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Inter-parental conflict and children's academic attainment: A longitudinal analysis
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
Abstract
Previous research suggests a link between inter-parental conflict and children's psychological development. Most studies, however, have tended to focus on two broad indices of children's psychological adaptation (internalizing symptoms and externalizing problems) in considering the effects of inter-parental conflict on children's development. The present longitudinal study extends this body of research by considering the impact of inter-parental conflict on children's low academic attainment among a sample of 230 schoolchildren (age 11-13 years) living in the United Kingdom.
Controlling for teacher reports of children's initial levels of aggression (Time 1), the proposed theoretical model linked parent and child reports of inter-parental conflict at Time 1 (1999) to children's perceptions of negative parent-child relations, appraisals of self-blame for marital conflict and teacher reports of children's aggressive behavior at Time 2 (2000), which in turn were linked to children's performance on standardized academic tests (English, Math, Science) at Time 3 (2001). Structural equation modeling was used to test all hypothesized relations in the proposed theoretical model.
Support was found for the role of children's self-blaming attributions for parents' marital arguments, not negative parenting behavior, as a mechanism through which variation in their academic attainment is explained.
Contrary to the focus emphasized in most current family and school-based intervention programs, findings suggest that the attributional processes engendered in children who live in households marked by high levels of inter-parental conflict and hostility have important implications for their long-term academic success.
... First, most of the previous literature is strongly characterized by studies based on data from the United States (e.g., Kouros et al., 2010;McCoy et al., 2013;Miga et al., 2012). Only few studies have documented the detrimental effects of family conflict in non-US contexts that range from various mental problems in adolescents in Hong Kong, Turkey and Egypt (Elemary et al., 2016;Koçak et al., 2017;Low, 2021), and lower self-control skills in Japanese children (Hosokawa & Katsura, 2017) to more internalizing and externalizing problems in children from Australia (Brummert Lennings & Bussey, 2017) and poorer academic performance in children from the UK (Harold et al., 2007), for example. ...
... The last contribution of this study is the use of child-reported measures. Many earlier investigations relied on parent-reported inter-parental conflict and parent-or teacher-reported child well-being (e.g., Brock & Kochanska, 2016;Gryczkowski et al., 2018;Harold et al., 2007), however, earlier studies have repeatedly demonstrated that parents' reports of their children's well-being are seldom congruent with children's self-evaluations, and that parent reports are prone to bias or misconceptions (e.g., Koskelainen et al., 2000;Seiffge-Krenke & Kollmar, 1998;Waters et al., 2003;White-Koning et al., 2007). A parent's perceptions have been shown to be influenced by their own experiences and feelings, which can lead to overly negative parent reports of children's well-being and behavior (Seiffge-Krenke & Kollmar, 1998;White-Koning et al., 2007). ...
... Finally, although some studies have examined the association between interparental conflict and children's social behavior and social well-being (e.g., Holmes et al., 2015;McCoy et al., 2009McCoy et al., , 2013Troxel & Matthews, 2004), the child's perspective has received less attention. By incorporating children's reports of interparental conflict and their self-reports of social well-being, the current study aimed to reduce possible biases compared to earlier analyses that only used reports from parents and teachers reports (e.g., Brock & Kochanska, 2016;Gryczkowski et al., 2018;Harold et al., 2007). In light of the existing empirical evidence that children perceive their well-being and family environments very differently from their parents and teachers, and that adults' reports are not always congruent with children's (e.g., Seiffge-Krenke & Kollmar, 1998;White-Koning et al., 2007), it is essential to consider children's self-reports when seeking to explain the effect of the frequency of inter-parental conflict on children's social well-being. ...
Inter-parental conflicts can have devastating effects on children’s well-being and social behavior. This study explores the association between an increased frequency of inter-parental conflict and peer problems and prosocial behavior in children, and whether parents’ emotional warmth and negative communication with their children mediates this association. Data for a total of 1,157 children between the ages of 7 and 16 (4,016 observations) was drawn from the eighth to the twelfth waves of the German Family Panel so as to perform fixed-effects regressions and mediation analyses. The analyses reveal that increased inter-parental conflict is strongly related to decreased emotional warmth and increased negative communication in parents, and to increased peer problems and decreased prosocial behavior in children. The results also suggest that the association between inter-parental conflict and children’s social well-being is mediated by the parenting behavior of mothers and fathers, indicating that increased inter-parental conflict leads to less warm parenting and more negative communication in parents, which ultimately reduces children’s social well-being.
... Disagreements and conflict between parents or caregivers are an expected part of family life, but frequent and intense conflict can be considerably stressful for children, posing risks to their physical and mental health [1][2][3][4][5][6]. ...
... The adverse effect of IPC on children's social, emotional, and behavioural functioning is well established [1][2][3][4][5][6]. A recent meta-analysis of 169 studies found that the relationships between IPC and children's internalising and externalising behaviours were associated with small-to-moderate effect sizes [10]. ...
... A recent meta-analysis of 169 studies found that the relationships between IPC and children's internalising and externalising behaviours were associated with small-to-moderate effect sizes [10]. Other studies have found that IPC is associated with low social competence [11], substance use in adolescence [6], low academic achievement [3], and poor physical health [12,13]. Although the vast majority of studies have examined the concurrent associations between IPC and children's outcomes, van Eldik and colleagues' [10] recent meta-analysis revealed that a growing number of longitudinal studies have identified enduring long-term effects on children's emotional-behavioural functioning. ...
Interparental conflict (IPC) has the potential to adversely affect children’s social, emotional, and behavioural functioning. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between both the severity and chronicity of IPC across early and middle childhood and children’s emotional–behavioural functioning at 10–11 years. Specifically, we aimed to: (1) identify distinct trajectories of IPC spanning 10–11 years since birth of the study child as reported by mothers, and (2) examine the emotional–behavioural functioning of children exposed to the identified IPC trajectories. Drawing from a nationally representative longitudinal study of Australian families (N = 4875), four distinct trajectories of IPC were identified: (1) consistently low exposure to IPC over time, (2) persistently elevated exposure to IPC, (3) increasing IPC exposure over time, and (4) decreasing IPC exposure over time. Children exposed to trajectories with high IPC at any point during the study period were reported by their mothers to be experiencing more emotional–behavioural difficulties than children exposed to low IPC over time. Based on teacher report, there were no differences in emotional–behavioural functioning of children exposed to the different patterns of IPC. Our findings reinforce that high parental conflict at any point in a child’s life is a form of adversity that can have adverse consequences for their mental health, and that early interventions for parents and caregivers experiencing high IPC are critical.
... Six other studies (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Huang & Mossige, 2012;Mathias et al., 1995;Peek-Asa et al., 2007;Thompson & Whimper, 2010;Voisin et al., 2011) were assessed to be of fair quality. Five other studies (Harold et al., 2007;Ho & Cheung, 2010;Hou et al., 2016;Jayasinghe et al., 2009;King & Mrug, 2016) were assessed to be of good quality. The main strengths across these 13 studies included clearly stating the research question or objective, specifying and defining the population of interest, methodically recruiting participants, using valid measures of the exposure, investigating different levels of the exposure in relation to the outcome, and accounting for confounding variables. ...
... The measures used in the studies are detailed in the ensuing sections and summarized in Table 3. Exposure to family violence was measured using either child reports (61.5%), parent reports (30.7%), or both (0.8%; Harold et al., 2007). Of the nine studies that used child reports of exposure to family violence, three (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007;Hou et al., 2016) used select items from the Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (Grych et al., 1992); however, Ghazarian and Buehler (2010) also used an author-developed item and select items from the Multidimensional Assessment of Interparental Conflict Scale (Tschann et al., 1999). ...
... parent reports (30.7%), or both (0.8%; Harold et al., 2007). Of the nine studies that used child reports of exposure to family violence, three (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007;Hou et al., 2016) used select items from the Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (Grych et al., 1992); however, Ghazarian and Buehler (2010) also used an author-developed item and select items from the Multidimensional Assessment of Interparental Conflict Scale (Tschann et al., 1999). One study (King & Mrug, 2016) used the Child Exposure to Domestic Violence Scale (Edleson et al., 2008), another study (Voisin et al., 2011) used select items from the Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979), and another study (Ho & Cheung, 2010) used the Multiple Forms of Violence Scale (Ho & Cheung, 2008). ...
Millions of children are exposed to family violence around the world; however, the effects on adolescent academic achievement are poorly understood. Using a systematic search and review methodology, we synthesized studies that quantitatively examined the effects of exposure to family violence on academic achievement among adolescents. We searched for peer-reviewed, English-language articles in nine online databases. Thirteen studies that examined adolescents were included, where family violence exposure was the independent variable and academic achievement was the dependent variable. Of those, nine studies identified significant, direct, and negative effects of family violence exposure on adolescent academic achievement, and a further two identified significant, indirect, and negative effects. We found reasonable evidence showing that adolescents’ academic achievement is negatively affected by exposure to family violence. Our review findings indicate the importance of implementing prevention strategies to reduce children’s exposure to family violence, and intervention for those who have been exposed to it. Future research should further examine the moderating and mediating mechanisms by which family violence exposure affects academic achievement.
... The study, however, explores overall conflict among younger children and its impact on their academic achievement. In research conducted by Kelly (2003) ; Harold, Aitken, and Shelton, (2007) there were important findings of children experiencing inter-parental conflict and its impact on their academic achievements. While college students were not the individuals observed in this survey, it can be linked to the current study as it observes an individual's negative impact. ...
... As the study findings showed that negative selfassessments could cause hostility among college students. This could create a domino impact leading to low academic adjustment levels (Harold et al., 2007). ...
This study aimed to investigate the impact of psychological distress on students
academic achievement at the university level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The study’s
objectives were (a) to find out the factors responsible for psychological distress (b)
to find out the academic achievement of university students (c) to examine the
impact of psychological distress on students academic achievement in public sector
universities of KP (d) to compare the impact of psychological distress on the
academic achievement of male and female students at the university level in KP and
(e) to compare the impact of psychological distress on students’ academic
achievement in different universities. The population of the study comprised of all
8,996 enrolled BS students in the 7th and 8th semesters. A multistage sampling
technique was used to select the sample respondents from universities. Data was
collected from 480 students of BS 7th and 8th semester through a questionnaire
consisted of 56 items covered in seven domains i-e, depression, generalized anxiety,
social anxiety, academic stress, eating concerns, hostility, drug addiction. For data
analysis, Mean score, standard deviation, and simple linear regression were used as
statistical techniques. Results revealed that academic stress as a psychological
distress factor is comparatively more affecting university students’ academic
achievement than other factors of psychological distress (depression, general
anxiety, social anxiety, eating concern, hostility, and drug addiction).
It was recommended that students be encouraged to participate in different
university social activities after consultation with the students’ counseling center.
Keywords: Psychological distress, Academic achievement,
... The important roles of family-related factors in adolescents' academic outcomes is well documented in empirical research (Dotterer, 2021;Escapa, 2017;Harold et al., 2007;Lansford, 2009;Lee et al., 2011). For example, parents' STEM involvement in 9th grade positively predicted adolescents' STEM efficacy in 11th grade (Dotterer, 2021). ...
... For example, parents' STEM involvement in 9th grade positively predicted adolescents' STEM efficacy in 11th grade (Dotterer, 2021). Many studies also suggested that negatively family-related factors (e.g., higher marital conflict, parental divorce, harsh parenting behaviors) may leads to worse academic outcomes (e.g., lower academic success, academic performance or adjustment) (Escapa, 2017;Harold et al., 2007;Lee et al., 2011;Ulrich & Petermann, 2017;Wang et al., 2018). ...
