı ve benlik saygısı puanlarının farklılaşma düzeylerini ve sosyal görünüş kaygısı ile diğer değişkenlerin ilişkilerini inceledi. İki yüz yetmiş
altı kişiden oluşan örnekleme ait katılımcılara anketler çevrim içi bir şekilde sunuldu. Anket seti demografik bilgi formu, Sosyal Medya İçerik Türü Formu, Iowa-Hollanda Karşılaştırma Yönelimi Ölçeği, Bedeni Beğenme Ölçeği, Sosyal Görünüş Kaygısı Ölçeği ve Benlik Saygısı Değerlendirme Ölçeği-Kısa Formundan oluşmaktadır.
Bulguları elde etmek için bağımsız gruplar t-Testi, korelasyon ve regresyon analizleri uygulandı. #fitspiration içeriklerini takip edenlerin karşılaştırma yönelimlerinin etmeyenlere göre daha yüksek olduğu rapor edildi. #thinspiration içeriklerini takip edenlerin ise etmeyenlere göre sosyal görünüş kaygı düzeylerinin daha yüksek
olduğu, daha fazla karşılaştırma yaptığı, bedeni beğenme düzeylerinin daha düşük olduğu ve olumsuz benlik saygısı düzeylerinin daha yüksek olduğu saptandı. #thinspiration ve #fitspiration içeriklerini takip eden bireylerde sosyal görünüş kaygısı düzeylerini yordayan değişkenlerin farklılaştığına ulaşıldı. Elde edilen bulgular
alanyazın ışığında tartışıldı ve hem bilimsel araştırmalar hem de klinik çalışmalar için öneriler sunuldu.
This study examined the differentiation levels of comparison orientation, body appreciation, social appearance anxiety, and self-esteem scores of individuals 18–40 years of age who follow and do not follow social media content related to #thinspiration and #fitspiration as well as the relationships between social appearance anxiety and other variables. The surveys were presented online to 276 participants. The survey set comprises demographic information form, Social Media Content Type Form, Iowa-Dutch Comparison Orientation Scale, Body Appreciation Scale, Social Appearance Anxiety Scale, and Self-Esteem Evaluation Scale-short Form. Statistical tests of independent groups t-test, correlation, and regression analyses were conducted to obtain the findings. Those who follow #fitspiration content were reported to have higher comparison orientation rates than those who do not. In addition, those who follow #thinspiration content have higher levels of social appearance anxiety, make more comparisons, have lower levels of appreciation toward their body, and have higher levels of negative self-esteem than those who do not follow related content. Variables predicting social appearance
anxiety levels differ among individuals who follow #thinspiration and #fitspiration contents. The findings were discussed in the literature, and recommendations were presented for scientific research and clinical studies.
i>Seventeen Magazine, the longest running magazine for adolescent girls in the United States, reinforces problematic images of the ‘healthy’ adolescent girl by routinely featuring slim celebrities and models, all of whom adhere to a desirable body ideal of hegemonic beauty. Misleading and contradictory narratives of postfeminist, neoliberal empowerment include telling girl readers to love their bodies while simultaneously portraying the slim body as preferable. Additionally, most issues of Seventeen feature a diet-themed section, thereby encouraging food restriction and the surveillance of eating. Findings from this feminist content analysis of the magazine from 2016 to 2017 challenge Seventeen’s stated mission of ‘celebrating real girls with our social-first approach, inviting them into the conversation and engaging them in real experience as they navigate major milestones’ (n.d., n.p.)
Introdução: A musculação vem sendo sugerida como ótima opção de redução da gordura corporal, o que pode ser um dos motivos de ingresso na modalidade, porém, pode não diminuir o peso quando ocorre aumento de massa muscular. Objetivo: Identificar a influência que os resultados expressos na balança exercem na decisão das alunas que praticam musculação em academias de ginástica a abandonarem o programa de treinamento. Materiais e Métodos: O estudo foi aprovado previamente pelo Comitê de ICESP, nº 5.401.819. Isso foi composto por 89 mulheres, com idade entre 18 e 60 anos, praticantes de musculação, com objetivo de emagrecimento. As entrevistas foram realizadas em 4 diferentes academias do Goiás. O recurso utilizado para coleta dos dados foi um questionário com 13 questões fechadas, elaborado pelos próprios pesquisadores. A estatística utilizada foi o teste Qui-quadrado. Resultado: Os principais achados do estudo foi que 79% das avaliadas não acham que o valor expresso na balança seria um fator de abandono do treinamento. Também foi encontrada uma associação significativa entre: se o número expresso na balança poderia ser um fator de abandono futuro do plano de treinamento? versus O que a balança te mostra, está te desmotivando? Análises de razão de chance demonstraram que mulheres que não estão desmotivadas por causa da balança apresentaram 4,29 vezes mais chance de não abandonarem o treinamento. Conclusão: Portanto, ao contrário da hipótese levantada no projeto, nas academias avaliadas as praticantes de musculação não pretendem abandonar o programa de treinamento por causa do número expresso na balança.
Body image just during adolescence is influenced not only by the media, but also by family and friends, and related to this, the adolescent must learn to cope with society's demands on body image. This study examines the relationships between facially attractive adolescents' body image dissatisfaction and personality characteristics. The research population consisted of 185 face-attractive students from different types of high schools, including 89 girls and 96 boys with an average age of 18 years. We used the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire EPQ-R and Stunkard Silhouettes and questions designed by us regarding satisfaction/dissatisfaction with different body parts to collect data. We found that there was no significant relationship between body image dissatisfaction and neuroticism, psychoticism. A significant negative relationship was found between body image dissatisfaction and extroversion.
