Article

A Frequency-Based Characterization of Spiccato Bowing in Violin Performance

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Abstract

Performance of instrumental music requires high precision and the automisation of motor control to free the performer to focus on the artistic outcome. To acquire this high skill, training is experience-based, involves one-on-one instruction, and requires long hours of repetitive practice. This approach is consistent with a traditional model of vocational apprenticeship. Practice habits and long hours associated with training have been identified as sometimes contributing to high rates of vocational injury among musicians. This study explores violin performance, identifying generalizable perceptual markers to bridge the gap between science and experience in pedagogical methodology. Kinematic data were collected using 3-D motion capture. Dynamic modeling was used to specify internal loads. Eleven professional-level musicians were tested, ranging in age from 21 to 47 years (M = 36 yr., SD = 6). The study identified several motor-learning markers, speed-dependent motor control phases (increasing effort, optimization, and approaching physiological limits), string-dependent motor control, and an unexpected sympathetic resonance between the two arms, notwithstanding their very different functions. This study suggests that instrumental performance could be aided by identifying markers related to musical outcomes, performers' perceptions, and motor skill acquisition.

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... This seems inappropriate, given that the shoulder is usually described as a ball-and-socket joint with 3 degrees of freedom 1 (DoF) and that the elbow and wrist are usually described as constrained ball-and-socket joints (2 DoF) (13) . Only three studies (14)(15)(16) reported the full 3D kinematics. A recent kinematics study focused solely on the scapulothoracic 1 A glossary of biomechanical and musical terminology is provided in Section 7 to help readers without backgrounds in these fields. ...
... The bow stroke* itself affects violinists' upper limb kinematics. For example, the kinematics involved in a spiccato* bow stroke differ from those of a legato* bow stroke (14,15) . Musicbased variables (e.g. ...
... However, studies commonly assess the effect of only one or two of these variables simultaneously. For instance, violinists are asked to play different strings with one bow stroke: legato (14,18) or spiccato (15) ; or to play different strings at different tempi (7,14) . Additionally, from a joint kinematics point of view, it is not known whether these variables interact during playing. ...
Article
Comparison of bow-side kinematics in violinists is hindered by the scarcity of studies available. This makes meta-analysis impossible. This paper assesses the effect of music-based variables (bow stroke, tempo, and string played) on intra- and inter-participant variability in joint kinematics. The joint kinematics of nine high-level violinists were acquired via a motion capture system while they played a standardized piece of music involving contrasting bow strokes and strings at different tempi. Results were compared using linear mixed models using the root mean square (RMS) for each joint. We found highly individualized patterns of play, deduced from a low intra- but high inter-musician variability (4.2° vs 13.1° of normalized RMS) in joint kinematics. String played and bow stroke had the greatest effect on joint kinematics. The string played had the greatest impact on shoulder kinematics, and the bow stroke had the greatest impact on elbow and wrist kinematics. Based on these results, we propose guidelines for future research designed to study bow kinematics in the field of biomechanics of violin movements. For ease of comparison between studies and to limit the time and resources required, our main suggestions are to use repeated measures designs with a legato reference condition and to choose pieces of music spanning multiple strings.
... A Vicon multiple-camera motion capture system, for quantitative kinematic description of the motions of the arms and violin bow, is being used for motion analysis in violin performance and control skills using all four strings [15,58,108]. Data analysis makes use of quantitative model comparison and statistical analysis. ...
... Angular information can also be obtained from these photogrammetric data [110]. Dynamic modeling using inverse dynamic analysis is used to estimate internal loads at the joints [108,111]. This allows one to examine the internal loads of the bow arm during the enactment of a smooth (legato) bowing technique at a variety of playing speeds (tempi). ...
... Kinematics: Motion analysis [48,101,107], MacReflex [15], Vicon [108,109] Upper strings, cello, bass Photogrammetric data with inverse dynamics [108,111] Electrogoniometers [113,114], Potentiometers [15,115] ...
Article
Full-text available
A combination of factors exposes musicians to neuro-musculoskeletal disorders, which lead to pain and damage. These involve overuse due to long playing hours, containing repetitive movements under stressful conditions, usually performed in an unnatural posture. Although the evoked disorders are usually non-traumatic, they may often lead to prolonged or even permanent damage. For instance, in upper string players, these include bursitis and tendinopathies of the shoulder muscles, tendonitis of the rotator cuff, injury at the tendon sheaths, medial or lateral epicondylitis (also known as tennis elbow), myofascial pain, and wrist tendonitis (also known as carpal tunnel syndrome, or De Quervein’s syndrome). In cases of intensive performance, a traumatic injury may result, requiring drastic means of intervention such as surgery. It should be pointed out that the upper body and upper extremities are the most commonly affected sites of playing musicians. This review provides a description of the playing-related motor disorders in performing musicians, and of the methodologies used to identify and evaluate these disorders, particularly for violinists and other upper string players.