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) educators worldwide are concerned about how to engage sufficient students to choose STEM majors and careers. STEM self-efficacy was found to be critical in promoting an individual’s career choice in STEM. While the importance of family factors (coparental conflict) in learning has been increasingly emphasized, little empirical research has examined the effects of coparenting conflict on STEM self-efficacy among adolescents. Based on ecological and family system theories, this study aimed to examine the parallel mediation effect of implicit theories of intelligence and depression between conflict and Chinese adolescents’ STEM self-efficacy. In total, 443 Chinese tenth-grade students (209 males, 47.20%) completed an online survey. The model was investigated using a structural equation modelling approach with bootstrapping techniques (bootstrap replications: 5,000) using AMOS 23. The results indicated that the relationship between coparental conflict and adolescents’ STEM self-efficacy was not significant. The association between coparental conflict and STEM self-efficacy was fully mediated by depression. The mediating effect of implicit theories of intelligence was not significant. The results highlight the value of family factors, such as coparental conflict, in adolescents’ STEM self-efficacy and provide insight into the underlying process. The findings of this study may provide evidence for designing STEM education programs.
... Early cognitive development is linked to subsequent internalizing and externalizing problems (Ghassabian et al., 2014;Woltering, Lishak, Hodgson, Granic & Zelazo, 2016), and has been shown to predict subsequent academic development (Sasser, Bierman & Heinrichs, 2015). Academic development covers a range of academic outcomes, including academic attainment (i.e., grades achieved; Harold et al., 2007), classroom conduct (Erath & Bierman, 2006), attitudes towards school and performance (Chen, 2017), relationships with teachers (Burchinal, Peisner-Feinberg, Pianta & Howes, 2002), general school adjustment (Carbonneau, Boivin, Brendgen, Nagin & Tremblay, 2016;McCoy, George, Cummings & Davies, 2013) and ...
... Interparental conflict has been implicated in a range of outcomes in childhood and adolescence, including higher internalizing and externalizing problems (Beuhler et al., 1997;Cummings, Goeke-Morey & Papp, 2004), impeded social functioning (Finger et al., 2010;Kouros, Cummings & Davies, 2010) and lower academic performance (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007). Additionally, interparental conflict has been linked to sleep problems (Mannering et al., 2011), physical health problems (Stiles, 2002), and increased engagement in risky behaviors, such as early sexual activity and substance misuse (Repetti, Taylor & Seeman, 2002;Harold & Sellers, 2018). ...
This thesis aims to develop understanding of the relative role of mothers and fathers for children’s psychopathology, with a primary focus on interparental conflict, maternal and paternal parenting, and the coparenting relationship. This is among the only research to use a multimethod, multi-informant, longitudinal adoption-at-birth design to assess these processes from early-to-middle childhood. The present thesis analyzed data from the Early Growth and Development Study (EGDS; Leve et al., 2007), a US-based study developed to assess family processes and children’s development. The adoption-at-birth design allowed examination of environmental processes without the confound of common genes (Jaffee & Price, 2012). The present thesis examined N > 300 intact mothers and fathers and their children from 2.5 years to 6 years using observational and parent-reported data. Study 1 examined whether interparental conflict, maternal depression and paternal depression influenced child internalizing and externalizing problems via mother-child and father-child hostility. Study 2 examined the relative role of mother hostility, father hostility and coparenting as mediators in the relationship between interparental conflict and child internalizing and externalizing problems. Finally, study 3 examined whether distinct maternal and paternal parenting practices (hostility, harsh and inconsistent discipline, positive parenting) differentially mediated the relationship between interparental conflict and child internalizing and externalizing problems, and whether coparenting moderated these relationships. Each study also examined child-evoked effects on parenting and coparenting. Overall, findings showed interparental conflict to be important for child externalizing problems via father-child hostility, maternal and paternal parenting processes to be differentially related to child internalizing and externalizing problems, and early child behavior to evoke different parenting processes. Coparenting was not associated with parenting or child outcomes, nor did it moderate associations, highlighting the need for changes in conceptualization and measurement of the coparenting relationship. Findings are discussed with regards to policy and practice implications.
... Studies have demonstrated a link between marital conflict and children's behavior problems (Cummings, Goek-Morey & Paap, 2004;Sirvanli-Ozen, 2004). The evidence indicates that different types of marital conflict are associated with increased internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in children (Harold, Aitken & Shelton, 2007). Cummings et al. (2004) reveal that children who are exposed to high marital conflict in their families show higher levels of problematic behavior than those coming from families with no marital conflict. ...
... However, externalizing behaviors of children are more likely when a parent shows open marital conflict and anger whereas internalizing child behaviors can be associated with parents' avoidance and withdrawal. Furthermore, Harold, Aitken & Shelton (2007) state that marital conflict may also cause parents to distance themselves from their children or even reject them. This will result in children reacting with behavioral signs such as anxiety, depression and aggressive behavior. ...
The central aim of this study is to explore and examine the relationship between migration and marital conflict. In order to achieve the above objectives this paper reviews existing studies on migration and family conflict. Examining the existing literatures on the subject, it is evident that migration has the ability to shape and reshape family structures and relations hence leading to family and marital conflict if such transition is not sufficiently managed by the couple. Some scholars support the view that migration leads to marital conflict. They argue that the need to adapt to social and economic conditions in the host country, compounded by stress and isolation, has the potential of exerting pressure on the couple leading to conflict. Other scholars view migration as positive. They argue that migration can cause each member of the couple to see the other as one to rely on, fostering unity and solidarity between the partners. Where migrant couples are isolated from the extended family and other support networks, they compensate for this lack by increasing solidarity and interdependence within the nuclear family, according to a theory of substitutability of familial values and norms.
... For example, authoritative parenting and parental involvement are both associated with achievement in adolescence (Fan & Chen, 2001;Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, & Ritter, 1997;Hill et al., 2004;Turner et al., 2009). In addition, several studies have documented links between achievement in adolescence and family conflict (Bahrassa, Syed, Su, & Lee, 2011;Dotterer, Hoffman, Crouter, & McHale, 2008;Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Gordon, Aitken, & Shelton, 2007;King, 1998;Unger, McLeod, Brown, & Tressell, 2000). Youth from high conflict homes are two to four times more likely to have low grade point averages than their peers (King, 1998). ...
... Although the aforementioned research demonstrates that family conflict is associated with poor achievement in school, the majority of these studies have used cumulative measures of achievement, such as GPA and standardized test scores (Bahrassa et al., 2011;Dotterer et al., 2008;Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Gordon et al., 2007;King, 1998;Unger, et al., 2000). An alternative to these 'end products' is to use daily diaries to study the activities of youth on a daily basis, such as their daily homework and their involvement in school. ...
Research indicates that family conflict may interfere with adolescents’ achievement in school. To understand how family conflict may disrupt academic achievement, several researchers have examined spillover patterns using daily diary data. The current study expands on extant work by examining how conflict in specific family dyads is associated with daily negative mood and problems in school. Participants consisted of 106 adolescents who provided reports of mother-child conflict, father-child conflict, parent-parent conflict, negative mood, and school problems daily for 14 days. Both mother-child and father-child conflict were associated with same-day problems in school but parent-parent conflict was not. Results from a cross-lagged panel model indicated that the effects were bidirectional such that problems in school predicted next-day parent-child conflict and that parent-child conflict predicted next-day problems in school. Results also showed that negative mood (time t) mediated the relationship between parent-child conflict (time t) and next-day problems in school (time t + 1) and that negative mood (time t + 1) mediated the relationship between problems in school (time t) and next-day parent-child conflict (time t + 1). Mediation effects across a 3-day period were not significant. These findings suggest that parent-child conflict may impact negative mood, which could affect engagement in school and interfere with adolescents’ academic achievement.
... Positive parental interactions, which involve mutual respect and cooperation, are associated with higher self-esteem and better social competence (Pruett et al., 2004). In contrast, environments marked by frequent parental conflict may be correlated with suboptimal cognitive development by causing distraction and stress (Harold et al., 2007). The long-term effects of parental relationship quality are profound, with studies by Kelly and Emery (2003) indicating that children raised in healthy relational environments generally maintain better mental health and social skills into adulthood. ...
Background
This study examines the effects of joint physical custody (JPC) on the physical and mental health of children following divorce, using comprehensive survey data from Wisconsin.
Objective
Informed by Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model, the study seeks to understand the impact of custody arrangements on children’s health outcomes post-divorce. Prior research has suggested potential benefits of JPC, but there is a need for more robust analysis to control for selection biases and other confounding factors.
Method
The analytic sample is constructed to facilitate comparisons between mothers with shared versus sole placement. The parents in the Wisconsin data are included in the analytic sample based on survey measures reflecting the focal child’s actual placement arrangement at the time of the survey. The final data include 374 parents consisting of 170 sole-placement mothers and 204 shared placement mothers. This study employs robust probit regression models and Inverse Probability Weighting (IPW) to account for selection biases. Descriptive statistics and multivariate models are used to analyze survey data collected from Wisconsin. The analytic approach ensures methodological rigor by adjusting for potential confounders and providing a more accurate estimate of the relationships under investigation.
Results
The findings reveal that children in JPC arrangements exhibit significantly better mental health outcomes compared to those in sole custody. Specifically, 79.8% of children in JPC reported good mental health versus 67.9% in sole custody. Multivariate probit and IPW models corroborated these results. High-quality co-parenting relationships, more prevalent in JPC scenarios, were not clearly linked to these improved outcomes.
Conclusions
The study underscores the importance of nuanced policy approaches that consider individual family contexts and parental relationship quality. The findings raise questions concerning the need for interventions like co-parenting workshops to promote effective communication and collaboration between divorced parents. Further research is recommended to explore the long-term effects of custody arrangements on children’s well-being and to inform evidence-based policy decisions. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of how JPC and co-parenting quality influence children’s mental and physical health post-divorce.
... Research has also stressed the negative associations between interpersonal conflicts in families and children's outcomes in various domains. For instance, frequent conflicts between parents are associated with child behavioral problems (Xuan et al., 2018), emotional insecurity (O'Hara et al., 2023), or lower academic attainment (Harold et al., 2007). Hostile interparental conflict negatively affects various domains of child functioning, including externalizing problems (van Eldik et al., 2020). ...
Studies in the field of child welfare services have shown that children's externalizing problems are linked to the immediate social relationships in which they are embedded. However, most studies that examined this association focused on specific dyads or general social support, ignoring more diverse and complex patterns of relationships in which children are embedded. Therefore, this study used Social Network Analysis to analyze how compositional and structural properties of parents' personal networks predict externalizing problems of children in vulnerable family contexts. The sample consists of 70 parents who were enrolled in a home-based family intervention in Switzerland. A hierarchical cluster analysis revealed three clusters based on the network composition: mixed, child-oriented, and family of orientation. Child behavior problems were associated with the network clusters; school-related problems, on the other hand, were additionally linked with support density in the personal networks of parents. The results show that children in vulnerable families are embedded in diverse network compositions and relational structures, which influence their externalizing problems in different ways.
... Family harmony can easily be affected due to parental conflicts. Parental conflicts vary from mild to severe (Harold et al., 2007). In accounting for the relationship between marital relations and children's adjustment, researchers suggest that a relationship between spouses affects their children's adjustment directly through emotional stress levels, role modeling, and academic performance (Nicholas-Omoregbe, 2010). ...