SADRŽAJ
I. SLIKA TIJELA I NEZADOVOLJSTVO NJIME:
PREGLED POVIJESNIH PROMJENA U DRUŠTVENOM SHVAĆANJU
IDEALNOG TJELESNOG IZGLEDA, SUVREMENIH SPOZNAJA TE
TEORIJSKIH PRISTUPA I METODA PROCJENE
Promjene u društvenom shvaćanju idealnoga ženskog i muškog tijela tijekom povijesti
Pregled povijesti i sadašnjosti proučavanja slike tijela
Teorijski pristupi slici tijela
Slika tijela
Razvoj slike tijela kao dio razvoja pojma o sebi
Nezadovoljstvo tijelom
Nezadovoljstvo tijelom u adolescenciji
Nezadovoljstvo tijelom i psihološka dobrobit adolescenata .
Etiologija nezadovoljstva tijelom
Biološki čimbenici
Psihološki čimbenici
Sociokulturalni čimbenici
Strategije za promjenu tjelesnog izgleda
Čimbenici primjene strategija za promjenu tjelesnog izgleda
u adolescenciji
Cilj i problemi istraživanja
Metoda
Rezultati i rasprava
Spolne razlike i razlike između adolescenata u ranoj i kasnoj
adolescenciji u izraženosti općeg nezadovoljstva tijelom,
važnosti slike tijela i čestini primjene različitih strategija za
promjenu tjelesnog izgleda
Uloga dobi, vremena pubertalnog sazrijevanja, indeksa tjelesne
mase i percipiranih sociokulturalnih utjecaja na sliku tijela
u objašnjavanju općeg nezadovoljstva tijelom
Uloga spola, indeksa tjelesne mase i općeg nezadovoljstva tijelom
u objašnjavanju čestine primjene pojedinih strategija za
promjenu tjelesnog izgleda
Metodološka ograničenja i smjernice za buduća istraživanja
Praktični doprinos istraživanja i završna razmatranja
Literatura
'Edutainment' micro-interventions are a scalable public health strategy that can challenge media-related body image pressures and race- and weight- based stigma. This study evaluated the impact of viewing a brief, theoretically-informed, short-form drama episode on Black and non-Black adolescent girls' body image, acceptance of diversity of appearance (assessed by acceptance of an individual in a larger body and a Black individual), and appearance-related internalised racism (among Black girls only). The fictional drama depicted characters of diverse body sizes and race/ethnicities, with each episode focusing on a risk or protective factor for body image concerns among adolescent girls (e.g., appearance-related teasing and conversations). Participants (N = 686; 50.4 % Black, 49.6 % non-Black) aged 13-18 (Mage = 15.72 years) were randomly allocated to view either the first episode of this series (focused on social media's unrealistic appearance ideals and strategies to resist pressures) or a non-body-image-related control video. Findings revealed no significant differences in body satisfaction between conditions but significant improvements in the acceptance of appearance diversity among all girls who viewed the body image episode. Black girls who viewed this episode experienced significant improvements to appearance-related internalised racism. Edutainment micro-interventions constitute a promising avenue for promoting acceptance of appearance diversity and reducing appearance-related internalised racism.
This study examines (1) the cultural concepts of beauty, and (2) how children perceive the relationship between physical attractiveness, personality and friendship.
I provide novel evidence on the role of imperfect information in shaping childhood obesity. Between 2003 and 2017, 24 states began requiring schools to perform Body Mass Index assessments on students. Using the 1991 to 2017 National and State Youth Risk Behavior Surveys and a stacked difference‐in‐differences identification strategy, I show that these state‐mandated school‐based BMI assessments were associated with an increase in the likelihood that teens described themselves as overweight and reported that they were trying to lose weight. The relationship was most pronounced for overweight teens, suggesting that the assessments improved awareness about BMI status among this group, though I also find that non‐overweight teen girls were subsequently more likely to incorrectly describe themselves as overweight. While I do not detect meaningful changes in exercise or calorie‐limiting behaviors, I do find that these state‐mandated school‐based BMI assessments were associated with a modest reduction in BMI.
The habit to share edited pictures through social networks have been reported in young people and associated to psychological vulnerabilities. The research addresses the effects of the exposure to edited pictures on guilt, shame, social comparison tendencies, body image dissatisfaction. Moreover, the study assesses the mediating role of borderline organization on perceived identification and attractiveness in edited and original personal pictures. We asked seventy young women to rate perceived identification and attractiveness in their original and edited pictures. Subjects report higher identification in the original picture compared to the edited ones; attractiveness does not change between original and edited pictures, but high identification in edited ones negatively affects the score of attractiveness in original versions. They report negative associations between the level of identification and attractiveness in the original picture and dysphoria, guilt and body image. Identification and attractiveness in personal pictures are influenced by psychological vulnerabilities. Eventually, borderline organization features mediate the association between guilt and body image satisfaction with identification and attractiveness respectively. Furthermore, psychopathological features might affect individual self-perception and behavior in social network.
Adolescents with a history of childhood maltreatment are vulnerable to body dissatisfaction and associated psychopathology such as eating disorders. The aim of this study was to expand the understanding of the association between childhood maltreatment and body dissatisfaction in adolescents and young adults. In an epidemiological cohort study, N = 1,001 participants aged 14-21 years from Dresden, Germany, completed self-report measures on childhood maltreatment, body image, and self-esteem. Lifetime mental disorders were assessed in standardized clinical interviews. Data analyses included multiple regression and mediation analyses. More than one-third of the participants reported experiences of childhood maltreatment (37.4%), in which emotional neglect and abuse were the most frequent subtypes. Individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment showed significantly less satisfaction with their physical appearance than participants without such adverse experiences. In a single mediator model, self-esteem emerged as potential mediator in the association between child maltreatment and body (dis)satisfaction. Experiences of childhood maltreatment may be considered as risk factor for the development of body dissatisfaction in adolescents, and the role of potential mediator variables such as self-esteem warrants further prospective research.
Objectives:
The study aimed to determine the association of self-perceived and objective BMI and adiposity status among adolescents from Kraków (Poland).
Methods:
The study was carried out in 2022, in randomly selected schools in Kraków (Poland). The study group consisted of 93 individuals (47 girls and 46 boys) aged 11-15. Anthropometric characteristics included body height, body weight and body fat percentage (%BF), measured by bioimpedance method (BIA). Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated. Self-perceived body weight/adiposity status was obtained using a question extracted from the Polish version of the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC).