... In the research literature, there are relatively few examples of quantitative research related to bowing in a performance situation. Quantitative studies employing advance movement analysis methods are a relatively recent development in music research Visentin and Shan 2003;Shan et al. 2007;Visentin et al. 2008). In the identified studies, researchers set out to determine whether or not it was possible to accurately characterize biomechanics related to violin bowingboth kinematics and kineticsfor smooth and bounced bowing techniques. ...
... Through biomechanical modeling, the studies of Shan and Visentin also identified tempo-dependent phases of motor control (Shan et al. 2007;Visentin et al. 2008) by examining the relative movement of the bow to the strings of violin. In this way, motor control is linked to the acoustic necessities of producing sound on the instrument. ...
... The second phase was characterized by constant bow acceleration, revealing workload to remain steady, while distance and speed decreased (showing efficiency gains). And the third, revealing an approach to physical limits of the player, showed bow acceleration, speed, and distance to all gradually approach (Shan et al. 2007) their respective plateaus. These results amount to "trade-offs," showing a compensatory strategy (whether consciously invoked or a subliminal result from long-term training) that mitigates effort "costs" with respect to increases in tempo. ...
Book
The Handbook of Human Motion is a large cross-disciplinary reference work which covers the many interlinked facets of the science and technology of human motion and its measurement. Individual chapters cover fundamental principles and technological developments, the state-of-the-art and consider applications across four broad and interconnected fields; medicine, sport, forensics and animation. The huge strides in technological advancement made over the past century make it possible to measure motion with unprecedented precision, but also lead to new challenges. This work introduces the many different approaches and systems used in motion capture, including IR and ultrasound, mechanical systems and video, plus some emerging techniques. The large variety of techniques used for the study of motion science in medicine can make analysis a complicated process, but extremely effective for the treatment of the patient when well utilised. The handbook descri bes how motion capture techniques are applied in medicine, and shows how the resulting analysis can help in diagnosis and treatment. A closely related field, sports science involves a combination of in-depth medical knowledge and detailed understanding of performance and training techniques, and motion capture can play an extremely important role in linking these disciplines. The handbook considers which technologies are most appropriate in specific circumstances, how they are applied and how this can help prevent injury and improve sporting performance. The application of motion capture in forensic science and security is reviewed, with chapters dedicated to specific areas including employment law, injury analysis, criminal activity and motion/facial recognition. And in the final area of application, the book describes how novel motion capture techniques have been designed specifically to aid the creation of increasingly realistic animation within films and v ideo games, with Lord of the Rings and Avatar just two examples. Chapters will provide an overview of the bespoke motion capture techniques developed for animation, how these have influenced advances in film and game design, and the links to behavioural studies, both in humans and in robotics. Comprising a cross-referenced compendium of different techniques and applications across a broad field, the Handbook of Human Motion provides the reader with a detailed reference and simultaneously a source of inspiration for future work. The book will be of use to students, researchers, engineers and others working in any field relevant to human motion capture.
... 5 Optoelectronic 3D motion capture systems permit the accurate and objective assessment of upper-body posture and motion during violin and viola performance. [6][7][8][9][10] This study used a novel, marker-based method to quantify the 3D upper-body kinematics of high string players, which has been demonstrated in a previous study to have clinical feasibility in violin and viola performance research. 10 The method provides an objective evaluation of high string players' motor strategies, especially in the shoulder complex, by distinguishing between the scapulothoracic (ST) and glenohumeral (GH) joints, while minimizing skin movement artifacts, marker occlusions, and limitations due to instrument placement. ...
Article
Background: Recently, Wolf et al. proposed a novel, marker-based method to analyze the three-dimensional upper-body kinematics of high string players for clinical application. The method provides an objective evaluation of high string players' motor strategies, especially in the shoulder complex, by distinguishing between the scapulothoracic (ST) and glenohumeral (GH) joints, while minimizing skin movement artifacts, marker occlusions, and limitations due to instrument placement. Nevertheless, reproducibility of kinematic measurements is crucial for clinical applications. The aim of this study was to assess the method's reproducibility in terms of reliability and repeatability. Methods: One healthy professional violinist underwent a total of nine bowing trials in three different laboratory sessions. Each trial was conducted by one of two different examiners. A biomechanical model was applied to motion capture data of the pelvis, thorax, spine, and head, as well as both upper limbs (consisting of the scapula, upper arm, forearm and hand). Reproducibility was assessed by calculating inter- and intra-tester, inter-session, and intra-subject measurement errors for each rotational degree of freedom in the upper-body segments and joints. Findings: Small measurement errors were accepted to be good indicators for reproducibility. Intra- and inter-tester errors were found to be small (< 3° for the most part). Both inter-session and intra-subject repeatability were found to be larger (< 5° for the most part). Interpretation: This study generally showed the novel, marker-based method to have good reproducibility for a healthy violinist. This indicates that the proposed method is a reliable tool for quantifying upper-body movements during violin playing across subjects, examiners, laboratories, and motion capture systems.