This study assessed the effect of parents’ involvement on the academic performance of pupils among primary schools in Kabiira subcounty Mitooma district - Uganda. Particularly, the study examined factors such as: parents’ academic level, occupation, and their socio-economic level. The sample size was 60 pupils selected based on simple random sampling techniques. Data were collected using a questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS. The findings revealed that educated parents give more support for the academic achievement of pupils. That some occupations do not allow parents time to interact with their children. Parents with good income do not only support their children but also support school development programs. The study concluded that parental involvement was vital for the academic success of pupils. It is recommended that guidance sessions be organized for parents on the importance of their involvement in the education of their children.
... In addition to the parent-child relationship, the relationship between parents or caregivers can have a profound impact on children's upbringing and well-being (Cummings & Davies, 2011;Harold et al., 2007). A poor-quality parental relationship, such as one with high rates of marital conflict and stress, has been shown to have a more negative impact on child functioning than divorce (Buehler et al., 2007). ...
Child abuse is a pervasive, global problem impacting millions of children (Stoltenborgh et al., 2015). Researchers have largely relied on the use of parent-report questionnaires to examine a variety of risk factors for child abuse (see Azar, 2002; Stith et al., 2009), leaving a gap in the research regarding the link between observed parent and child behaviors and child abuse potential. Utilizing a sample of families clinically referred for child behavioral problems, the proposed study pursued a multi method approach to explore relations between parent factors (parent attachment, emotion regulation, harsh behaviors, and stress), child factors (child disruptive behaviors), and the potential for child abuse (assessed using the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory; BCAP; Ondersma et al., 2005). Forty-one parent-child dyads were referred to the Karitane Toddler Clinic, a mental health center near Sydney, Australia. Parents completed a series of questionnaires about themselves and their child and were also videotaped while interacting with their child in 3 play scenarios. Multiple regressions were conducted to examine parent- and child-level predictors of BCAP Abuse Risk scores. Parental romantic attachment anxiety was determined to be the only significant contributor of Abuse Risk score predictions. However, bivariate correlations demonstrated strong associations between Abuse Risk and parent emotion dysregulation and parental stress. Limitations of the study (e.g., small sample size, truncated range of Abuse Risk scores) and future directions are discussed.
... Vahedi et al. (2018) explained that work-life conflicts resulting in marital constrains and interparental conflicts increased the social media addiction among adolesents (Wang et al., 2021). However, Harold et al. (2007) explained that children in households with high inter-parental conflict and hostility develop attributional mechanisms impairing long-term academic success. Hwang et al. (2023) concluded that parenting styles and inter-parental conflicts were different in Korean, Chinese, and Asian students so their habits of social media addiction. ...
The current study investigated the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict and social media addiction among adolescents. The sample comprised 200 adolescents (calculated through online G. Power) studying in government and private colleges of Lahore city and is selected through purposive sampling technique. Their age ranges varied from 16-19 years (M age = 18.00, SD = 1.21), with 56 percent male and 44 percent female adolescents. A demographic information sheet, perceived inter-parental conflict scale, emotional intelligence scale, and social media addiction questionnaire were used to collect the data. Psychometric properties of the scales showed a good level of Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients.
... Por otro lado, se ha encontrado que los niños y adolescentes que viven en hogares que perciben como muy conflictivos ven comprometidos sus logros escolares (Lee, Beckert, Wu y Kuan, 2011) especialmente cuando se echan la culpa de la situación entre sus padres (Harold, Aitken y Shelton, 2007). No obstante, otro estudio reciente no ha encontrado que la auto-culpa medie los resultados escolares en jóvenes adolescentes (Stiffert, Schwarz, Stutuz, 2012). ...
Referencia: López Larrosa, S. y Sánchez Souto, V. (2013). Los conflictos entre los padres y su impacto en los hijos adolescentes. En M.C. Pérez Fuentes y M. M. Molero (Eds.), Variables psicológicas y educativas para la intervención en el ámbito escolar (pp. 77-80). Asociación Universitaria de Educación y Psicología.
... Numerous studies suggest that children and adolescents exposed to any kind of conflict within the family (Esfandyari et al., 2009) especially interparental conflict (Marcus et al., 2001) are more likely to present either internalizing (Hornor; or externalizing symptoms (Formoso et al., 2000) and problems with social interactions such as sibling and peer relationships (Buchanan & Heiges;Davies, Martin & Cicchetti;2012;Martínez-Pampliega et al., 2015;Morgado & González;Taylor et al., 2011) Therefore, children's perception of their parents' interparental conflict is related both to their individual adaptation and to the sibling relationships they establish (Davies & Cummings, 1994;Grych & Fincham, 1990). Literature has consistently demonstrated that interparental conflict has a direct effect on children's psychological and behavioral wellbeing, manifesting as aggressive behavior, poorer academic achievement, worse quality of life (Amato 2010;Harold et al., 2007;Pedro-Carroll, 2010), higher levels of depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal (Martínez-Pampliega et al., 2015), and changes in relationships with parents, siblings, or friends (Grych, 2005a). ...
The main goal of this study is to analyze the generalization effect of interparental conflict in sibling relationships and child adaptation. A Spanish sample made up of 100 children, aged between 7 and 18 years, was used. Interparental conflict was the independent variable, and child maladaptation the dependent variable, whereas sibling relationship and parenting style were the mediating variables. Extraversion was controlled as a covariate. Variables were measured through self-report questionnaires. The mediation model was supported. Results showed that more restrictive parental styles and a decrease of positive sibling exchanges were both associated with child maladaptation, which revealed this generalization process. The relation of these results with previous literature and future implications are discussed.
... They assert that skilled managers are essential indicators in the improvement of diverse types of dynamic capability. Harold et al. (2007) believe that one of the principal factors of the administration function is the improvement of dynamic corporational capabilities. They argue that managers should be capable of carrying out tasks: first, they should be capable of well-recognizing modifications of their competitive environment, which include ability modifications in technology, competition, customers, and rules, and second, they should be capable of taking some measurement opposed to them. ...
Today, rapidly changing environmental conditions have necessitated the emergence of new and dynamic working groups that can adapt to these new conditions and the emergence of new leadership types that will guide these groups. In this research, it is aimed to examine all aspects of transformational leadership and dynamic capabilities and the effect of fulfilling these concepts on businesses. This research shows the relationship between the transformational leadership and the dynamic capabilities of the organization and explores their direct or indirect effects on the organizational performance. The research draws on recent leadership literature and examines the methods, data, and research resources used in the relationship between the transformational leadership and the dynamic capabilities in the businesses. The data used in this research are the results of studies conducted by various researchers and authors in the last thirty years. The findings of the research has shown that the behavior of transformational leaders can enhance the dynamic capabilities of employees and encourage innovation. From the findings of the research, it is seen that the characteristics of the transformational leaders inspire the creation of the dynamic capabilities and develop the necessary personal approaches for the dynamic capabilities. In this context, it is expected that the transformational leadership functions of the top manager and the organizational structure will greatly affect the measurement dynamics
... The spillover effect of destructive IPC is also evident in middle childhood and later stages of development, but again with mixed support for the fathering vulnerability hypothesis. For example, destructive IPC has shown to be associated with negative parenting (Harold et al., 2007), including ineffective parenting (Kaczynski et al., 2006;Keller et al., 2005), parents' emotional unavailability (Sturge-Apple et al., 2008), unsupportive reactions (Warmuth et al., 2020), harsh and intrusive parenting behaviors (Buehler et al., 2006), but with mixed support for psychological control, a parenting behavior that undermines child's autonomy (Doyle & Markiewicz, 2005;McCoy et al., 2013;Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007;Warmuth et al., 2020). In relation to positive aspects of parental control, destructive IPC has shown to be related to less behavioral (or firm) control (Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007), less parental monitoring (Krishnakumar et al., 2003), less parental acceptance (Buehler et al., 2006), and fathers' inconsistent discipline (Buehler et al., 2006;McCoy et al., 2013). ...
This conceptual review summarizes two decades of research on conflict management behaviors and their implications for family functioning. We review the accumulated research on the impact of three common conflict resolution strategies – destructive interparental conflict, constructive interparental conflict, and intimate partner violence – on parenting and parent–child relationships, including child abuse. Our review is based on published peer‐reviewed articles that include families with minor children of various ethnic and racial compositions and diverse family forms. We also provide a brief overview of the literature covering correlates of specific conflict management behaviors and comment on the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of intervention programs that focus on improving family well‐being. We conclude with suggestions for future research.
... Exposure to severe physical and/or sexual domestic violence has been shown to be associated with problems in school (repetition, dropping out or discontinuation of studies), behaviour (nightmares, running away from home, thumb sucking), and aggression (Durand, Schraiber, Franca-Junior, & Barros, 2011). However, although troubled family relationships potentially trigger psychological and cognitive disorders that can affect school performance, research findings in the literature point that domestic violence alone does not negatively affect the school performance of children exposed to it (Brancalhone et al., 2004;Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Harold, Aitken, & Shelton, 2007). Therefore, the available data are inconclusive about the relationship between domestic violence against women and its possible effects on children's academic achievement. ...
We investigated if domestic violence affects the school performance of children who witness episodes of violence against their mothers. The data were collected through documentary research, analysing the information recorded in the files of the Center for Reference and Attendance to Women (CRAM, in Portuguese) and the Municipal Department of Education (SME). The records of 20 children regularly enrolled in public elementary schools were used, whose mothers sought the services of CRAM. The dependent variable was school grades, analysed according to a repeated measures design: during the occurrence of episodes of domestic violence and after these episodes had ceased. School attendance, family socioeconomic level, and mothers' education were analysed as well. The results showed that students had lower school performance after the cessation of the episodes of violence. No effects of other variables were observed. Factors related to the phenomenon are discussed as possible causes: separation from the father, change of address, change of custody, and others. Considering that the sample in this study was composed of students from low-income families, the results point to a kind of "Matthew effect", that is, a relationship between violence, poverty, and ignorance, forming a cycle that is very difficult to break.
... The Healthy Relationships curriculum is based on much research indicating that a healthy, committed relationship can positively influence mental and physical health for both parents and children (Butler, 1999;Harold, Aitken, & Shelton, 2007;Whisman, Uebelacker, & Settles, 2010). Conflicts and violence are prevalent among families in the United States, especially those with children or limited resources (Cox, Kotch, & Everson, 2003;Niolon et al., 2009). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine differences in knowledge gain by curriculum delivery platform for participants receiving a community-based healthy relationships curriculum for a vulnerable population with limited income and education. Using data gathered from 613 participants gathered in 2019–2020, those who received in-person training (n = 440) were compared to those who received synchronous virtual training (n = 173) on curriculum knowledge. Results indicate that in-person participants had statistically significantly higher gains in knowledge at posttest compared to the participants who received synchronous virtual training. The differences in knowledge gain were not accounted for by the demographics of the two groups. Implications include consideration of adaptations in virtual delivery that may close the gap between in-person and synchronous virtual training such as instruction techniques, presentation style, content and materials, and participant preparation.
... The study of the long-term effects of interparental relationship quality has been the subject of significant interest in family research (Chang, 2018;Harold & Leve, 2018;Lau & Bradshaw, 2018). Notably, exposure to high levels of interparental conflict is known to affect a host of child outcomes (Esmaeilian-Ardesntani et al., 2019), such as academic attainment (Harold et al., 2007), emotional wellbeing and security Jekielek, 1998), school belonging , sleep quality (El-Sheikh et al., 2006), and mental health problems (Asanjarani & Asgari, 2020;Sandler et al., 2008). In one longitudinal study with U.S. families, Cummings et al. (2012) found that interparental conflict during early childhood was associated with behavior problems in adolescence via emotional insecurity about the quality of interparental relationship in the early school age years. ...