Results:
The results of the current study provide evidence that girls who were dissatisfied with their bodies thought they were too fat, while boys, on the contrary, thought they were too thin. Trends in this regard begin to appear in girls around the age of 11, while in boys at around 12/13.
Conclusion:
It is worth noting that the dissatisfaction of the examined children with their physique coincided with the onset of puberty. As some children begin puberty earlier than others, making them stand out from their peers. They begin to give more attention to their bodies and compare them with the physiques of others. Additionally, comparing one's body to the "ideal figure" depicted on social media and ones inability to obtain it also can lead to body dissatisfaction.
Introduction: Dysfunctional eating behaviors usually involve unhealthy eating patterns like: restrictive eating, uncontrolled/binge eating or emotional eating. The increasing prevalence of eating pathology, its high negative impact on the physical and mental health of the individual and the relatively low efficiency of the preventing and treatment programs indicate the need of a better understanding of this issue. Objective: This article aims at outlining an overall configuration of predisposing, triggering and maintaining factors of dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Methods: The method employed in elaborating this paper was a theoretical review of the available scientific literature presenting risk factors involved in the development and maintenance of dysfunctional eating behaviors. The paper focuses on and describes the most impacting factors. Results: The risk factors are presented taking into account the intrapersonal, interpersonal and socio-cultural areas of influence. The findings indicate that numerous and various factors play different roles in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology. Conclusions: Although many of the factors have not been tested through longitudinal design studies, the data offers a broad perspective on risk conditions of dysfunctional eating behaviors. The information provided in this paper does not only contribute to a better understanding of eating pathology, but it can also be used as a starting point in developing prevention programs for eating disorders.
In this Monograph, we report the follow-up of 570 adolescents who had been studied as preschoolers in one of two separate investigations of television use. The primary goal of the study was to determine the long-term relations between preschool television viewing and adolescent achievement, behavior, and attitudes. Using a telephone interview and high school transcripts, we assessed adolescent media use; grades in English, science, and math; leisure reading; creativity; aggression; participation in extracurricular activities; use of alcohol and cigarettes; and self-image. In each domain, we tested theories emphasizing the causal role of television content (e.g., social learning, information processing) as contrasted with those theories positing effects of television as a medium, irrespective of content (e.g., time displacement, pacing, interference with language).
The results provided much stronger support for content-based hypotheses than for theories emphasizing television as a medium; moreover, the patterns differed for boys and girls. Viewing educational programs as preschoolers was associated with higher grades, reading more books, placing more value on achievement, greater creativity, and less aggression. These associations were more consistent for boys than for girls. By contrast, the girls who were more frequent preschool viewers of violent programs had lower grades than those who were infrequent viewers. These associations held true after taking into account family background, other categories of preschool viewing, and adolescent media use. One hypothesis accounting for the sex differences is that early experiences, such as television viewing, have greater effects when they counteract normative developmental trends and predominant sex-typed socialization influences than when they reinforce them.
Adolescents in the study used both television and print media to support ongoing interests. Television content (e.g., entertainment, sports, or world events) predicted extracurricular activities, role models, and body image. The only evidence for possible effects of television as a medium was the positive relation of total viewing to obesity for girls.
The medium of television is not homogeneous or monolithic, and content viewed is more important than raw amount. The medium is not the message: The message is.
The aim of this study was to replicate survey research demonstrating a correlation between adults' thin-ideal media exposure and eating disorders (Harrison & Cantor, 1997) with a sample of 366 adolescents. Measures included interest in body-improvement media content, exposure to thin-ideal television and magazines, exposure to fat-character television, exposure to sports magazines, and eating-disorder symptomatology. Exposure to fat-character television, thin-ideal magazines, and sports magazines predicted eating-disorder symptomatology for females, especially older females. Exposure to fat-character television also predicted body dissatisfaction for younger males. Relationships remained significant when selective exposure based on interest in body-management content was controlled. Discussion centers on the importance of age and sex in moderating the effects of exposure to thin-ideal media on eating disorders.
Three hundred and eighty-five girls ages 10 through 14 years were surveyed about eating behavior, body satisfaction, concern with being slender, and cues from parents, peers, and magazines in regard to weight management techniques and the importance of slenderness. A majority reported receiving a clear message from fashion magazines and peers or family members that slenderness is important and attainable through dieting and other methods. Two strong correlates of drive for thinness and disturbed patterns of eating were (a) reading magazines that contain information and ideas about an attractive body shape and about weight management, and (b) weight/shape-related teasing and criticism by family. This study indicates that body dissatisfaction and weight concerns reflect adoption of a socially approved female role. It also raises the possibility that some young adolescent girls live in a subculture of intense weight and body-shape concern that places them at risk for disordered eating behavior:
The displacive ferroelectric Bi3TiNbO9 [M(r) = 911.7, orthorhombic, A2(1)am, a = 5.4398 (7), b = 5.3941 (7), c = 25.099 (5) angstrom, D(x) = 8.223 g cm-3, Z = 4, Mo K-alpha, lambda = 0.7107 angstrom, mu = 737.6 cm-1, F(000) = 1535.3] is described at room temperature as a commensurate modulation of an Fmmm parent structure. Displacive modes of F2mm, Amam and Abam symmetry are all substantial and reduce the symmetry to A2(1)am. A final value of 0.0295 for R1 = SIGMA-h\\F(obs)(h)\ - \F(calc)(h)\\/SIGMA-h\F(obs)(h)\ was obtained for the 1386 unmerged data used for refinement. The modes of Amam and Abam symmetry were essentially the same as in a previous refinement [Wolfe, Newnham, Smith & Kay (1971). Ferroelectrics, 3, 1-7], but the F2mm displacive mode associated with the ferroelectricity of the compound was substantially different and agreed with features of a recent re-refinement of Bi4Ti3O12[Rae, Thompson, Withers & Willis (1990). Acta Cryst. B46, 474-487].