... For musicians, a failure to consider musical context when analyzing underlying motor behaviors renders research pointless for real-world applications. For human movement scientists, artistic manipulation of context can be a nearly insurmountable confounding factor in experimental designs and data analysis (Shan et al., 2007). This makes applying human movement research methodologies to motor learning when playing a musical instrument very challenging. ...
Article
Full-text available
Piano performance motor learning research requires more “artful” methodologies if it is to meaningfully address music performance as a corporeal art. To date, research has been sparse and it has typically constrained multiple performance variables in order to isolate specific phenomena. This approach has denied the fundamental ethos of music performance which, for elite performers, is an act of interpretation, not mere reproduction. Piano performances are intentionally manipulated for artistic expression. We documented motor movements in the complex task of performance of the first six measures of Chopin’s “Revolutionary” Etude by two anthropometrically different elite pianists. We then discussed their motor strategy selections as influenced by anthropometry and the composer’s musical directives. To quantify the joint angles of the trunk, shoulders, elbows, and wrists, we used a VICON 3 D motion capture system and biomechanical modeling. A Kistler force plate (1 N, Swiss) quantified center of gravity (COG) shifts. Changes in COG and trunk angles had considerable influence on the distal segments of the upper limbs. The shorter pianist used an anticipatory strategy, employing larger shifts in COG and trunk angles to produce dynamic stability as compensation for a smaller stature. Both pianists took advantage of low inertial left shoulder internal rotation and adduction to accommodate large leaps in the music. For the right arm, motor strategizing was confounded by rests in the music. These two cases illustrated, in principle, that expert pianists’ individualized motor behaviors can be explained as compensatory efforts to accommodate both musical goals and anthropometric constraints. Motor learning among piano students can benefit from systematic attention to motor strategies that consider both of these factors.
... Although pianists were preferred subjects in MoCap studies, mostly due to the visibility of finger-and hand movements with camera systems and to the ease of recording the playing using MIDI-technology MoCap has been used in the last years also in other instrumentalists, for examples in string players (Shan et al., 2007;Schoonderwaldt and Altenmüller, 2014;Ancillao et al., 2017;Hopper et al., 2017) and wood-wind players (e.g., Albrecht et al., 2014) yielding interesting results in terms of precision of timing of movements. In the last years increasing interest emerged in measurements of musician's movements during ensemble synchronization (e.g., Demos et al., 2017, for a review see Keller et al., 2014) and in and emotional gesturing of musicians (e.g., Masanobu et al., 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background At present only little information is available concerning the acquisition of skilled movements in musicians. Although optimally a longitudinal study of changing movement patterns during the process of increasing expertise is required, long-term follow up over several years is difficult to manage. Therefore, in the present cross-sectional study a comparative kinematic analysis of skilled movements in drummers with different levels of expertise was carried out. Aims The aim of the investigation was (1) to analyze the kinematic differences between beginners, students and expert drummers, and (2) to deduce from the results general rules related to the acquisition of drumming expertise and (3) to discuss the implications for drum teaching. Method Two highly skilled experts, eight professional drumming students and five beginners participated in the experiment. Fast repetitive drumming movements were assessed using an active infrared measurement setup (SELSPOT-System). Recording was obtained from LEDs positioned over the shoulder-, elbow-, wrist- and MCP-joints and close to the tip of the stick at a sampling rate of 300 Hz. Kinematic analysis included calculation of angles, velocities and accelerations and assessment of the relation between velocity and acceleration as phase diagrams. Results Temporal accuracy of the drumming movements was related to expertise. In contrast to beginners, experts and students revealed a high degree of self-similarity of movements and a predominant use of low-mass distal joints, resulting in a whiplash-like movement when hitting the pad. Conclusion Intense training in students and experts results in economic utilization of forces. Percussion teachers can take advantage of the kinematic analysis and improve their instructions according to the student’s observed motor pattern.
... The spatiotemporal human representation based on 3D motion capture data is currently the most trustworthy approach in motor skill quantification, both in sports and arts performance [54][55][56][57][58][59][60]. This method, however, mainly supplies post-measurement feedback (i.e., not real-time) due to its drawbacks: multiple cameras placed in a room, long calibration and setup procedures, a time consuming course on data collection, processing, analysis, and interpretation, and the high cost of the equipment [61][62][63]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Biomechanical feedback is a relevant key to improving sports and arts performance. Yet, the bibliometric keyword analysis on Web of Science publications reveals that, when comparing to other biofeedback applications, the real-time biomechanical feedback application lags far behind in sports and arts practice. While real-time physiological and biochemical biofeedback have seen routine applications, the use of real-time biomechanical feedback in motor learning and training is still rare. On that account, the paper aims to extract the specific research areas, such as three-dimensional (3D) motion capture, anthropometry, biomechanical modeling, sensing technology, and artificial intelligent (AI)/deep learning, which could contribute to the development of the real-time biomechanical feedback system. The review summarizes the past and current state of biomechanical feedback studies in sports and arts performance; and, by integrating the results of the studies with the contemporary wearable technology, proposes a two-chain body model monitoring using six IMUs (inertial measurement unit) with deep learning technology. The framework can serve as a basis for a breakthrough in the development. The review indicates that the vital step in the development is to establish a massive data, which could be obtained by using the synchronized measurement of 3D motion capture and IMUs, and that should cover diverse sports and arts skills. As such, wearables powered by deep learning models trained by the massive and diverse datasets can supply a feasible, reliable, and practical biomechanical feedback for athletic and artistic training.