Although a considerable body of research has indicated that interparental conflict and divorce are risk factors for adolescents’ adjustment problems, few studies have examined the implications for adolescent adjustment in Iranian society. In the US, emotional insecurity, which describes children’s feelings of vulnerability within the family, and parents’ depressive symptoms, have been identified as possible explanatory processes for why interparental conflict is related to adolescents’ adjustment problems. However, these relations have not been investigated in Iran, including among divorced as well as intact families. Incorporating multiple family processes (i.e., emotional security, parental depressive symptoms), in this quasi-experimental exploratory descriptive study, we examined these relations based on a sample of 144 parent-adolescent dyads, 69 of which were from divorced families, in Iran. Parents rated adolescents’ exposure to conflict and reported their own levels of depressive symptoms. Adolescents rated their behavioral adjustment and reported their emotional security in their parents’ relationship. Based on moderated mediation analyses, we found that parents’ depressive symptoms mediated the pathway between interparental conflict and adolescents’ adjustment, specifically for divorced families in our Iranian sample. Our findings highlight the importance of investigating between family functioning and adolescent adjustment in multiple societal contexts.
... In fact, in high-conflict families, children have higher levels of well-being as young adults if their parents divorced than if they stayed together (Amato et al., 1995). Importantly, children in high-level conflict families perform worse in school compared to peers in low-conflict families (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007;Unger et al., 2000). One reason for this is that parental conflict may disrupt the parent-child relationship. ...
Objectives
Children in child welfare services have a higher risk of becoming marginalized as they grow up to be young adults. An important protective factor against later marginalization is academic achievement. Unfortunately, studies show that children who receive support from child welfare services have poorer academic achievement. Most research focuses on children in out-of-home care and on performance in secondary school or school completion rate, while few studies focus on children receiving home-based support from child welfare services and their performance in primary school. Recipients of home-based support is the largest group of children receiving help from the child welfare services, and knowledge on whether this group of children are struggling in the early stages of their education is necessary for knowing when to intervene.
Method
The sample included 104 families of children in primary school (ages 5-13) who received home-based support from child welfare services. Math and reading tests were administered to the children (n = 103). In addition, the children, one of the children’s parents (n = 104) , and the children’s teacher (n = 61) completed a questionnaire, including a measure of the child’s mental health (the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire) and social skills (Social Skills Rating System).
Findings
Descriptive analyses showed that on average, the children scored below the 30th percentile on the math test and below the 40th percentile on the reading test. Moreover, fewer than half of the children at risk of academic difficulties received help from the pedagogical psychological services. Multivariable linear regression analyses showed that parental income was associated with children’s math achievements, while parental education was associated with children’s reading abilities. Parents marital status was negatively associated with children’s reading abilities. Children with higher parent- and teacher-reported externalizing difficulties had lower math and reading achievements, while we found no association with social skills.
Conclusion
The primary school children who receive home-based support from child welfare services had average scores that indicates increased risk for academic difficulties. Moreover, an intervention is highly needed, as fewer than half of the children at risk of academic difficulties received help from the pedagogical psychological services. The results show some important predictors of academic achievement in this population: parental income, education, and marital status as well as the children’s externalizing difficulties.
... competence skills while interacting with family and friends (Du Rocher et al., 2004); low academic achievements (Harold et al., 2007) and physiological reactivity in form of disrupted sleep patterns (El-Sheikh et al., 2007), greater exposure to stress and drastic change in the parent-child interactions. ...
The study aimed to develop a culturally relevant scale to assess the perceived inter-parental conflicts in adolescents by using a mixed-method approach. Semi-structured in-depth interviews with 10 adolescents of age range 14-18 years were conducted along with 3 focus groups of parents and teachers that helped to generate a pool of 88 items. Construct validity and psychometric properties were determined on a sample of 500 adolescent with age range 14-18 years (M = 15.28, SD = 1.07). Principal axis factoring through direct oblimin rotation method postulated 60 items with six distinct factors (named as overt conflicts, familial conflicts, conflicts related emotional reactivity, financial conflicts, child related conflicts, and psychological conflicts) that accounted for 38% variance. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for total scale was .94 and ranged from .63 to .92 for six emerged factors. The convergent and discriminant validity of the scale was also satisfactory. Perceived Inter-Parental Conflict Scale for Adolescents (PIPCSA) was a reliable and valid measure to assess perceived inter-parental conflicts in adolescents.
... The couple relationship also has strong links to child outcomes (Cowan and Cowan, 2002;Harold and Leve, 2012). For example, relationship discord in parents has been associated with, poor child adjustment (Hanington et al., 2012), anxiety and depression (Yap et al., 2014), aggression (Cowan and Cowan, 2002), poor academic attainment (Harold et al., 2007) and behavioral issues (Linville et al., 2010). Having a positive couple relationship has also been linked to more responsive parenting (Ponnet et al., 2013). ...
The period of infancy and early childhood is a critical time for interventions to prevent future mental health problems. The first signs of mental health difficulties can be manifest in infancy, emphasizing the importance of understanding and identifying both protective and risk factors in pregnancy and the early postnatal period. Parents are at a higher risk of developing mental health problems during the perinatal period. An understanding of the evidence around prevention and intervention for parental anxiety and depression is vital to the process of prevention of early mental health disorders in infants and young children. Here we review the existing prevention and treatment interventions in the early years focusing on the period from conception to 3 years – the majority targeting parents in order to improve their mental health, and that of their infants. Elements of successful programs for parents include psychoeducation and practical skills training, as well as work on the co-parenting relationship, developing secure attachment, and enhancing parental reflective functioning. While both targeted and universal programs have produced strong effect sizes, universal programs have the added benefit of reaching people who may otherwise not have sought treatment. In synthesizing this information, our goal is to inform the development of integrated models for prevention and novel early intervention programs as early in life as possible.
... Empirical research has demonstrated that adolescents living in families with high levels of hostility and conflicts between parents exhibit problems in physiological, psychological, and social domains. These include externalizing and internalizing problems (Harold et al., 2012;Li et al., 2018;Lucas-Thompson et al., 2020;Luningham et al., 2021), problems with school work (Harold et al., 2007;Lui et al., 2019), problems with social relationships such as romantic relationships (Kinsfogel & Grych, 2004;Li et al., 2020;Smith-Etxeberria et al., 2020;Steinberg et al., 2006), problematic internet use (He et al., 2021;Yang et al., 2016), and physical health problems (Hair et al., 2009;Jun et al., 2012;Stiles, 2002). In Hong Kong and China, marital conflicts and divorce have been increasing in recent years (Census and Statistics Department, HKSAR, 2018), which implies more adolescents are suffering from the negative consequences of interparental conflicts. ...
Interparental conflicts have long been recognized as a risk factor for maladjustment in adolescents. Many studies have been conducted to examine mediators that account for the negative effects of interparental conflicts on adolescents’ adjustment, well-being, and development. However, locus of control, which is about the extent to which people believe life events and outcomes are attributed to personal and/or non-personal factors, has not been examined as a mediator in this association. Hence, this study aimed to fill this research gap and tested the mediating role of locus of control in the association between interparental conflicts and adjustment of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. A total of 366 senior secondary school students in Hong Kong participated in the study and 353 of them provided complete data for analyses. They completed a set of questionnaires about their perceptions of interparental conflicts, locus of control, and adjustment and well-being. Results indicated that the associations between interparental conflicts and adolescents’ adjustment (measured by subjective happiness, life satisfaction, negative mood, and problem-focused coping) were significantly mediated by locus of control. A higher level of interparental conflicts was related to a lower sense of personal control in adolescents which in turn was associated with worse adjustment and well-being. Implications regarding the role locus of control can play in intervention programs are discussed.
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... [4] Additional research indicates that exposure to this form of discord can manifest itself in several ways including increased anxiety, depression, aggression, hostility, antisocial behavior, and criminality as well as deficits in academic attainment. [5] An enormous amount of research has been conducted to investigate the specific areas of children's lives that are profoundly affected by such ongoing parental conflict. The effects that ongoing parental conflict has on modeling behavior for children, children's feelings of safety, the parent-child relationship, mental health and attachment, the child's behavior, social relationships, academic performance, and cognition. ...
Background: Confl ict within home has been found to have a negative effect on many aspects of children's functioning. The incident rate of abnormal behavior and poor scholastic performance is high among the children with confl ict in their family. Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of planned teaching program in terms of gain in knowledge of mothers regarding effects of family confl icts on children. Materials and Methods: This study involved pre-experimental one group pretest and post-test design. A sample of 50 mothers was selected by non-probability purposive sampling technique in the Talapady area. Structured knowledge questionnaire was used to assess the pretest and post-test knowledge. Results: Regarding effectiveness of teaching program, the overall mean percentage of knowledge score was 46.25% in the pre-test and 80% in the post-test. The enhancement in the mean percentage knowledge score was found to be signifi cant. Discussion: Research conducted in this area suggested that confl ict between parents is a consistent predictor for increasing anxiety in children, which needs to be prevented by educating the parents.
... The mediating role of appraisals linking IPC and youth maladjustment is well-established (e.g., Fosco & Feinberg, 2015;Gerard et al., 2005;Grych et al., 2003). Other studies link IPC appraisals with adolescence-salient outcomes, such as: substance use Tschann et al., 2002), social anxiety and poor peer relationships , and poor academic outcomes (Fosco & Bray, 2016;Harold et al., 2007). ...
Adolescent appraisals of interparental conflict (IPC)-perceiving IPC as threatening to their well-being or that of the family, and self-blaming attributions-are well-established processes through which IPC confers risk for developmental disruptions and psychopathology. Recent work documents intraindividual change in IPC and appraisals that occur on a daily timescale. However, considerably less is known about how the broader family context may temper appraisals of IPC. This study provides a novel examination of the implications of distal (global ratings of family relationships in general) and proximal (fluctuations in daily family relationships) family context (family cohesion, parent-adolescent closeness, and parent-adolescent conflict) for adolescents' propensity to form negative appraisals of daily IPC. This sample included 144 adolescents (63% female) in two-parent families, who participated in a 21-day daily diary study. Findings indicate that intraindividual variability in adolescents' perception of family cohesion, parent-adolescent closeness, and parent-adolescent conflict all correspond to adolescent appraisals of IPC through direct relations and moderating effects. Unique patterns emerged for boys and girls, suggesting gender differences in how adolescents incorporate the family context into their appraisals of IPC. This study expands our awareness of the importance of daily fluctuations in family relationships for adolescent risk during exposure to IPC. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Rohenkohl and Castro (2012) found that children of couples with a high level of conflict and low affection tend to have more behavioral and emotional problems compared to children from families whose parents have fewer conflicts and are more affectionate. Although the adversities of the family potentially trigger psychological and cognitive disorders that can affect school performance, on the other hand there are researches whose results (Brancalhone et al., 2004;Ghazarian and Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007;) show that domestic violence solely did not affect adversely the school performance of children exposed to it. ...