Research has shown that exposure to thin-ideal media is related to eating disorder symptomatology, yet little is known about the processes underlying this relationship. Following self-discrepancy theory, it was predicted that body-specific self-discrepancies would mediate the relationship between thin-ideal media exposure and disordered eating. A sample of 366 male and female adolescents participated in two studies. The findings of the first study support the mediation prediction for thin-ideal television and ideal discrepancies. The findings of the second study demonstrate that exposure to a thin-rewarded portrayal activated ideal discrepancies, whereas exposure to a fat-punished portrayal activated ought discrepancies. Activation of both types of discrepancies is associated with an increase in negative affect whose chronic presence is predictive of disordered eating. Discussion focuses on the utility of self-discrepancy theory in synthesizing the growing collection of studies demonstrating individual differences in sensitivity to the adverse effects of exposure to thin-ideal media.
Investigated the relationships among magazine exposure, self-objectification, body shape dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptomatology in 150 men and women (aged 18-42 yrs). Women reading beauty magazines and men reading fitness magazines internalized societal ideals (internalization). For women, beauty magazines predicted self-objectification, mediated by internalization. For men, only internalization predicted self-objectification. For men, fitness magazines predicted body shape dissatisfaction, mediated by internalization. For women, only internalization predicted body shape dissatisfaction. Reading magazines also predicted eating problems for men and women, for women this was mediated by internalization. Findings suggest that magazine reading is related to concerns with physical appearance and eating behaviors. Many of the relationships previously found for women are similar for men. A sociocultural model is used to explain these results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
this chapter discusses some of the sociocultural aspects of body image / in order to understand some of the influences of culture on the formation and maintenance of body image, a discussion of attractiveness is essential / first, I review similarities and differences in standards of attractiveness for different cultures and trace Western cultural ideas through time / then I compare how various sociocultural subgroups such as sex, cultural group, and social class differ in and are affected by their perceptions of the cultural ideal / finally, I offer examples profoundly illustrating the extent to which individuals within a group will endure pain to achieve the "unnatural" cultural ideal (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors investigate the impact of advertising beauty images on female preadolescents and adolescents. An experiment using 4th, 8th, and 12th graders demonstrated that exposure to advertising with highly attractive models raises comparison standards for physical attractiveness, but does not affect self-perceptions of physical attractiveness. The findings also suggest that the tendency of female pre-adolescents and adolescents to compare themselves to models in ads increases with age, and this tendency is greater for those with lower self-perceptions of physical attractiveness and/or self-esteem. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Eating disorders appear to be more common among women than among men and more common now than they were in the past. Recent speculation has focused upon the role played by an unrealistically thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women in the promotion of these disorders. To demonstrate that this standard does play such a role, and to implicate the mass media in the promotion of this standard, it is first necessary to demonstrate that the current standard of attractiveness for women portrayed in the media is slimmer than that for men, that the portrayed standard is slimmer now than it has been in the past, and that these findings apply to many of the major media. The four studies presented here demonstrate that the current standard of attractiveness portrayed on television and in magazines is slimmer for women than for men and that the recent standard for women portrayed in magazines and in movies is slimmer than it was in the past.
Research has indicated female adolescents are more vulnerable to body image disturbance than male adolescents. However, scholars have begun to examine the increased emphasis on muscularity for men. The current supposition is that a drive to be muscular may be as dangerous for adolescent boys as a drive to be thin is for adolescent girls. Sports, health, and fitness magazines may be a meaningful training ground for adolescents to learn the importance of muscularity and the methods to obtain these perfect sports bodies. Magazines also reinforce the rewards that accompany the attainment of perfect bodies. Nearly 400 high school and college students from an urban area in the Midwest were surveyed to test the extent to which reading fashion, sports, and health/fitness magazines is related to body image and eating disturbances, including the added dimension of muscularity. Results indicate that magazine reading, social comparisons, and critical body image processing are important predictors of body image and eating disturbances for adolescent boys and girls.
The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, the model offered by Thomas Rochon is used to examine how ideas, activism, and changing American values have influenced advertiser practices as they relate to sexualized images of men in mainstream media. Previous research has highlighted the importance of economic shifts on advertiser practices, ignoring the importance of cultural factors, such as the influence of the gay liberation movement on representations of masculinity in the post 1960s era. Second, a quantitative analysis of sexualized depictions of masculinity is presented. These data suggest that men in contemporary advertisements increasingly display the visual cues of objectification. After positioning these sexualized images in a larger social, political, and economic context, the implications of male objectification is discussed.
Social comparison theory has evolved considerably since Festinger (1954) originally proposed it. This article integrates these changes with insights offered by recent social comparison studies and by research on social cognition and the self. Contrary to the original theory or subsequent research, (a) the individual is not always an unbiased self-evaluator but may seek many goals through social comparison; (b) the social environment may not be inactive but may impose unwanted comparisons; and (c) the comparison process involves more than selecting a comparison target: It is bidirectional, rather than unidirectional, and it may adopt a variety of forms to meet the individual's goals. Research involving comparisons of personal attributes illustrates these principles.
This article reviews theories that might explain how advertising causes dissatisfaction with the self. It is hypothesized that consumers compare themselves with idealized advertising images. Exposure to such images may change consumers comparison standards for what they desire or lower perceptions of their own performance on relevant dimensions; the result is lowered satisfaction. Explanatory and experimental research examined these hypotheses in the context of idealized images of physical attractiveness in ads targeted at young women. Evidence for comparison was found. Results suggest that idealized images raised comparison standards for attractiveness and lowered satisfaction with one's own attractiveness. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
To assess the influence of the media on girls' weight concerns, weight control/loss behaviors, and perceptions of body weight and shape.
Cross-sectional survey completed in school. The questionnaire assessed body weight, dissatisfaction with body weight and shape, exposure to fashion magazines, the impact of media on feelings about weight and shape, attributes of and preferences for body types, and whether subjects had gone on a diet to lose weight or initiated exercise because of an article in a magazine.