... None of the studies cited addressed any aspect of teaching the biomechanical skills requisite for successful musical performance (Flohr & Hodges, 2002). Since then, a few studies have begun to quantitatively examine motor behavior performance elements for bowed stringed instruments (representative articles cited) Delì ege & Wiggins, 2006; Hargreaves, Miell & MacDonald, 2012; Papadelis, 2006; Shan & Visentin, 2003; Shan et al., 2007; Visentin, Shan & Wasiak, 2008). None of these deal with the topic of the current paper, a tempo-dependent analysis of left-hand position changes in violin performance. ...
Article
Full-text available
Instrumental music performance ranks among the most complex of learned human behaviors, requiring development of highly nuanced powers of sensory and neural discrimination, intricate motor skills, and adaptive abilities in a temporal activity. Teaching, learning and performing on the violin generally occur within musico-cultural parameters most often transmitted through aural traditions that include both verbal instruction and performance modeling. In most parts of the world, violin is taught in a manner virtually indistinguishable from that used 200 years ago. The current study uses methods from movement science to examine the “how” and “what” of left-hand position changes (shifting), a movement skill essential during violin performance. In doing so, it begins a discussion of artistic individualization in terms of anthropometry, the performer-instrument interface, and the strategic use of motor behaviors. Results based on 540 shifting samples, a case series of 6 professional-level violinists, showed that some elements of the skill were individualized in surprising ways while others were explainable by anthropometry, ergonomics and entrainment. Remarkably, results demonstrated each violinist to have developed an individualized pacing for shifts, a feature that should influence timing effects and prove foundational to aesthetic outcomes during performance. Such results underpin the potential for scientific methodologies to unravel mysteries of performance that are associated with a performer’s personal artistic style.
Article
Bu çalışmanın amacı lisans düzeyinde keman çalan öğrencilerin çalma performanslarına yönelik özyeterliklerini belirlemek amacı ile likert-tipinde geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı geliştirmektir. Bu kapsamda araştırmanın örneklemini kolay ulaşılabilir örnekleme yöntemi ile Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Müzik Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda keman öğrenimi gören toplam 295 öğrenci oluşturmuştur. İlgili alan yazın taranmasının ardından alanında uzman 7 akademisyenin “performansın boyutlarına, teknik, müzikal ve estetik olgulara” ilişkin görüşlerinin betimsel analizinden elde edilen sonuçlar doğrultusunda madde havuzu oluşturulmuş, elde edilen maddeler uzman görüşüne sunulmuştur. Uzmanların önerileri doğrultusunda yapılan değişikliklerin ardından geçerlik ve güvenirlik incelemesine ilişkin analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Açımlayıcı faktör analizi (AFA) sonucunda ölçek tek faktörlü yapıda çıkmış olup toplam varyansın %44’ünü açıkladığı belirlenmiştir. Deneme uygulamasıyla elde edilen faktör yapısının model veri uyumunun farklı bir örneklemde belirlenebilmesi amacıyla ölçeğin 37 maddeden oluşan nihai hali yeni bir örnekleme (N=256) tekrar uygulanarak Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi (DFA) yapılmıştır. Ölçeğin güvenirliğine ilişkin hesaplanan Cronbach Alpha değeri 0,96 iken, Spearman Brown İki Yarı yöntemleri için elde edilen güvenirlik katsayısı 0,92’dir.
Preprint
Full-text available
Instrumental music performance ranks among the most complex of learned human behaviors, requiring development of highly nuanced powers of sensory and neural discrimination, intricate motor skills, and adaptive abilities in a temporal activity. Teaching, learning and performing on the violin generally occur within musico-cultural parameters most often transmitted through aural traditions that include both verbal instruction and performance modeling. In most parts of the world, violin is taught in a manner virtually indistinguishable from that used 200 years ago. The current study uses methods from movement science to examine the “how” and “what” of left-hand position changes (shifting), a movement skill essential during violin performance. In doing so, it begins a discussion of artistic individualization in terms of anthropometry, the performer-instrument interface, and the strategic use of motor behaviors. Results based on 540 shifting samples, a case series of 6 professional-level violinists, showed that some elements of the skill were individualized in surprising ways while others were explainable by anthropometry, ergonomics and entrainment. Remarkably, results demonstrated each violinist to have developed an individualized pacing for shifts, a feature that should influence timing effects and prove foundational to aesthetic outcomes during performance. Such results underpin the potential for scientific methodologies to unravel mysteries of performance that are associated with a performer’s personal artistic style.