"This research addressed the issue of domestic violence investigating whether and how it affects the school performance of the child who witnesses episodes of violence against the mother in the home. Personal characteristics and other environments in which these children and adolescents are inserted in, such as family, school and community interact with each other and can influence their school performance. Because the school is the second most common space for children, it is in it where family environment is expressed. The main objective of this study was to analyze whether and how domestic violence experienced by children affects their school performance. The data were collected throughout documentary research, one analyzing the information recorded in the files of the Reference and Service Center for Women (CRAM in Portuguese) and the Municipal Education Secretariat (SME). Records were selected from 20 children regularly enrolled in elementary public schools, whose mothers sought the services of CRAM. The dependent variable was school grades, which were analyzed according to a repeated measures design: during the occurrence of domestic violence episodes and after these episodes have ceased. Analyzes were also conducted with the aim of verifying possible effects of other variables, such as school attendance, family socioeconomic status and mothers education level. The results showed that the students had lower school performance after the end of the episodes of violence. No effects of other variables were observed. Factors related to the phenomenon are discussed as possible causes: separation from the father, change of address, custody’s change and others. Considering that the casuistry of this study was composed of students from low-income families, the results point to a kind of ""Matthew effect"", that is, a relationship between violence, poverty and ignorance in which everyone feeds each other forming a cycle quite hard to break. Therefore, it is necessary that public policies be formulated in the scope of education so that students who experience domestic violence receive specialized attention aiming at realizing their learning potential."
... Rohenkohl and Castro (2012) found that children of couples with a high level of conflict and low affection tend to have more behavioral and emotional problems compared to children from families whose parents have fewer conflicts and are more affectionate. Although the adversities of the family potentially trigger psychological and cognitive disorders that can affect school performance, on the other hand there are researches whose results (Brancalhone et al., 2004;Ghazarian and Buehler, 2010;Harold et al., 2007;) show that domestic violence solely did not affect adversely the school performance of children exposed to it. ...
This research addressed the issue of domestic violence investigating whether and how it affects the school performance of the child who witnesses episodes of violence against the mother in the home. Personal characteristics and other environments in which these children and adolescents are inserted in, such as family, school and community interact with each other and can influence their school performance. Because the school is the second most common space for children, it is in it where family environment is expressed. The main objective of this study was to analyze whether and how domestic violence experienced by children affects their school performance. The data were collected throughout documentary research, one analyzing the information recorded in the files of the Reference and Service Center for Women (CRAM in Portuguese) and the Municipal Education Secretariat (SME). Records were selected from 20 children regularly enrolled in elementary public schools, whose mothers sought the services of CRAM. The dependent variable was school grades, which were analyzed according to a repeated measures design: during the occurrence of domestic violence episodes and after these episodes have ceased. Analyzes were also conducted with the aim of verifying possible effects of other variables, such as school attendance, family socioeconomic status and mothers education level. The results showed that the students had lower school performance after the end of the episodes of violence. No effects of
other variables were observed. Factors related to the phenomenon are discussed as possible causes: separation from the father, change of address, custody’s change and others. Considering that the casuistry
of this study was composed of students from low-income families, the results point to a kind of "Matthew effect", that is, a relationship between violence, poverty and ignorance in which everyone feeds each other forming a cycle quite hard to break. Therefore, it is necessary that public policies be formulated in the scope of education so that students who experience domestic violence receive specialized attention aiming at realizing their learning potential.
... As already outlined, exposure to frequent, intense, and poorly resolved interparental conflict has been associated with a number of indices of child maladjustment, including increased anxiety, depression, aggression, hostility, antisocial behaviour, and criminality as well as deficits in academic attainment (Harold, Aitken & Shelton, 2007). The processes through which interparental conflict has been shown to exert these effects on children involve (1) disruptions in the parent-child relationship and (2) the negative emotions, cognitions, and representations of family relationships engendered in children as a result of exposure to conflict. ...
... Ao longo dos anos, múltiplos autores destacaram o papel crucial do funcionamento da família em predizer os sintomas afetivos e comportamentais das crianças, bem como a sua relação com os comportamentos internalizantes e externalizantes manifestados pelas crianças (e.g., Campbell, 1995;Davies et al., 2016;Eisenberg et al., 2001;Harold, Aitken, & Shelton, 2007;Lucia & Breslau, 2006;Miller-Lewis et al., 2006). Por exemplo, de acordo com diversos estudos longitudinais, quando as crianças são expostas ao conflito parental, as evidências postulam que estas têm sentimentos de angústia extremos e que, quando este conflito é contínuo e a dificuldade conjugal aumenta, também é mais elevada a probabilidade de estas terem interações hostis e agressivas para com os irmãos e com os pares (Cummings & Davies, 2002;Davies & Cummings, 2006) e de manifestarem outros comportamentos problemáticos (Davies et al., 2016;Sturge-Apple, Skibo, & Davies, 2012). ...
Introdução: A instabilidade vivenciada pela criança nos primeiros 5 anos de vida tem um impacto preponderante no seu ajustamento emocional e comportamental, contribuindo para o desenvolvimento de sintomas externalizantes e internalizantes. Entender a qualidade do funcionamento da família e das relações entre pais e filhos é essencial para potenciar o melhor desenvolvimento da criança.
Objetivos: Investigar como o funcionamento familiar, os estilos educativos parentais, a vivência de experiências de (in)validação emocional na família e o coping com expressão de emoções positivas/negativas da criança se relacionam com o seu comportamento. Pretende-se, ainda, verificar se existem diferenças nos estilos educativos parentais, no coping com emoções positivas/negativas e no comportamento da criança em função do nível de (in)validação emocional na família.
Metodologia: A amostra é constituída por 137 mães, com idades compreendidas entre os 22 e os 45 anos (M = 34,10; DP = 4,78) e respetivos filhos com idades entre 1 e 5 anos (M = 3,23; DP = 1,42). Para além de um questionário sociodemográfico, todas as participantes preencheram o Systemic Clinical Outcome and Routine Evaluation, o Questionário de Estilos e Dimensões Parentais, o Questionário de Experiências de (In)Validação Emocional, o Questionário de Coping com Emoções Positivas-Pais, o Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale e o Questionário de Comportamentos da Criança para o período pré-escolar Resultados: Verificaram-se associações entre o funcionamento familiar, os estilos educativos parentais, a vivência de experiências de (in)validação emocional na família e o coping com expressão de emoções positivas/negativas da criança e o comportamento da criança. Verificou-se, da mesma forma, associações em função do nível de (in)validação emocional na família relativamente aos estilos educativos parentais, ao coping com emoções positivas/negativas e ao comportamento da criança.
Discussão: O presente estudo fornece dados que suportam a premissa de que as variáveis familiares e o comportamento materno se relacionam, na sua globalidade, com o comportamento manifestado pela criança. No entanto, importa considerar que, para além da qualidade da relação contínua entre progenitores e filhos, estes são suscetíveis de serem influenciados pelo seu temperamento, pelas suas vulnerabilidades e pelos fatores ambientais.
Palavras-chave: funcionamento familiar, estilos educativos parentais, (in)validação
... It is not surprising then that suboptimal environments are associated with poor outcomes. For example, parental separation and parental or parent-child conflict have been associated with child behavior problems and poor school performance (e.g., Erman & Härkönen, 2017;Harold, Aitken, & Shelton, 2007;Kreidl, Štípková, & Hubatková, 2017;Moed et al., 2017). Associations with physical development have also been reported, suggesting that children experiencing family adversity may have an earlier onset of puberty (e.g., Ellis & Garber, 2000;Jorm, Christensen, Rodgers, Jacomb, & Easteal, 2004;Moffitt, Caspi, Belsky, & Silva, 1992). ...
Psychosocial acceleration theory suggests that pubertal maturation is accelerated in response to adversity. In addition, suboptimal caregiving accelerates development of the amygdala–medial prefrontal cortex circuit. These findings may be related. Here, we assess whether associations between family environment and measures of the amygdala–medial prefrontal cortex circuit are mediated by pubertal development in more than 2000 9- and 10-year-old children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study ( http://dx.doi.org/10.15154/1412097 ). Using structural equation modeling, demographic, child-reported, and parent-reported data on family dynamics were compiled into a higher level family environment latent variable. Magnetic resonance imaging preprocessing and compilations were performed by the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study's data analysis core. Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) thickness, area, white matter fractional anisotropy, amygdala volume, and cingulo-opercular network–amygdala resting-state functional connectivity were assessed. For ACC cortical thickness and ACC fractional anisotropy, significant indirect effects indicated that a stressful family environment relates to more advanced pubertal stage and more mature brain structure. For cingulo-opercular network–amygdala functional connectivity, results indicated a trend in the expected direction. For ACC area, evidence for quadratic mediation by pubertal stage was found. Sex-stratified analyses suggest stronger results for girls. Despite small effect sizes, structural measures of circuits important for emotional behavior are associated with family environment and show initial evidence of accelerated pubertal development.
... The identification of Bfamily challenges^as a primary reason that many students seek counseling services underscores the bidirectional interaction between home and school microsystems described elsewhere (Kiweewa et al. 2018;O'Malley et al. 2015). There is ample evidence, for instance, of the impact of family conflict on children and youths, including physical health, emotional well-being, and academic outcomes (Harold et al. 2007;O'Malley et al. 2015). While it is encouraging that the school counseling profession is gaining acceptance in Uganda, counselors may not be equipped with the skills needed to address complex family challenges and issues related to adolescent development. ...
School guidance and counseling services in Uganda are limited, but are gradually gaining traction despite resource constraints. We conducted qualitative interviews with 22 counselors, school administrators, and government officials involved in secondary school counseling in the Kampala district to assess future needs. Interview data focused on three central domains: existing guidance and counseling efforts, barriers to providing effective services, and the future outlook of the profession. As school counseling gains support, counselors require new resources and training to support effective and sustainable practice. Future efforts must appeal to school and government leaders with a return on investment demonstrated through academic and broader student success.
Previous research indicates that students' academic performance can be negatively affected by interparental conflict. However, studies focusing on Chinese high school students, whose academic performance is particularly emphasized, are limited. Moreover, relatively little work has examined the mechanisms underlying the association between interparental conflict and academic performance. Based on the cognitive‐contextual framework and expectancy‐value theory, the current study explored the potential cognitive mediators between interparental conflict and academic performance in 748 Chinese high school students with a mean age of 17.07 years. The results revealed a significant negative relationship between interparental conflict and academic performance, and further showed that academic self‐efficacy mediated the association between interparental conflict and academic performance. Additionally, all components of cognitive appraisals and academic self‐efficacy demonstrated a serial mediation effect on the relationship between interparental conflict and academic performance. Therefore, concerning youth academic outcomes, these findings highlight the need for a greater focus on students' belief in learning ability and also their cognitive reactions towards interparental conflict.
Purpose
Previous studies predominantly focused on the single-context violence exposure on depression or academic performance, which may inaccurately estimate the effects of certain violence for the co-occurrence of violence across contexts. The present study aimed to simultaneously examine the associations between domestic violence exposure, school violence exposure, depression and academic performance, as well as the gender differences in relationship above mentioned.
Methods
Participants (N = 1216, 55.3% boys, T1: Mage = 14.45) were adolescents recruited from a junior high school in Guangdong Province, China. Demographic variables, experience of violence exposure and depression were assessed based on self-reported questionnaires at Time 1. Students’ academic performance record at Time 2 (six months later) were provided by the school. The analysis was conducted in SPSS 26.0 and MPLUS 8.3.
Results
Depression fully mediated the relationship between domestic violence exposure and academic performance, and partially mediated the association between school violence exposure and academic performance. Regarding gender differences, school violence exposure was associated with higher level of depression among girls, whereas depression was related with worse academic performance among boys.