Mandatory physical education class in public elementary, junior high, and high schools.
Subjects included 548 5th- through 12th-grade girls in a working-class suburb in the northeastern United States.
Perceived influence of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction, idea of the perfect body shape, dieting to lose weight, and initiating an exercise program.
Pictures in magazines had a strong impact on girls' perceptions of their weight and shape. Of the girls, 69% reported that magazine pictures influence their idea of the perfect body shape, and 47% reported wanting to lose weight because of magazine pictures. There was a positive linear association between the frequency of reading women's magazines and the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight because of a magazine article, initiating an exercise program because of a magazine article, wanting to lose weight because of pictures in magazines, and feeling that pictures in magazines influence their idea of the perfect body shape. In multivariate logistic regression models controlling for weight status (overweight vs not overweight), school level (elementary vs junior high school, elementary vs high school), and race/ethnic group, girls who were frequent readers of fashion magazines were two to three times more likely than infrequent readers to diet to lose weight because of a magazine article (odds ratio [OR] = 2.11, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19-3.75); to exercise to lose weight because of a magazine article (OR = 3.02, 95% CI: 1.77-5.17); and to feel that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.81; 95% CI: 1.72-4.58). In addition, moderate-frequency readers were more likely than infrequent readers of fashion magazines to report exercising because of a magazine article (OR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.14-3.30) and feeling that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.03; 95% CI: 1.30-3.15).
The majority of the preadolescent and adolescent girls in this school-based study were unhappy with their body weight and shape. This discontentment was strongly related to the frequency of reading fashion magazines. Although previous studies have concluded that the print media promotes an unrealistically thin body ideal, which in turn is at least partially responsible for promoting eating disorders, the present study is the first that we are aware of to assess directly the impact of the print media on the weight and body shape beliefs of young girls. We observed that the frequency of reading fashion magazines was positively associated with the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight, having gone on a diet because of a magazine article, exercising to lose weight or improve body shape, and deciding to exercise because of a magazine article. Given the substantial health risk associated with overweight and the fact that during the past 2 decades the prevalence of overweight has increased sharply among children and adolescents, it is not prudent to suggest that overweight girls should accept their body shape and not be encouraged to lose weight. However, aspiring to look like underweight models may have deleterious psychological consequences. The results suggest that the print media aimed at young girls could serve a public health role by refraining from relying on models who are severely underweight and printing more articles on the benefits of physical
Comparison of objects, events, and situations is integral to judgment; comparisons of the self with other people comprise one of the building blocks of human conduct and experience. After four decades of research, the topic of social comparison is more popular than ever. In this timely handbook a distinguished roster of researchers and theoreticians describe where the field has been since its development in the early 1950s and where it is likely to go next.
Social comparison theory has evolved considerably since Festinger (1954) originally proposed it. This article integrates these changes with insights offered by recent social comparison studies and by research on social cognition and the self. Contrary to the original theory or subsequent research, (a) the individual is not always an unbiased self-evaluator but may seek many goals through social comparison; (b) the social environment may not be inactive but may impose unwanted comparisons; and (c) the comparison process involves more than selecting a comparison target: It is bidirectional, rather than unidirectional, and it may adopt a variety of forms to meet the individual's goals. Research involving comparisons of personal attributes illustrates these principles. The couples we knew were also aging.., and paid rising taxes and suffered automobile accidents and midnight illnesses and marital woe; but under the tireless supervision of gossip all misfortunes were compared, and confessed, and revealed as relative. (Updike, 1985, p. 48) Salieri, speaking of Mozart, in Amadeus: Tonight... stands a giggling child who can put on paper, without actually setting down his billiard cue, casual notes which turn my most considered ones into lifeless scratches... [That] ensured that I would know myself forever mediocre. (Shatfer, 1980, p. 61) An important source of knowledge about oneself is comparisons with other people. In 1954, Festinger proposed a theory of social comparison based on this insight. Although interest in the theory has waxed and waned since then (Goethals, 1986b), social comparison research has enjoyed a resurgence recently: Over 100 journal articles on social comparison have appeared since 1982, which is almost three times the number published in the theory's first 12 years (Radloff& Bard, 1966). Moreover, social comparison processes are central to other prominent theories in social psychology, including relative deprivation (Masters & Smith, 1987; Olson, Herman. & Zanna, 1986), Tesser's self-evaluation maintenance model (Tenet, 1986), and Tajfel and Turner's (1979) social identity theory of groups. Although social comparison theory was once dubbed "everybody's second-favorite theory in social psychology (but almost nobody's first)" (Arrowood, 1978, p. 491 ), the literature has never before had more vitality. These developments call for a reexamination of social comparison theory. For some time, researchers have operated under an understanding of social comparison that goes beyond Festinger's (1954) original theory and that in some ways contradicts
One hundred and thirty-nine women viewed television commercials that contained either Appearance-related commercials (demonstrating societally-endorsed images of thinness and attractiveness) or Non-Appearance-related advertisements. Pre-post measures of depression, anger, anxiety, and body dissatisfaction were examined. Participants were blocked by a median split on dispositional levels of body image disturbance and sociocultural attitudes regarding appearance. Individuals high on these measures became significantly more depressed following exposure to the Appearance videotape and significantly less depressed following a viewing of the Non-Appearance advertisements. In addition, individuals high on the level of sociocultural awareness/internalization became more angry and participants high on body image disturbance became more dissatisfied with their appearance following exposure to commercials illustrating thinness/attractiveness. Participants who scored below the median on dispositional levels of disturbance either improved or showed no change on dependent measures in both Appearance and Non-Appearance video conditions. The findings are discussed in light of factors that might moderate media-influenced perturbations in body image.