Preprint
Full-text available
Instrumental music performance ranks among the most complex of learned human behaviors, requiring development of highly nuanced powers of sensory and neural discrimination, intricate motor skills, and adaptive abilities in a temporal activity. Teaching, learning and performing on the violin generally occur within musico-cultural parameters most often transmitted through aural traditions that include both verbal instruction and performance modeling. In most parts of the world, violin is taught in a manner virtually indistinguishable from that used 200 years ago. The current study uses methods from movement science to examine the “how” and “what” of left-hand position changes (shifting), a movement skill essential during violin performance. In doing so, it begins a discussion of artistic individualization in terms of anthropometry, the performer-instrument interface, and the strategic use of motor behaviors. Results based on 540 shifting samples, a case series of 6 professional-level violinists, showed that some elements of the skill were individualized in surprising ways while others were explainable by anthropometry, ergonomics and entrainment. Remarkably, results demonstrated each violinist to have developed an individualized pacing for shifts, a feature that should influence timing effects and prove foundational to aesthetic outcomes during performance. Such results underpin the potential for scientific methodologies to unravel mysteries of performance that are associated with a performer’s personal artistic style.
Conference Paper
Though musicians tend to agree on the importance of practicing expressivity in performance, not many tools and techniques are available for the task. A machine learning model is proposed for predicting bowing velocity during performances of violin pieces. Our aim is to provide feedback to violin students in a technology--enhanced learning setting. Predictions are generated for musical phrases in a score by matching them to melodically and rhythmically similar phrases in performances by experts and adapting the bow velocity curve measured in the experts' performance. Results show that mean error in velocity predictions and bowing direction classification accuracy outperform our baseline when reference phrases similar to the predicted ones are available.
Chapter
The violin plays a central role in Western classical music traditions. Performing on the violin requires a complex interaction between motor control and auditory perception. The development of such skills requires extensive training over a period of years. With modern movement analysis techniques, characteristic motor behaviors associated with violin performance can be revealed. This chapter overviews research findings regarding the kinematics and kinetics of posture, bowing, fingering, and limb movements of violin players. These provide insights into the mechanics of playing the violin. More importantly, they can help to improve skill acquisition, control efficiency, and, concomitantly, musical effectiveness through their discussions of motor control economy, compensatory strategies, anthropometrics, and ergonomics.
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Performing arts biomechanics is concerned with quantifying the musculoskeletal demands of artistic tasks. The growing body of related research has prompted this scoping study, solely focused on quantitative research, to summarize the state of the science, identify knowledge gaps, and identify opportunities for future research. To identify, summarize, and categorize quantitative research on the biomechanics of violin, viola, cello, and double bass players, using scoping study methodology. Established scoping study methodology was used to identify and categorize existing research. We identified 74 articles for review. Of these, 34 met our scoping study criteria and were included in this study. Twenty-one of the 34 articles that met the scoping criteria were published since 2000. Investigations using electromyography (16 studies) and kinematics (15 studies) comprise the bulk of the research. Two studies employed force transducers for data collection. Violinists were the most frequently studied musicians (22 studies) and double bass players were the least (1 study). Fewer than half of the studies used solely professional musicians as their subjects (13 studies). This scoping study confirmed that quantitative biomechanical research into bowed string musicians has been performed with increasing frequency and that there are voids in the research, particularly in investigating mechanisms of injury and protective strategies. Currently, arts biomechanics research is largely descriptive in nature. There are few studies that investigate protective strategies, although it is expected that the field will progress to incorporate this type of research.
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Music ensemble playing relies heavily on a conductor's gestural cues. Visibility of those cues varies within the ensemble, so conductors typically use compensation strategies selectively to improve the clarity of their gestures for different players. Currently, there are no quantitative studies evaluating the efficacy of such compensatory strategies. The present pilot study examined the effectiveness of one typical strategy, namely, twisting or turning to address different sections of an ensemble. The method used three-dimensional motion capture and biomechanical modeling to quantify line-of-sight visibility of the conductor from the viewpoint of ensemble players. Results established a visually advantaged quadrant within the ensemble. They further showed that optimizing visual communication may require less turning than commonly believed.