Conclusions
Both domestic and school violence exposure are associated with academic performance through depression, and these relationships are moderated by gender.
p style="text-align: justify;"> Objective. Cross-cultural analysis of the perception of parental attitudes and its influence on the general academic performance of high school students from Russia and Kyrgyzstan.
Background. The characteristics of parental attitudes are closely related not only to the child’s educational success during life in the family, but also to educational achievements in the future. At the same time, the sociocultural specifics of parent-child relationships, through the perception of a growing child, can change the direction and magnitude of such associations.
Study design. The characteristics of the relationship between mothers and fathers – emotional acceptance and overprotection – by high school students from two countries differing in socio-economic status are analyzed. A cross-cultural analysis of the structure of associations between the characteristics of the perception of parental attitudes and academic performance is carried out.
Participants. The study analyzed data from 528 students in grades 10–11 from Russia and Kyrgyzstan. Russian sample: 230 people ( M = 17,31; SD = 0,7), 58,1% girls. Kyrgyz sample: 298 people ( M = 17,21; SD = 0,7), 67,6% girls.
Measurements. Russian-language version of the questionnaire “Parental Bonding Instrument” (T.N. Tikhomirova, D.A. Gaysina, S.B. Malykh, 2021).
Results. At high school age, the perception of parental attitude has a culture-specific conditioning, most clearly expressed in the perception of emotional acceptance by the mother and the overprotective attitude of the father.
Conclusions. Given the existence of a universal model of the influence of parental attitudes on the general academic performance of high school students, cross-cultural specificity of functional associations within the model is observed, which is more characteristic of the perception of the attitudes of fathers rather than mothers.</p
هدفت الدراسة إلى التعرف على صعوبات ممارسة القدرات الديناميكية بجامعة أم القرى من وجهة نظر قياداتها، كما هدفت إلى الكشف عن الفروق ذات الدلالة الإحصائية عند مستوى الدلالة (0.5 ≥∝) بين المتوسطات الحسابية لاستجابات أفراد عينة الدراسة نحو صعوبات ممارسة القدرات الديناميكية بجامعة أم القرى تعزى إلى متغيرات: (الجنس، المسمى الوظيفي، سنوات الخبرة). وتم استخدام المنهج الوصفي المسحي، وجُمعت البيانات باستخدام الاستبانة، وتمثلت حدود الدراسة المكانية بجامعة أم القرى وفروعها، والحدود الزمانية خلال عام 1444/1445هـ، وطبقت الدراسة بأسلوب المسح الشامل على جميع قيادات جامعة أم القرى؛ البالغ عددهم (352) قائدًا وقائدة، استجاب منهم (207) قائدًا وقائده. وتوصلت الدراسة إلى أن صعوبات ممارسة القدرات الديناميكية جاءت بدرجة متوسطة، كما أظهرت النتائج وجود فروق دالة إحصائيًا بين متوسطات الاستجابات، تعزى لاختلاف الجنس؛ لصالح الإناث، ولم تُظهر النتائج وجود فروق دالة إحصائيًا تعزى لاختلاف المستوى الوظيفي، أو عدد سنوات الخبرة. وفي ضوء هذه النتائج قدمت الدراسة عددًا من التوصيات، جاء أبرزها: تطوير قدرة جامعة أم القرى على استشعار الفرص المتاحة في بيئتها المحيطة، والاستفادة منها في تعزيز قدرتها التنافسية، وتعزيز قدرة الجامعة على التعلم من المعرفة الخارجية، واستثمارها، وربطها بالمعرفة الداخلية، وتطوير منظومة التسويق بجامعة أم القرى وفق عدد من الإجراءات.
Extant research in Western countries have indicated that children's well‐being may be influenced by children's own resilience, parent–child attachment, and parental marital relationship. Yet, there is very little research in Malaysia on how these factors may influence well‐being among children in middle childhood. The aim of this study, therefore, was to explore the relationships among children's self‐efficacy—a resilience factor—and well‐being, parental marital relationship, and parent–child attachment style. The study used a quantitative, cross‐sectional survey method. Participants were 955 Malay‐Malaysian children aged 11 years from intact families. They responded to a questionnaire on demographic background, self‐efficacy, well‐being, parental harmony and conflict, and parent–child attachment style. Moderated mediation analysis indicated that (i) parental harmony was a significant mediator for the relationship between children's self‐efficacy and well‐being; (ii) parental conflict was not a significant mediator for the relationship between children's self‐efficacy and well‐being; and (iii) parent–child attachment style was a significant moderator for the relationship between children's self‐efficacy and well‐being. These findings are discussed within the frameworks of optimal child development and family relationship. These findings may also inform policies such as Malaysia's Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3) and National Family Policy.
This study is a randomized controlled trial of an asynchronous, fully web‐based program for divorced and separated parents, the electronic New Beginnings Program (eNBP). This program is an adaptation of a group, in‐person program for divorced parents, the New Beginnings Program (NBP), which has been shown in randomized trials to reduce a wide range of offspring problems and improve a wide range of competencies up to 15 years after participation. The 10‐module, 5‐h program uses evidence‐based, highly interactive strategies to teach skills designed to strengthen parenting after divorce and reduce interparental conflict. Participants were 131 parents (63% mothers) and 102 adolescent offspring. Parents were randomly assigned to the eNBP or a wait‐list control condition. Parents and their children completed pre‐ and post‐tests. Analyses showed that at post‐test, parents and children in the eNBP reported significantly higher parent–child relationship quality, more effective discipline, lower interparental conflict and lower child mental health problems than did those in the wait‐list control condition. These are the strongest findings in the literature on the effects of web‐based programs to reduce interparental conflict, strengthen positive parenting and reduce children's post‐divorce mental health problems. Given that parental divorce has significant individual and societal costs, widespread implementation of this program could have significant public health implications. A fully web‐based parenting‐after‐divorce program reduced interparental conflict, increased quality of parenting and reduced children's post‐divorce behavior problems as reported by both parents and children. Web‐based programs to improve parenting can be a cost‐effective approach to promote children's post‐divorce adjustment. Widespread implementation of easily accessible, web‐based parenting‐after‐divorce programs can significantly reduce the negative impact of divorce on children's outcomes.
The results of adaptation of the Russian-language version of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) (Parker, Tupling, Brown, 1979) with "Mother's Attitude" and "Father's Attitude" options are presented in the article. The questionnaire is aimed to assess the perception of parenting attitudes among young people. According to the original (English) version of the questionnaire, aspects of parental attitude perception can be measured as quantitative indicators of the questionnaire scales: 1) "Care" and 2) "Overprotection". The "Care" scale consists of 12 statements such as “Seemed emotionally cold to me”, “Enjoyed talking things over with me”, “Did not talk with me very much”, etc. The "Overprotection" scale includes 13 statements such as "Felt I could not look after myself unless she/he was around", "Let me decide things for myself", "Let me dress in any way I pleased", etc. The study involved 504 high school students enrolled in schools in the Moscow and Leningrad regions, Samara and St. Petersburg, aged from 14.4 to 19.1 years, among them were 174 9th grade students (44.2% male), 169 10th grade students (34.7% male) and 161 11th grade students (51.1% male). The structure of the questionnaire was studied using exploratory factor analysis of the correlation matrix of the responses to 25 items of each version. The method of principal components with Varimax rotation was chosen for the analysis. The confirmatory factor analysis suggested the two-factor structure of the questionnaire was confirmed, with the following scales: “Care” and “Overprotection” for the options "Mother's Attitude" and "Father's Attitude". For reliability assessment, the scales were tested with the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of internal consistency. Satisfactory internal consistency of the scales on both options was revealed. The Cronbach's alphas reach satisfactory values both for Care and Overprotection scales. The effects of gender and age on the questionnaire scores were estimated. According to analysis, there are no sex differences of perception of maternal and paternal attitude in both “Care” and “Overprotection” scales. It was shown that the effect of age was statistically significant for “Overprotection” scale for paternal attitude only, with a small effect size. The effect of interaction of age and sex was statistically significant for “Care” for paternal attitude only, with a small effect size. According to the psychometric indicators presented in this paper, the Russian-language version of PBI can become a reliable tool to measure high school students’ perception of the parental attitude.
Based on a dataset, this paper examines the link between children’s presenting problems and interparental relationships. The clinical discussion focuses specifically on the impact of parental relationship on mental illness. Using a protocol to measure both the physiological and verbal responses of the patients, it is observed that regardless of the psychiatric diagnoses given to these children or young adults, almost all of them were deeply involved in their parents’ unresolved relational conflict. In the five case scenarios provided for illustration, the patients could articulate very clearly how concerned they were when they sensed their parent's relationship was at risk, and how their symptoms had served a function in maintaining the family equilibrium. Based on this clinical observation, it is important to develop a treatment approach that addresses mental illness in the family context.
This study estimates how students suffering from parental conflicts could affect their classmates in Chinese middle schools. We show that children with quarreling parents are more likely to misbehave. Negative spillovers from these potentially troubled peers concentrate on students from economically disadvantaged families. With greater exposure to classmates from troubled families, disadvantaged students would score lower in academic tests, commit more disciplinary infractions, feel less satisfied with being at school, and spend less time on after-school studying activities. In contrast, we find limited effects on advantaged students. These results imply a persistent inequality passing through generations.
Les natifs des départements et régions d’outre- (Drom) sont moins diplômés que les métropolitains. Améliorer le niveau d’études des jeunes ultramarins est un enjeu important pour les Drom, la question de l’éducation étant intimement liée à celle du développement économique de ces territoires. Pour définir des politiques publiques efficaces, il est toutefois nécessaire de connaître précisément les raisons du moindre niveau d’études des ultramarins. Ce travail s’appuie sur les données des enquêtes Migration-famille-vieillissement (MFV) et Trajectoires et origines (TeO), menées respectivement dans les Drom et en métropole, et comportant un grand nombre de questions similaires. Les résultats indiquent que la quasi-totalité des inégalités d’éducation entre les ultramarins et les métropolitains s’explique par des différences liées à la situation matérielle et financière des familles, à l’origine sociale et culturelle des parents et au cadre de vie en famille pendant l’enfance. Tous ces éléments influencent le capital humain potentiellement transmis par les parents. Lorsque les caractéristiques précédentes sont similaires, les ultramarins (hors natifs de Guyane) et métropolitains atteignent des niveaux d’études comparables. Ces résultats offrent des pistes de réflexion pour améliorer le ciblage des politiques publiques afin de réduire les inégalités d’éducation entre ultramarins et métropolitains.
The chapter describes the Belief in an Unjust World Scale (Cubela Adoric, 1999), including the results of its validation in 10 studies with participants from Croatian population.
The huge diversity in family life and living arrangements across the globe has far‐reaching implications for the ways in which families are supported and family justice is administered. Given the serious concerns about the number of relationships that break down and the potentially detrimental impacts on children and their parents, it is essential to understand the triggers threatening the stability of couple relationships, including the financial stresses caused by the recent global recession and accompanying fiscal austerity. Since family relationships are central to the psychological, emotional, social, and economic well‐being of adults and children everywhere, policy makers and practitioners should collaborate across international boundaries to develop interventions that promote family well‐being, secure the best interests of children, and ensure the conditions and systems in which families can thrive. Family life and family living arrangements are continuing to change. Diversity in family structures means that family justice and relationship support systems need to adapt and respond. Good‐quality family relationships, regardless of the structures they take, are essential for children's and adults' well‐being. International collaboration between practitioners and policy makers across jurisdictions and across sectors is vital to support family relationships and protect children's and adults' well‐being.