Heinberg and Thompson (1995) demonstrated that females exposed to a compilation of media images (commercials) reflecting the current societally sanctioned standards of thinness and attractiveness experienced greater mood and body image disturbance than females who viewed a neutral, nonappearance-related control video. Social comparison has been offered as one mechanism for the negative outcomes of such media-based exposures. In the current study, social comparison was manipulated by creating three instructional conditions: comparison, distraction, and neutral. Instructional set did not differentially affect recall of appearance or nonappearance aspects of either an appearance-related collection of commercials or a nonappearance video (e.g., Heinberg & Thompson, 1995). However, participants in the comparison condition self-reported a greater degree of self-to-model comparison than participants in the distraction of neutral conditions. A marginally significant three-way interaction between condition, tape, and time emerged for a measure of appearance dissatisfaction, suggesting that comparison participants' body images were more negatively affected than the other groups. Tape by Time interactions also emerged for measures of anger, anxiety, and depression, revealing that greater distress was associated with the viewing of media images reflecting the current societal bias towards thinness and attractiveness. Dispositional level of internalization of societal values regarding attractiveness moderated women's reactions to the two video presentations. The findings are discussed with regard to sociocultural models of body image and possible implications for interventions for appearance-related distress.
Authors in the field of eating disorders suggest that increasing preferences for thin body shapes in women may be related to recent increases in the prevalence of eating-related problems. Using a social comparison theory paradigm, this study looked at the impact of exposure to slides of thin, average, and oversize models on the self-evaluations of 162 women exhibiting varying levels of self-reported bulimic symptoms. Contrary to the author's expectations, exposure to thin models was related to lower self-evaluations regardless of level of bulimic symptoms. Women reporting high levels of bulimic symptoms did, however, report a greater amount of pressure to be thin coming from media, peers, and family than did women reporting lower levels of symptoms. Results suggest that media have an impact on women's self-evaluations regardless of their level of bulimic symptoms. Implications are discussed.
The impact of media images on adolescents' body image and thin ideal endorsement has been consistently asserted in the body image literature, yet has remained inadequately tested. I used social comparison theory and critical viewing with a sample of 214 high school girls to predict adolescents' body-image disturbance and thin ideal endorsement. Media variables accounted fr 15% of the variance for drive for thinness, 17% for body dissatisfaction, 16% for bulimic behaviors, and 33% for thin ideal endorsement. Results suggest that body image processing is the boy to understanding how television images affect adolescent girls' body-image attitudes and behaviors.
Proponents of sociocultural theory suggest that body dissatisfaction results from unrealistic ideals of attractiveness transmitted through the media. In the present experiment, 195 female and 206 male adolescents viewed 20 appearance-related or 20 nonappearance-related television commercials. The results showed that viewing appearance commercials led to increased schema activation, anger, and body dissatisfaction, as well as to decreased confidence in women compared to the viewing of nonappearance commercials. Schema activation was shown to partly mediate the effect of commercial viewing on appearance dissatisfaction. The level of appearance schema, an individual difference variable, moderated the effect of commercial viewing on body dissatisfaction. For men, viewing appearance commercials led to increased schema activation, although mood and body dissatisfaction were not affected. These results support the usefulness of self-schema theory in proposing schema activation as the underlying process by which the media can increase body dissatisfaction, and appearance schematicity as the explanation for why some individuals are more vulnerable than others to media effects.
It has been speculated that the prevalence of eating disorders in women has risen because of increases in women's body dissatisfaction. We conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in attractiveness and body image using 222 studies from the past 50 years. The analysis shows dramatic increases in the numbers of women among individuals who have poor body image. Moreover, these trends were found across multiple conceptualizations of body image, including self-judgments of physical attractiveness.
Men place more importance on the physical attractiveness of women than women do on the physical attractiveness of men. As a result, women's social opportunities are more affected by their physical beauty than are men's, so that women are under more pressure to conform to an ideal of beauty. Although standards of female beauty are not as arbitrary as is sometimes claimed, they do vary greatly over time and across cultures. Modern institutions of advertising, retailing, and entertainment now produce vivid notions of beauty that change from year to year, placing stress upon women to conform to the body image currently in vogue. The best known of these beauty standards are the “bosom mania” of the 1950s and 1960s and the current trend toward slenderization. As women attempt to adapt to each of these changes, a minority overadapt, sometimes to the point of incapacitation. Among these over‐adaptations have been hysteria, early in the century, which was an exaggeration of the fragile feminine ideal of that time; bosom anxieties of the 1950s and 1960s, when women worried if their breasts were sufficiently large; and anorexia and bulimia today.
Few studies have addressed the importance of media influence on persons who do not have an eating disorder. These persons are usually considered a control group. However, the influence of the media on non-eating-disordered females and males is a significant issue. The purpose of this study is to assess the immediate impact of very brief exposure to images taken from media on the self-consciousness and anxiety of male and female college students. There was a significant effect of looking at pictures of thin models on female participants only. In the group of college women who looked at pictures of thin female models, there were significantly higher levels of private self-consciousness, body competence, and state anxiety. For the male college students, there were no differences in self-consciousness or anxiety between those who looked at the pictures of thin male models and those who looked at control pictures.
Thisstudy aimed to investigate the role of social comparison processes in women's responses to images of thin-idealize d female beauty. A sample of 126 women viewed magazine advertisements containing full-body, body part, or product im- ages. Instructional set was also manipulated with three levels: control, appearance focus, and social comparison. Mood and body dissatisfaction were measured im- mediately before and after advertisement viewing, while state weight anxiety and the amount of appearance comparison engaged in were measured only after the advertisements. It was found that exposure to either body part or full body images led to increased negative mood and body dissatisfaction, while the amount of com- parison processing was affected by both image type and instructional set. Impor- tantly, regression analyses showed that the effects of image type on mood and body dissatisfaction were mediated by the amount of social comparison reported. It was concluded that the processing in which women engage in response to media images is an important contributor to negative effects. Sociocultural theory provides the most strongly supported theoretical account of the high levels of body image disturbance, body dissatisfac- tion, and disordered eating experienced by many women in Western so- cieties (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). This model maintains that current societal standards for beauty inordinately emphasize the desirability of thinness, and thinness at a level impossible for many women to achieve by healthy means. In fact, the gap between the average woman's body size and the ideal is now larger than ever be-
Although laboratory experiments indicate that brief exposure to thin models leads to acute body dissatisfaction and negative affect in women, research has not tested whether longer term exposure results in lasting effects. Accordingly, we randomly assigned 219 adolescent girls to a 15-month fashion magazine subscription or a no-subscription condition and followed them over time. Despite evidence that the experimental manipulation successfully increased exposure to the fashion magazine and the ample statistical power, there were no main effects of long-term exposure to thin images on thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect, or bulimic symptoms. However, there was evidence that vulnerable adolescents, characterized by initial elevations in perceived pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction and deficits in social support, were adversely affected by exposure to these images. Results suggest that exposure to thin-ideal images has lasting negative effects for vulnerable youth.