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The incidence of musculoskeletal injuries among musicians is well documented. The purpose of this study was to describe the neural status of the median and ulnar nerves in young adult violinists. Twenty volunteer violinists were recruited from the Belmont University and the Vanderbilt University Blair School of Music Orchestras (age 18-30 years). The subjects completed a history form and underwent a physical examination. The electrophysiologic status of the median and ulnar nerves in both upper extremities was then evaluated using sensory and motor nerve conduction studies (NCSs). Upon completion of the NCSs, educational materials to prevent upper extremity cumulative trauma disorders were distributed to the subjects. In these subjects, the history and subjective examination were largely noncontributory of upper extremity neuropathies. Their physical examinations were also not diagnostic of upper extremity neuropathies. All subjects' median and ulnar NCSs were normal when compared with a chart of normal values. However, when comparison studies between the median and ulnar NCSs in the same extremity were performed, seven subjects showed differences in their distal motor latencies (>1.0 msec) or distal sensory latencies (>0.5 msec) that could be suggestive of early median neuropathy at or distal to the wrist. In this descriptive study, 20 young adult violinists had no subjective findings of median or ulnar neuropathy, had normal physical examinations of the neck and both upper extremities, and had normal median and ulnar NCSs when compared with a chart of normal values. However, when comparison NCSs between the median and ulnar nerve in the same extremity were performed, seven violinists were found to have NCS values suggestive of early median neuropathy at or distal to the wrist. In this population of 20 young adult violinists, seven musicians were found to have electrophysiologic findings suggestive of early median neuropathy at or distal to the wrist.
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Two electromyography (EMG) experiments related to double bass playing are described. By means of surface electrodes and synchronous recordings of finger movements on the string, it is shown in the first experiment that the production of vibrato is associated with pulsating contractions of two back muscles, the teres minor and the teres major. A failure in the coordination of the activity of these muscles was observed in a student having problems in producing a proper vibrato. The second experiment demonstrates clear effects of a small change in the holding of the instrument on muscular stress in the left and right trapezius muscles. These changes were revealed by the occurrence of different degrees of muscular force developed during playing. The pedagogical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Studies show that 43% to 66% of professional musicians need to stop performing for extended periods due to occupational injuries, often identified as overuse syndrome. Repetitive movement may be the mechanism of these injuries, but the identification of causal factors requires quantitative research into the kinematic and kinetic characteristics of musical performance. The current study examines internal loads of the bow arm during a legato (smooth) bowing technique at a variety of tempos (speeds). Eight professional-level violinists participated in the study. A nine-camera VICON v8i system was used to capture and synchronize upper body kinematics with sound and video. Using a 10-segment biomechanical model (head, trunk, upper arms, lower arms, hands, bow, and violin) and applying inverse dynamic analysis to the kinematic data, moments and forces loading the joints (shoulder, elbow, and wrist) were calculated, revealing quantitative characteristics of the joint load. The results show that load can be measured in terms of quantity and quality, with quantity influenced by factors such as the string played and tempo and quality defined in terms of the type of load (static, quasi-static, dynamic, fundamental, and impact) and psychological and physical constraints. Inverse dynamic analysis reveals that: 1) right shoulder loads vary in quantity and quality depending on the string played, whereas wrist and elbow loads are independent of the string played; 2) loading may be divided into three discrete phases-increasing physical effort, optimization, and approaching physiologic limits; and 3) several factors contribute to impact loading, and tempo plays a dominant role. This is the first study providing quantitative three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic information on the bow and on the bow arm, laying the foundation for further exploration of the causal factors of overuse syndrome and for the potential development of practices that might minimize these injuries.
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Overuse Syndrome (OS) resulting from repetitive motion affects a significant percentage of performing musicians. Particularly susceptible to OS, violinists use different kinds of muscle control patterns in the right and left limbs and must assume a complex asymmetrical posture to hold and play the instrument. There is a clear need for developing efficient and effective strategies to prevent OS in violinists, keeping biological loads under physiological limits and focusing on physical economy during training. The first step in developing such strategies requires quantitative kinematic description of the motions involved in violin performance. This study supplies such information for the arms and violin bow. The motions of eight professional violinists and three advanced university music students were captured using a nine-camera VICON V8i motion capture system. Each performed a fundamental control skill employing all four strings of the violin. The data was analyzed using quantitative model comparison and statistical analysis. The results of this study show parameters such as elbow height normalized by body height and shoulder and elbow joint motion to have highly consistent patterns between the subjects. Wrist control patterns varied widely. Playing on different strings influences right arm patterns significantly, but not left. This is the first study providing quantitative 3-D kinematic data on shoulders, elbows, wrists and bow. It provides a foundation for further exploration of the kinematic characteristics of violin performance, for the examination of the potential causes of OS, and for an evaluation of practices that might minimize injuries.