Young children living in dysfunctional households marked with high levels of interparental domestic violence are at higher risk for developing future psychiatric disorders and overall health problems. Successful treatment interventions with this group are varied, although existing research highlights the need for treatments that adopt a strength-based approach, that promote safety, and that nurture interpersonal relationships. Child-centred play therapy provides the client with a sense of empowerment and is described in this chapter.
A Monte Carlo study compared 14 methods to test the statistical significance of the intervening variable effect. An intervening variable (mediator) transmits the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable. The commonly used R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) approach has low statistical power. Two methods based on the distribution of the product and 2 difference-in-coefficients methods have the most accurate Type I error rates and greatest statistical power except in 1 important case in which Type I error rates are too high. The best balance of Type I error and statistical power across all cases is the test of the joint significance of the two effects comprising the intervening variable effect.
An exploratory study examined the origins of children's motivational patterns in the family by observing 3rd-grade children (10 helpless and 11 mastery-oriented) and their mothers performing a series of solvable and insolvable problem-solving tasks. Mothers of mastery children appeared to show sensitivity and responsiveness to their children's ability perceptions and requests for help. They also appeared to support mastery behaviors in their children by increasing task-focused teaching behaviors and maintaining high-positive affect during the insolvable puzzles. Furthermore, in the face of failures, they retrained their children's low-ability attributions and performance-goal statements, while promoting mastery or task-focused behaviors. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that mothers of mastery children may socialize their children's achievement motivation. However, because of the small sample size and other limitations, the results should be interpreted with caution. Several directions are outlined for future research on the familial origins of helpless and mastery patterns in children.
Three cohorts of 10- to 14-year-old adolescents were sampled to obtain perceptions of their parents' conflict-resolution styles, their own conflict-resolution styles, and their behavioral adjustment, to test J. H. Grych and F. D. Fincham's (1990) cognitive-contextual model of the relationship of marital conflict to child adjustment. As found previously, boys and girls were not exposed to different levels or types of interparental conflict, although boys tended to blame themselves more. Adolescents' reports of their own conflict-resolution styles with siblings were clearly related to level and types of their more general adjustment levels. A series of regressions supported Grych and Fincham's model for internalizing problems (and avoidant resolution style) in adolescents; only minimal support was found with externalizing problems (and attacking resolution style). Gender-specific patterns of intergenerational transmission of resolution styles were found and are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Helpless children show marked performance decrements under failure, whereas mastery-oriented children often show enhanced performance. Current theories emphasize differences in the nature of the attributions following failure as determinants of response to failure. Two studies with 130 5th-grade children explored helpless vs mastery-oriented differences in the nature, timing, and relative frequency of a variety of achievement-related cognitions by continuously monitoring verbalizations following failure. Results reveal that helpless children made the expected attributions for failure to lack of ability; mastery-oriented children made surprisingly few attributions but instead engaged in self-monitoring and self-instructions. That is, helpless children focused on the cause of failure, whereas the mastery-oriented children focused on remedies for failure. These differences were accompanied by striking differences in strategy change under failure. The results suggest that in addition to the nature of the attribution one makes, the timing or even occurrence of attributions may be a critical individual difference. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Early behavioral problems and temperament as well as student–teacher relationships each have been shown to be important predictors of school performance. This longitudinal study investigated the relations between children's preschool behaviors and their early adolescent student–teacher relationships and academic achievement. It was hypothesized that preschool behaviors would predict school performance in early adolescents. Results showed that children who were more prone to anxiety as preschoolers tended to have the highest grades as young adolescents. Additionally, children with poor student–teacher relationships, as characterized by dependent and conflictual relationships, had lower grades in school. Thus, in considering the importance of a “child×environment” model for school performance, it appears that it is both the child variable of anxiety and the perhaps environmental variable of student–teacher relationships that are related to school performance.
Although comorbidity with specific learning disabilities is less frequent than commonly reported, externalizing behavior disorders--particularly attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)--often overlap with various indices of academic underachievement during childhood. Furthermore, by adolescence, delinquency is clearly associated with school failure. Because the link between behavioral and learning problems often appears before formal schooling, and because the co-morbid problems predict a negative course, early intervention is a necessity. Controlled treatment investigations with youngsters who show these combined problems are rare, and such studies present a host of methodologic and practical problems. I discuss issues surrounding multimodality treatment programs and the potential for long-term interventions to break cycles of school failure and externalizing behavior.
Marital problems have been related to numerous indexes of maladjustment in children. Although several parameters of this association have been identified, the process by which exposure to interparental conflict gives rise to adjustment problems in children is largely unexplored. Research on the link between marital conflict and child maladjustment therefore is critically evaluated, and a framework is presented that organizes existing studies and suggests directions for future research on processes that may account for the association. According to the framework, the impact of marital conflict is mediated by children's understanding of the conflict, which is shaped by contextual, cognitive, and developmental factors. The implications of the framework for children's adjustment are discussed.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
It is widely assumed that a linkage, crucial to the understanding of child behavior, exists between marital and parent-child relationship quality. A meta-analysis of 68 studies was conducted to determine whether this linkage exists and, if so, whether the linkage is positive (as suggested by the spill-over hypothesis) or negative (as suggested by the compensatory hypothesis). Results supported the spillover hypothesis; a positive and nonhomogeneous effect size of moderate magnitude was found (d = 0.46). This suggests that research in this area can move beyond the question of whether a positive or negative association exists to identifying moderators of the association. Examination of the impact of 13 potential moderators did not support the existence of any of these variables that could be adequately examined. This suggests that the link between marital and parent-child relations functions as a more stable force than previously thought.
An emotional security hypothesis that builds on attachment theory is proposed to account for recent empirical findings on the impact of marital conflict on children and to provide directions for future research. Children's concerns about emotional security play a role in their regulation of emotional arousal and organization and in their motivation to respond in the face of marital conflict. Over time these response processes and internalized representations of parental relations that develop have implications for children's long-term adjustment. Emotional security is seen as a product of past experiences with marital conflict and as a primary influence on future responding. The impact and interaction of other experiential histories within the family that affect children's emotional security are also examined, with a focus on parent-child relations.
In these two studies, the authors used children's perceptions of family relationships to examine simultaneously direct and indirect links between marital conflict and child adjustment. With data pertaining to 146 sixth and seventh graders, Study 1 supported direct and indirect effects of perceptions of marital conflict on internalizing behaviors, and indirect effects for externalizing behaviors. In Study 2, data analyzed from 451 families showed indirect effects of marital conflict and parent-to-child hostility, through adolescent perceptions of such behavior, on both current distress and distress 12 months later in 3 of 4 models estimated. Direct and indirect effects were found for boys' concurrent internalizing behavior. Implications and limitations of both studies are discussed to address the need for a more sophisticated theoretical approach to examine why an association exists between marital conflict and child adjustment.
This article presents an analysis of 5 views of factors that contribute to the adjustment of children in divorced families or stepfamilies. These perspectives are those that emphasize (a) individual vulnerability and risk; (b) family composition; (c) stress, including socioeconomic disadvantage; (d) parental distress; and (e) disrupted family process. It is concluded that all of these factors contribute to children's adjustment in divorced and remarried families and that a transactional model examining multiple trajectories of interacting risk and protective factors is the most fruitful in predicting the well-being of children.
Moderational and mediational models of the relationships among appraisals, interparental conflict, and children's adjustment were tested in a sample of 174 families with a school-age child. Parents rated children's exposure to interparental conflict and internalizing, externalizing, and total behavior problems. Children completed questionnaires regarding their appraisals of their parents' conflicts, including frequency and intensity, perceived threat, control, and self-blame, as well as measures of anxiety and depression. Results overall demonstrated more consistent support for the moderational than mediational hypotheses. Appraisals of conflict properties, threat, self-blame, and perceived control moderated the effects of interparental conflict on externalizing, total problems, and anxiety in boys. Conflict properties, threat, self-blame, perceived control, and self-calming acted as moderators of internalizing in girls.
The effects of marital conflict on children's adjustment are well documented. For the past decade research has increasingly focused on advancing a process-level understanding of these effects, that is, accounting for the particular responses and patterns embedded within specific contexts, histories, and developmental periods that account for children's outcomes over time.
As a vehicle for presenting an update, this review follows the framework for process-oriented research initially proposed by Cummings and Cummings (1988), concentrating on recent research developments, and also considering new and emerging themes in this area of research.
In this regard, areas of advancement include (a) greater articulation of the effects of specific context/stimulus characteristics of marital conflict, (b) progress in identifying the psychological response processes in children (e.g., cognitive, emotional, social, physiological) that are affected and their possible role in accounting for relations between marital conflict and child outcomes, (c) greater understanding of the role of child characteristics, family history, and other contextual factors, including effects on children due to interrelations between marital conflict and parenting, and (d) advances in the conceptualization of children's outcomes, including that effects may be more productively viewed as dynamic processes of functioning rather than simply clinical diagnoses.
Understanding of the impact of marital conflict on children as a function of time-related processes remains a gap in a process-oriented conceptualization of effects. Based on this review, a revised model for a process-oriented approach on the effects of marital discord on children is proposed and suggestions are made for future research directions.
A Monte Carlo study compared 14 methods to test the statistical significance of the intervening variable effect. An intervening variable (mediator) transmits the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable. The commonly used R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) approach has low statistical power. Two methods based on the distribution of the product and 2 difference-in-coefficients methods have the most accurate Type I error rates and greatest statistical power except in 1 important case in which Type I error rates are too high. The best balance of Type I error and statistical power across all cases is the test of the joint significance of the two effects comprising the intervening variable effect.
This paper addresses the role of family-based studies of preventive and therapeutic interventions in our understanding of normal development and psychopathology. The emphasis is on interventions designed to improve parent-child and/or marital relationships as a way of facilitating development and reducing psychopathology in children and adolescents. Intervention designs provide the gold standard for testing causal hypotheses. We begin by discussing the complexity of validating these hypotheses and the implications of the shift from a traditional emphasis on theories of etiology to developmental psychopathology's newer paradigm describing risks --> pathways --> outcomes. We summarize correlational studies that document the fact that difficult and ineffective parent-child and marital relationships function as risk factors for children's cognitive, social, and emotional problems in childhood and adolescence. We then review prevention studies and therapy evaluation studies that establish some specific parenting and marital variables as causal risk factors with respect to these outcomes. Our discussion focuses on what intervention studies have revealed so far and suggests an agenda for further research.
This article describes the current practice of work with children who have witnessed domestic violence in the UK and North America. It examines this practice in the light of evidence of effectiveness and in the light of research that explains how witnessing domestic violence affects children. Finally it proposes guidelines for an evidenced-based practice which is built on this research.
Using data on 347 seventh graders and their parents, this research examines the relation of 2 types of parental behaviors (involved parenting and hostility) to adolescent academic performance. Strengths of the study include the use of four waves of data obtained from multiple informants (including observers of parent-adolescent interaction) and separate analyses for mothers and fathers. Results extend earlier cross-sectional research by demonstrating that parental behavior affects later (Time 4) academic performance controlling for earlier performance (Time 1). That is, these findings go beyond earlier cross-sectional research by showing that parenting practices actually foster change in academic accomplishment across time. For both mothers and fathers, setting and positively reinforcing appropriate behavioral standards (a parental management dimension) increased academic performance, whereas hostility (a dimension of negative emotional affect) decreased academic performance. Parent educational level was related to involvement - but not to hostility - and to academic performance. Results underscore the importance of parental behaviors in relation to positive or negative changes in school performance from early to mid-adolescence. These findings were consistent across gender for both parents and adolescents.