This study was designed to investigate the effects of viewing same-gender photographic models on women and men's body-esteem. Women and men completed body-esteem scales before and after viewing pictures of same-gender photographic models (experimental group) or landscapes (control group). Women scored significantly lower than men on the body-esteem scale [F(1, 90) = 58.5, p < .001]. Women [F(1, 90) = 8.70, p < .05] and men [F(1, 90) = 4.17, p < .05] in the experimental group showed a significant decrease in body-esteem after seeing the photographs and the controls showed no significant change [women F(1, 90) = 0.57; men F(1, 90) = 0.00]. Results suggest that upward comparisons are made by women and men when viewing attractive same-gender models.
Discusses the thesis that the male body ideal, and various pressures for men to conform to it, may be producing ill psychological and physical effects at the present time, effects that will increase because they reflect a historical trend. It is argued that the body plays a central role in men's self-esteem, and men are striving in growing numbers to achieve the male body ideal of muscular mesomorphy. This may have a profound impact on their psychological and physical health. The causes and consequences of bodily concern may represent a growing cultural trend, which is attributable to increased emphasis on self-determination of health and the ambiguity of current male and female sex roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews prevention outcome studies that are controlled and have a followup period. The implications of those studies are considered in light of mainstream prevention and health promotion research. Conclusions and recommendations are offered for developing a relational–ecological paradigm that incorporates the positive aspects of current curricular prevention programs while addressing their theoretical, empirical, and methodological limitations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based upon studies that have demonstrated that curvaceous women are rated as less competent and less intelligent than noncurvaceous women, it was hypothesized that during periods when the intelligence and professional competence of women are stressed, the standard of bodily attractiveness for women becomes noncurvaceous, and that women who are concerned about how intelligent they appear to be to others will adhere to a slim standard of bodily attractiveness for themselves. Using measures of variation in the standard of bodily attractiveness across time and across individuals, it was found that over the course of the twentieth century, when the proportion of American women working as professionals or graduating from college has increased, the standard of bodily attractiveness for women has become less curvaceous and that college women who report that their fathers did not believe them to be very intelligent tend to want to be slim.
Media images of stereotypically attractive women are often cited as contributory factors in body size distortion and body dissatisfaction. In fact, recent research suggests that acute exposure to such images may exacerbate body distortion in women with eating disorders. The present study examined the effects of acute exposure to images of stereotypical attraction (thin pictures) compared to images of overweight individuals (fat pictures) in both men and women. Twenty men and 20 women completed measures of body satisfaction before and after viewing images of either thin or overweight individuals matched for the subject's gender. The results suggested that subjects of both gender reported feeling less satisfied with their bodies as measured by rating scales (e.g. feeling fat, feeling attractive), body silhouettes and body size estimation, after viewing the thin pictures and showed improved body satisfaction after viewing the overweight pictures. The results also suggested that this response was greater in the female than in the male subjects for some of the measures (e.g. feeling fat, feeling toned) and was unrelated to levels of restrained eating. The results are discussed in terms of the role of the media in determining body image and the possible use of such images in clinical practice.
We hypothesized that the substantial difference in incidence of eating disorders between men and women would be correlated with a similar difference in sociocul-tural norms promoting thinness. The 10 popular magazines most commonly read by young men and young women were examined for advertisements and articles promoting weight loss or shape change. The women's magazines contained 10.5 times as many advertisements and articles promoting weight loss as the men's magazines (p <.005), the same ratio reported from several sources for cases of anorexia nervosa. Men, however, were disproportionately subjected to incentives to change body shape compared to weight loss (p <.01). This study supports the hypothesis that the comparative frequency of eating disorders in males vs. females is more closely related to the differing extent of gender-related reinforcement of related dieting behavior than any known biological parameter. It is plausible that a dose-response relationship exists between sociocultural reinforcements promoting thinness and the incidence of eating disorders in any particular population group.
Objective
To examine associations between puberty and disordered eating, body image, and other psychological variables.Method
Females were grouped into three categories of age at puberty onset (Study 1; N = 267) as well as three categories of self-perception of prepubertal weight (Study 2; N = 222). Participants in both studies were matched on current body mass index (BMI) across categories.ResultsFemales who perceived themselves to be overweight prior to puberty scored significantly higher on measures of disordered eating, body dissatisfaction, asceticism, drive for thinness, impulse regulation, interoceptive awareness, and perfectionism. They also perceived their current body figure to be larger when compared with those who believed they were average or underweight prior to puberty. Age at puberty onset was not significantly associated with disordered eating, body dissatisfaction, depression, or self-esteem. However, females who entered puberty at an earlier age scored higher on measures of asceticism, drive for thinness, impulse regulation, and social insecurity. They also chose a more slender ideal body figure than those who entered at an older age.DiscussionFemales who believe they are overweight prior to puberty may be at risk for the development of disordered eating, body image dissatisfaction, and related problems. Age at puberty onset is not a consistent risk factor of pathological eating. © 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 29: 187–194, 2001.