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A cognitive shift is evident in the constituencies that deal with OS injuries. Medical practitioners, performers, educators and researchers are now clearly concerned with prevention as a desired strategy. Realistically, the medical community must take on the burden of changing attitudes within the artistic community. As artistic success or failure is often determined by micro-increments of “ability”, performers and educators (those in the greatest position of influence over aspiring students) have been slow to change and thoughtful training often takes a back seat to immediacy of skill acquisition. In our opinion, professionals will only adopt alternate practices if the weight of scientific evidence proves sufficient to challenge centuries of tradition. A clear message to the artistic community requires: 1) clarity of definition, 2) convincing methodology, 3) consistent means of situational comparison, and 4) solutions that do not compromise the artist’s perceptions of the end product. Current definitions of OS typically fail to differentiate between physiological tolerance (a time-based concept) and physiological limits (momentary impact conditions). The medical community must get the message across that physiological tolerance is entirely different from physiological limits. Even though diverse methods are used to evaluate OS injuries, individually none can directly quantify physiological tolerance. This difficulty justifies the use of indirect means to: 1) accurately describe the movements that are thought to cause the injury, 2) link external description with internal physiological conditions, and 3) determine relationships that allow us to quantify levels of injury risk. In this context, biomechanical modeling has the potential to serve as a nexus for evaluating information obtained from multiple methodologies. The main purpose of this paper is to validate the use of biomechanical modeling as a platform of information integration in the evaluation of OS. An examination of modeling theory in terms of typical OS conditions reveals a new mathematical representation, one which may serve to focus future discussions of efficiency related to prevention and effectiveness related to learning.
Article
Multidimensional Signal Analysis (MSA) involves the coordination and correlation of data gathered by multiple analytical techniques. For complex bio-systems, MSA provides a means to better investigate aspects of the system that cannot easily be understood using a single method. This is clearly the case for repetitive use injuries – also commonly referred to as Overuse Syndrome (OS). Injuries from OS are the result of deliberate physical behaviours. They are typically investigated through injury-site examinations, statistical and/or epidemiological studies and observation of the behaviours associated with the injury. Diverse methods must often be used to evaluate a patient, since individually they provide only partial information relating to the aetiology. The use of Multi-dimensional Signal Analysis (MSA) permits the integration of multiple observational perspectives, generally creating a more holistic view. Using MSA, accurate external description of the movements thought to cause injury can be linked with internal physiological conditions. Since physical work obviously causes observed damage in OS patients, a full examination of internal loading and muscle activity provides one possibility for understanding the evolutionary nature of these pathologies. Kinematic description, internal load analysis, electromyography (EMG), and biomechanical modeling are complementary methods used for MSA in this study. In the current study, a nine-camera VICON v8i system was used to capture 3-D body kinematics as input for inverse dynamic modeling. EMG (NORAXON: 8-channel, wireless) was measured and synchronized to the model, permitting the correlation of joint moments and selected muscle activity. Results reveal clear relationships between muscle activity and physiological loading for a variety of bowing speeds, strong interaction among muscles and groups of muscles, and changes in motor control at varying speeds. Additionally, load levels and work patterns are quantitatively established and evidence is found to support a three-phase division of motor control based on speed: 1) increasing physical effort, 2) optimization, and 3) approaching physiological limits. Combined with previous kinematic, kinetic and statistical studies, the current work illuminates the relative risks of static vs. dynamic loading, as well as providing perspective on the working patterns of muscles throughout the kinematic chain of the arms and torso during violin performance. Most importantly this study begins the process of establishing MSA as a means of gleaning a greater overall view from the separate observational perspectives provided by multiple assessment methods used to examine performing artists’ injuries. This is the first such study for violin performance; an activity highly correlated with OS.
Article
Introduction: Overuse syndrome in musicians, a common disorder, is characterized by pain, tenderness, and loss of function in muscles and joint ligaments of the upper limb. The most prevalent problems involve overuse of muscles resulting from repetitive movements of playing, often in combination with prolonged weight bearing in an awkward position. Many authors have described other problems such as tightness, cramp, fatigue, loss of performance, crepitation, focal dystonia and performance anxiety in classical music performers. Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate overuse syndrome, pain intensity and other related problems of string players and to determine the relation between these conditions and performing times. Patients and methods: Twenty-seven professional string players (13 male, 14 female) from the Presidential Symphony Orchestra, ranging from 24 to 50 years of age (mean: 33.00 +/- 7.83 years), and 25 students (8 male, 17 female) from Hacettepe University Conservatory, ranging from 11 to 18 years of age (mean: 13.16 +/- 2.28 years) were introduced into this study. In the evaluation, Fry's overuse grades, McGill Pain Questionnaire, and the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) were used. In addition, the complaints of tightness, cramp, fatigue, loss of performance, crepitation, focal dystonia and performance anxiety were recorded. Results: Various levels of VAS and overuse problems were observed in both groups, but no significant correlation between instrument playing time, and overuse levels and VAS was found.