This work examines associations between closeness and conflict in teacher-child relationships and children's social and academic skills in first grade in a sample of 490 children. Assessments of teacher-child relationships were obtained in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade. Results demonstrate moderate correlations among teachers' ratings of conflict and slightly lower correlations among teachers' ratings of closeness across years. Hierarchical regression analyses predicted children's skills in first grade from teacher-child relationship quality. Child gender, socioeconomic status, and preschool estimates of outcomes of interest were controlled statistically. Although preschool assessments of social and academic skills were closely associated with individual skill differences at first grade, teacher-child relationship quality also was associated with changes in skill levels. Findings generally confirm that teacher-child relationships play a role in children's ability to acquire the skills necessary for success in school.
Because of the premium now placed on a formal education as well as the changing demographics of American society, school failure is now more costly than ever. Given that academic difficulties experienced by children are traceable to problems in underachievement that begin during the first years of early schooling, a thorough understanding of the transition-to-school process is needed. We suggest two principal assumptions in examining this transition-to-kindergarten period. First, multiple risk factors associated with certain child, family, and child care characteristics are expected to predict early school experience, both in and out of the classroom, and, thereby, social and academic success and failure in the early school years. Secondly, it is expected that day-to-day experiences in the classroom and on the playground will exacerbate or mitigate risk, resulting in some children performing better than would otherwise be expected and others functioning worse than anticipated. Thus, a critically important problem involves the identification of child, family, child care, and schooling factors and processes which account for risk being realized or not realized with regard to subsequent academic and school performance.
The utility of the revised 56-item Child's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI), an instrument less cumbersome than the 260-item original, was examined. Study I found the instrument to be highly reliable at 1-week and 5-week retest intervals. Study II found the factor structure of the revision similar to that of the original, with Factor III somewhat less stable than the other two factors. It was concluded that, in general, the 56-item CRPBI appeared to stand up well as a research instrument.
Addressing a gap in process-oriented understanding of relations between marital con-flict and children's adjustment, propositions of the emotional security hypothesis from a family-wide perspective were tested in a longitudinal research design. Participants were 181 families and their 11–12 year-old-child (115 boys, 76 girls) living in Wales, in the United Kingdom. Relations between marital conflict, children's emotional secu-rity about marital conflict and parenting, respectively, and children's adjustment were assessed based on reports by mothers, fathers, and children and videotaped analogue procedures completed by children. Structural equation modelling indicated that chil-dren's emotional security about interparental conflict (emotional regulation, cognitive representations and behavioural regulation) mediated the relation between marital conflict and children's security about parenting. Processes pertaining to children's security in multiple family systems (i.e., interparental and parent–child) provided an indirect mechanism through which interparental conflict affected children's symptoms of psychological distress (internalising and externalising problems) assessed 12 months later. Future directions for further tests of comprehensive, theoretically based models for the effects of marital conflict on children are discussed.
Guided by Grych and Fincham's theoretical framework for investigating the relation between interparental conflict and child adjustment, a questionnaire was developed to assess children's views of several aspects of marital conflict. The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC) was initially examined in a sample of 222 9–12-year-old children, and results were cross-validated in a second sample of 144 similarly aged children. 3 factor analytically derived subscales (Conflict Properties, Threat, Self-Blame) demonstrated acceptable levels of internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The validity of the Conflict Properties scale was supported by significant relations with parent reports of conflict and indices of child adjustment; the Threat and Self-Blame scales correlated with children's responses to specific conflict vignettes. The CPIC thus appears to be a promising instrument for assessing perceived marital conflict, and several issues regarding its interpretation are discussed.
We propose a model of family conflict and coercion that links economic stress in family life to adolescent symptoms of internalizing and externalizing emotions and behaviors. The 180 boys and 198 girls in the study were living in intact families in the rural Midwest, an area characterized by economic decline and uncertainty. Theoretical constructs in the model were measured using both trained observer and family member reports. These adolescents and their parents were interviewed each year for 3 years during the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Our theoretical model proposes that economic pressure experienced by parents increases parental dysphoria and marital conflict as well as conflicts between parents and children over money. High levels of spousal irritability, coupled with coercive exchanges over money matters, were expected to be associated with greater hostility in general by parents toward their children. These hostile/coercive exchanges were expected to increase the likelihood of adolescent emotional and behavioral problems. Overall, results were consistent with the proposed model. Moreover, the hypothesized processes applied equally well to the behavior of mothers and fathers, as well as sons and daughters.
The present longitudinal study (1989–1991) of seventh-grade adolescents (173 boys, 197 girls; M age = 12.7 in 1989) living in the rural Midwest examined the influence of children's awareness of marital conflict and reported level of parental hostility on symptoms of adolescent distress. The theoretical model guiding the research indirectly linked marital conflict to adolescent perceptions of parents' hostility through the mediating effects of parents and observers' report of hostility toward the adolescent and through adolescent awareness of the frequency of interparental conflict. Controlling for earlier levels of psychological distress, we hypothesized a direct path between adolescent report of parent hostility and adolescent maladjustment. Maximum likelihood estimation of the proposed model showed that marital conflict was significantly related to parents' and observers' reports of parent hostility toward the adolescent and to adolescent awareness of conflict frequency. Both parent hostility and adolescent awareness of the frequency of marital conflicts were significantly related to adolescent perceptions of parent hostility. When controlled for earlier distress, adolescent report of parent hostility significantly predicted the later internalizing and externalizing symptoms of these teenagers. The model predicted externalizing problems for boys but not girls. Otherwise, there were no gender differences in the postulated causal processes.
Children's appraisals of interparental conflict consistently have been associated with adjustment problems, but the processes that give rise to this association are not well understood. This paper proposes that appraisals of threat and self-blame mediate the association between children's reports of interparental conflict and internalizing problems, and tests this mediational hypothesis in two samples of children, one drawn from the community (317 ten- to fourteen-year-olds) and the other from battered women's shelters (145 ten- to twelve-year-olds). Results indicate that perceived threat mediates the association between interparental conflict and internalizing problems for boys and girls in both samples, and self-blame mediates this association for boys in both samples and girls in the shelter sample. Perceived threat and self-blame do not mediate links with externalizing problems, and there is no evidence of a moderating effect of appraisals on the association between conflict and child adjustment. Implications for understanding the mechanism by which exposure to interparental conflict could lead to child maladjustment are discussed.
Guided by Grych and Fincham's theoretical framework for investigating the relation between interparental conflict and child adjustment, a questionnaire was developed to assess children's views of several aspects of marital conflict. The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC) was initially examined in a sample of 222 9-12-year-old children, and results were cross-validated in a second sample of 144 similarly aged children. 3 factor analytically derived subscales (Conflict Properties, Threat, Self-Blame) demonstrated acceptable levels of internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The validity of the Conflict Properties scale was supported by significant relations with parent reports of conflict and indices of child adjustment; the Threat and Self-Blame scales correlated with children's responses to specific conflict vignettes. The CPIC thus appears to be a promising instrument for assessing perceived marital conflict, and several issues regarding its interpretation are discussed.
This article reviews the various literatures on the adjustment of children of depressed parents, difficulties in parenting and parent-child interaction in these families, and contextual factors that may play a role in child adjustment and parent depression. First, issues arising from the recurrent, episodic, heterogeneous nature of depression are discussed. Second, studies on the adjustment of children with a depressed parent are summarized. Early studies that used depressed parents as controls for schizophrenic parents found equivalent risk for child disturbance. Subsequent studies using better-defined samples of depressed parents found that these children were at risk for a full range of adjustment problems and at specific risk for clinical depression. Third, the parenting difficulties of depressed parents are described and explanatory models of child adjustment problems are outlined. Contextual factors, particularly marital distress, remain viable alternative explanations for both child and parenting problems. Fourth, important gaps in the literature are identified, and a consistent, if unintentional, "mother-bashing" quality in the existing literature is noted. Given the limitations in knowledge, large-scale, long-term, longitudinal studies would be premature at this time.
Measures of overt marital hostility, general marital adjustment, and children's behavior problems were obtained from the parents of 64 children referred to a child psychological clinic. Correlations between children's scores on measures of general marital unhappiness and overt marital hostility were compared. Overt marital hostility correlated significantly with many behavior problems of boys. However, neither general marital unhappiness nor overt marital hostility related to problem behaviors in girls. Specific findings and possible reasons for the differential results with respect to boys and girls were discussed.
We propose a model of family conflict and coercion that links economic stress in family life to adolescent symptoms of internalizing and externalizing emotions and behaviors. The 180 boys and 198 girls in the study were living in intact families in the rural Midwest, an area characterized by economic decline and uncertainty. Theoretical constructs in the model were measured using both trained observer and family member reports. These adolescents and their parents were interviewed each year for 3 years during the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Our theoretical model proposes that economic pressure experienced by parents increases parental dysphoria and marital conflict as well as conflicts between parents and children over money. High levels of spousal irritability, coupled with coercive exchanges over money matters, were expected to be associated with greater hostility in general by parents toward their children. These hostile/coercive exchanges were expected to increase the likelihood of adolescent emotional and behavioral problems. Overall, results were consistent with the proposed model. Moreover, the hypothesized processes applied equally well to the behavior of mothers and fathers, as well as sons and daughters.
The present longitudinal study (1989-1991) of seventh-grade adolescents (173 boys, 197 girls; M age = 12.7 in 1989) living in the rural Midwest examined the influence of children's awareness of marital conflict and reported level of parental hostility on symptoms of adolescent distress. The theoretical model guiding the research indirectly linked marital conflict to adolescent perceptions of parents' hostility through the mediating effects of parents' and observers' report of hostility toward the adolescent and through adolescent awareness of the frequency of interparental conflict. Controlling for earlier levels of psychological distress, we hypothesized a direct path between adolescent report of parent hostility and adolescent maladjustment. Maximum likelihood estimation of the proposed model showed that marital conflict was significantly related to parents' and observers' reports of parent hostility toward the adolescent and to adolescent awareness of conflict frequency. Both parent hostility and adolescent awareness of the frequency of marital conflicts were significantly related to adolescent perceptions of parent hostility. When controlled for earlier distress, adolescent report of parent hostility significantly predicted the later internalizing and externalizing symptoms of these teenagers. The model predicted externalizing problems for boys but not girls. Otherwise, there were no gender differences in the postulated causal processes.
This longitudinal study tested the role of children's appraisals of threat and self-blame as mediators of the association between interparental conflict and child adjustment in a sample of 298 Welsh children ages 11 to 12 years. Exposure to higher levels of interparental conflict at Time 1 predicted greater perceived threat and self-blame at Time 2, after accounting for the effects of Time 1 adjustment and appraisals on later appraisals. Perceived threat in turn was associated with increased internalizing problems at Tune 2, and self-blame was associated with higher externalizing problems. The pattern of results was largely consistent for child and parent reports of conflict and for boys and girls, though some gender differences were found in associations between appraisals and adjustment.
Child emotional security and inter‐parental conflict
- Davies P.T.
A comparison of methods to test the significance of the mediated effect
- MacKinnon
Assessing inter-parental conflict from the child's perspective
- Grych
The effect of parenting styles on children's academic achievement
- Fang P.