Attitudinal body image is a multidimensional construct that includes body-image evaluation, cognitive-behavioral investment, and affect. This study examined the nature and extent of gender differences in body-image attitudes. College students (n = 277) completed 2 standardized measures of each of the 3 facets of body image. As hypothesized, relative to men, women had more negative body-image evaluations, greater investments in their appearance, and more frequent, cross-situational body-image dysphoria. Gender differences on body-image affect (d= .76) surpassed those on evaluation (d = .51) and investment (d= .40). Body weight and body-image evaluation/affect were linearly related for women, but curvilinearly related for men. For both genders, body-image affect was a predictable function of evaluation and investment combined. Scientific and clinical implications are discussed.
Body dissatisfaction, a measure of body image, physical attractiveness, and body mass index were assessed in the same 115 participants at ages 13, 15, and 18 years. Sex differences in body dissatisfaction emerged between 13 and 15 years of age and were maintained at 18. Over adolescence, girls increased, while boys decreased, their body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction was weakly related to others' ratings of the adolescents' physical attractiveness and their body mass index. The results support the idea that, overall, adolescents' body image has little to do with how others perceive them, but once developed remains constant through much of adolescence.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of viewing televised images of female attractiveness on the body dissatisfaction of young adolescent girls and boys. Adolescents (160 females and 197 males) aged 13–15 years viewed either 20 commercials containing idealized female thin images or 20 nonappearance television commercials. Body dissatisfaction was measured before (Time 1), immediately following (Time 2), and 15 min after (Time 3) commercial viewing. Appearance-schema activation was assessed using a word-stem completion task. Girls, but not boys, who viewed the appearance commercials reported significantly higher body dissatisfaction at both Times 2 and 3 compared with the nonappearance condition. Participant age had no effect. Both girls and boys in the appearance condition reported greater schema activation, but appearance schematicity did not moderate the commercial effect. The results support the general hypothesis that televised images of attractiveness lead to increased body dissatisfaction and schema activation for girls as young as 13 years old.
The present study was designed to examine the role of gender traits, body mass index (BMI), and self-concept in predicting levels of problem eating and body dissatisfaction among both girls and boys aged between 8 and 10 (85% were Anglo-Australian Caucasian, 15% were Caucasians from non-English backgrounds). Two hundred and two children completed questionnaires, which examined problem-eating attitudes and behaviors, body dissatisfaction, gender traits, and self-concept. Children's height and weight were measured to determine children's BMI. Gender traits predicted problem eating for boys but not for girls. Self-concept was found to predict problem eating for both boys and girls. BMI was also a predictor of problems for girls. The only predictor of body dissatisfaction for boys and girls was BMI. The findings are discussed in light of previous research, which has been conducted, on adolescents. Further studies are needed to understand more fully the development of problem eating and body dissatisfaction before the onset of puberty and adolescence.
The Appearance Schemas Inventory (ASI) is a 14-item scale designed to assess core beliefs or assumptions about the importance, meaning, and effects of appearance in one's life. Reliability and validity was examined for a group of 274 female college students. The ASI is acceptably internally consistent, reasonably free of social desirability, and unaffected by subjects' body masses. The ASI also converges significantly and appropriately with a variety of measures of body image and psychosocial functioning, albeit more distinctively the former than the latter. Women seeking treatment for a negative body image had higher ASI scores than their peers. Factor analysis suggested three moderately interrelated components of the ASI—termed body-image vulnerability, self-investment, and appearance stereotyping. These findings and those of other recent studies attest to the ASI's potential utility in assessing body-image cognition among both nonclinical and body-dissatisfied populations.
Relations among body image satisfaction and social comparisons to either same-sex peers or media models were examined in 2 studies of adolescent boys and girls. In the first study, 9th and 10th graders described their conceptions of attractiveness for same- and opposite-sex adolescents. These attractiveness attributes were then used in Study 2 in which 7th- and 10th-grade boys and girls reported on social comparisons to models/celebrities and same-sex peers. Body dissatisfaction was also assessed. The results confirmed that both same-sex peers and models/celebrities were the targets of social comparisons for physical attributes, but comparisons on personal and social attributes were more likely directed toward same-sex peers. For boys and girls, weight comparisons to both peer and model targets were primary correlates of body dissatisfaction. In addition, shape comparisons reported by the girls and facial comparisons endorsed by the boys also related to body dissatisfaction. Gender differences in social comparison indicated that girls reported more social comparisons across targets and attributes. Results are discussed in terms of the role of social comparison and peer context for body image during adolescence.
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Eating disorders, though recognized for centuries, are increasing in prevalence. The increase in rate is particularly remarkable over the last 30-40 years. The article considers how social function stems from biological function and evolution, and how biological function may hamper social development to the detriment of individuals. Social and cultural influences relevant to this change are examined, especially the changing position of women within society as a whole and the multiplication of conflicting roles which women find themselves balancing. Reference is made to the representation of women in the arts and media. Reference is also made to the role of those external agencies which have historically controlled populations (both men and women), such as religious bodies and governments, but which to some extent have been rejected. Evidence from in-depth studies of women with eating disorders and from transcultural studies are included to support the authors' ideas.
FIELD, ALISON E, GRAHAM A COLDITZ, KAREN E PETERSON. Racial/ethnic and gender differences in concern with weight and in bulimic behaviors among adolescents.
This study examined cross-sectional gender and racial/ethnic differences in bulimic behaviors among adolescents. Subjects were 704 male and 621 female students at a large urban public high school in the Northeast. Approximately 61% of the girls and 43% of the boys reported trying to lose weight or maintain their current weight; 2.0% of the students reported using laxatives or vomiting to control their weight. The use of these behaviors to control weight was only slightly more common among girls than boys (2.7% vs. 1.4%,p=0.1). Although more black than white girls used laxatives or vomiting to control weight (odds ratio [OR]=11.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5–95.3), there were no racial/ethnic differences in these behaviors among boys. However, Hispanic boys were twice as likely as white boys to binge eat at least monthly (OR=2.0, 95% CI 1.1–3.6). Our results suggest that bulimic behaviors affect male and female adolescents from a variety of racial/ethnic backgrounds. In addition, in contrast to the large gender differences in the prevalence of dieting and binge eating, more modest differences were documented in the prevalence of using vomiting and laxatives to control weight.