Article
I evaluated 226 instrumentalists for playing-related symptoms. There were 103 players (46%) of string instruments, 7 keyboard instrumentalists (32%), 44 players (19%) of wind instruments, and 6 percussionists (3%). The mean age was 32 years; 58% were women. Sixty-five patients (29%) had a peripheral nerve disorder; 27 had symptoms of thoracic outlet syndrome; 12 had median neuropathies (carpal tunnel syndrome in 9); 9 had ulnar neuropathies; 6 had cervical radiculopathy; 5 had digital neuropathies; 3 had cranial neuropathies; and 3 had other peripheral nerve disorders. Treatment consisted of modification of playing schedules and technique, plus physical and occupational therapy in 51 and surgical procedures in 9 patients; 5 were not treated. Follow-up at 1 to 8 years showed 74% had a satisfactory result, 14% had slight or minimal improvement, and 12% had no improvement. At the time of writing, all but 4 patients remained in the music profession. It is concluded that playing-related symptoms among instrumentalists are frequently neurological in origin and that the large majority can be helped by conservative or, on occasion, surgical means.
Article
Musculoskeletal problems are common in instrumental musicians. Most of these problems can be classified as musculotendinous overuse, nerve entrapment/thoracic outlet syndrome, or motor dysfunction. Also seen in musicians are problems related to hypermobility and degenerative arthritis. Although these problems are seen in all instrumentalists, their prevalence is highest in professional musicians, with string players most commonly affected by musculotendinous overuse. Keyboard players are the performers most commonly affected by motor dysfunction. History and physical examination performed with an understanding of the problems of musicians are usually adequate to make the correct diagnosis. Electrophysiological studies are often helpful in confirming or excluding a diagnosis of nerve entrapment. With the exception of motor dysfunction, once these problems are recognized, they can be adequately treated. Treatment should begin conservatively with rest, evaluation of technique and practice habits, and possibly nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Depending on the type and severity of the problem, physical therapy, adaptive devices, steroid injection, or surgery may be indicated. A strong partnership with music educators is important in the management and prevention of these musculoskeletal problems.
Article
Over the past 10-15 years, there has been increasing interest in the health problems of performing artists. In this review, I will discuss the major playing-related disorders seen in instrumental musicians. Among the 672 instrumentalists evaluated, the major diagnoses identified included musculoskeletal disorders in 64%, peripheral nerve problems in 22.5%, and focal dystonia in 7%. Sixty percent of instrumentalists were female although males predominate in the group with focal dystonia. The average age of those evaluated was 32 years. Among musculoskeletal disorders overuse syndrome is the most common. Frequent peripheral nerve disorders include thoracic outlet syndrome, carpal tunnel syndrome, and ulnar neuropathy. A characteristic distribution of symptoms and signs is identified for each instrument group. Electrodiagnostic studies are an important part of the evaluation of these disorders. With carefully designed treatment, the majority of instrumental musicians can be returned to full and pain-free playing activities. The success rate is highest in some entrapment neuropathies but remains low in focal dystonia.
Article
In the last two decades, injuries to instrumental musicians have been well documented. Major categories of performance-related injuries include musculoskeletal overuse, nerve entrapment/thoracic outlet syndrome, and focal dystonia. Other areas of concern to instrumentalists include hypermobility, osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, and hearing loss. This chapter reviews the epidemiology, risk factors, physical exam, treatment, and prevention of common problems of instrumentalists. Emphasis is placed on the team approach of treatment and prevention and the need for close collaboration of the various health professionals, music educators, and performers. Additional resources are presented for those interested in pursuing performing arts medicine in greater detail.
Article
Certain medical ailments occur with increased frequency among musicians and can affect musicians of all ages and ability. These maladies range in severity from incidental, asymptomatic findings among casual a nd occasional players to serious injuries that significantly disable professional musicians from practicing or performing. The most prevalent problems involve overuse of muscles resulting from repetitive movements of playing, often in combination with prolonged weight bearing in an awkward position. Other common problems include dermatologic irritation, peripheral neuropathies, focal dystonias, and otolaryngologic disorders. This review organizes the musical maladies according to section of the orchestra with further subclassification by pathologic process. By becoming familiar with the disorders associated with specific instruments, physicians will be better able to make the correct diagnosis in musicians with medical complaints.
Article
Musicians are an occupational (or avocational) group that may on occasion have highly specific health care problems apparently caused by or adversely affecting instrumental performance. Neurologists have been intimately involved in the development of a burgeoning interest in these disorders and, because of the nature of the most common symptoms, neurologists can expect to be called upon to evaluate such patients. In this review, the most common playing-related disorders are discussed. These include the regional pain syndromes, primarily involving the neck and upper extremity, the focal neuropathies, again predominantly involving the upper extremity, and the focal dystonias or occupational cramps, which typically affect the hand or the cranial-innervated muscles involved in the embouchure (the relationship of the facial musculature to the mouthpiece of the instrument). Risk factors contributing to the development of these disorders are reviewed, the diagnostic approach is described, and the management of these playing-related problems is summarized. Aspects in which the instrumental musician may differ from other patients commonly seen by the neurologist, particularly with respect to the types of problems seen, methods of evaluation, and therapeutic strategies, are emphasized. Many unanswered questions remain in each of these areas. Neurologists and neuroscientists are in an excellent position to help fill the voids in our knowledge base. It is hoped that the reader will be stimulated to participate in this effort.