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The Effects of Idealized Fitness Images on Anxiety, Depression and Global Mood States in College Age Males and Females
Abstract
The primary purpose of this investigation was to quantify the effects of fitness media exposure on psychological affect utilizing the Solomon 4-group design. Volunteers were counterbalanced and randomly assigned to 30 minutes of viewing either a fitness or control magazine. State anxiety (STAI), tension, depression, anger vigor, fatigue, confusion, and global mood (POMS) were measured. Results indicate that pre-test sensitization was not a significant factor when testing the psychological factors in this investigation. Additionally, the outcomes associated with viewing ultra-fit images in popular media are not a benign experience and merit further examination.
... About 400,000 people in Spain suffer from an ED, and it is the third cause of chronic disease in adolescents, according to data from the Spanish Association for the Study of Disorders [7]. Runners are a group at high risk of suffering from this type of disorder [8][9][10]. ...
... (2) people who present a risk or unequivocal manifestations of NRA decide to engage in sports in which thinness is an indispensable requirement (as a way of disguising the disorder) [7,10,11,[14][15][16]. It was observed in recent studies that individuals with AN who over-exercise manifest higher levels of anxiety, depression, and perfectionism [17,18]. ...
... This is an important factor in the probability of developing an ED and, in our case, justifies the high similarity of risk behaviors obtained in this study. The reason for this correlation is the idea that excessive body weight limits performance in competition [10,12]. ...
Current studies show an increase in the risk of eating disorders in runners. Since it is known that abusive exercise can be both a cause and a consequence of such developments, the main objective of the present study was to examine the risk and possible relationships between negative running addiction (NRA), as measured by the reduced and validated SAS-40 scale, and the tendency to be a compulsive eater (measured by YFAS 2.0), anorexia nervosa (AN), and/or bulimia nervosa (BN) (measured by EAT-40). This study highlights the novelty of researching the level of influence of NRA on each defined eating disorder.
Method:
A total of 167 Spanish-speaking federated runners in cross-country and track running (42% women and 58% men), with an average age of 24 years and an average BMI of 21 kg/m2, responded to an online questionnaire that asked about sociodemographic data and the Spanish versions of the SAS-40, YFAS 2, YFAS 3, and YFAS 4. Through a quantitative methodology using logistic regressions-the coefficient of determination and Pearson's correlation coefficient-we created a sample analysis that related the significant items of the DSM-V to the results of the questionnaires administered, as well as their relationship with the practice of the sport in question and various variables of the environment.
Results:
The rates of CE, AN, and BN were 65, 11.4, and 16.2%, respectively. The tendency towards CE increased with a lower weight (r = 0.156, p < 0.05), not having been overweight in childhood (r = 0.151, p < 0.05), and being a long-distance runner (r = 0.123 p < 0.05). The risk of AN increased with the absence of menstruation for more than 3 months (r = 0.271 p < 0.01), having suffered from childhood obesity (r = 0.213 p < 0.05), and being underweight (r = 0.064 p < 0.05). The risk of BN increased with having suffered from childhood obesity (r = 0.194 p < 0.05), having a higher weight (r = 0.140, p < 0.05), and practicing athletics, especially the relay modality (r = 0.044 p < 0.05).
Conclusions:
A considerable number of runners are at risk of suffering from some type of eating disorder. A significant relationship was observed between long-distance runners and the risk of eating disorders (AN, BN, and CE), and the association is stronger for CE than for AN and BN. Lastly, childhood experiences (such as being obese/a healthy weight) were notorious for increasing the risk of eating disorders. Further studies are needed to research each particular parameter and the relationships between the possible levels of dependence on exercise.
Level of evidence:
Level III, cohort analytic study.
... With regard to the female body, the ideal concepts are characterized by an above-average body size, relatively long legs, large breasts, a strikingly young appearance and extreme slenderness (Fouts & Burggraf, 1999, 2000 a standard that not everyone can achieve anatomically (Garvin & Damson, 2008). ...
... thin model dimensions) results in increased human discontent, internalization of the ideal shown, and unhealthy attitudes and behaviors regarding food among women (Grabe, Ward & Hyde, 2008;Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002). Garvin and Damson (2008) found that women who saw fitness magazines with very athletic images of people in sportswear doing sports activities were more likely to have depressive symptoms than a comparison group. The subjects in the comparison group looked at National Geographic images. ...
... Considering the development in recent years, a new ideal has manifested in the online world in terms of body and appearance. Even if the original guiding principle of thinness as a beauty standard is still common, a supposedly healthier ideal has established as well (Boepple et al., 2016;Garvin & Damson, 2008;Robinson, Prichard, Nikolaidis, Drummond, Drummond, & Tiggemann, 2017;Schaefer et al., 2015). According to Palmer (2015), the external appearance is currently perceived as being particularly relevant in both personal and social terms. ...
Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit der Veränderung der Selbstwahrnehmung durch soziale Vergleichsprozesse im medialen Umfeld. Untersucht wird die Wirkung sogenannter Fitspiration-Bilder auf die physische Selbstwahrnehmung sowie das Selbstbewusstsein. Theoretisch baut die Arbeit auf der Theorie des Sozialen Vergleichs nach Festinger sowie den Besonderheiten computervermittelter Kommunikation über soziale Netzwerke auf.
Das Genre Fitspiration umfasst insbesondere Fotografien sportlicher Menschen, die entweder einer entsprechenden Aktivität nachgehen oder lediglich posieren. Betrachter sollen dazu angeregt werden, durch Bewegung und gesunde Ernährung ein positiveres Körperbild sowie einen vernünftigen Lebensstil zu erreichen. Ursprünglich soll das Material der Idealisierung einer schlanken physischen Erscheinung entgegenstehen. Eine Betrachtung einschlägiger Forschung legt jedoch nahe, dass die Bilder bisherigen innerhalb der Massenmedien postulierten Idealen sehr ähnlich sind. Sie könnten daher lediglich einen, um den Aspekt der Muskularität ergänzten, Aufwärtsvergleich verursachen. Die konkreten bisherigen Forschungsergebnisse gehen teilweise weit auseinander, was gegebenenfalls auf die Rahmenbedingungen, das Stimulusmaterial und die diversen Methodiken der einzelnen Studien zurückzuführen ist. Innerhalb der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde daher neues Stimulusmaterial erstellt, das weitestgehend frei von Störvariablen ist. Zwei Vorstudien dienten der Feststellung erster Trends sowie der Bewertung des generierten Bildmaterials. Die Hauptstudie besteht aus einer Kombination von Befragungen und Eyetracking Experiment.
Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit stehen der bisherigen Forschung in großen Teilen entgegen. Es fällt auf, dass die Veränderungen der physischen Selbstwahrnehmung sowie des Selbstbewusstseins im Durchschnitt positiv ist – wenn auch mit kleinen Effektstärken. Im Sinne der Theorie des Sozialen Vergleichs kann bestätigt werden, dass in erster Linie die Probanden von Veränderungen betroffen sind, die die Models attraktiv fanden. Als weitere relevante Variablen bei der Frage, wer von den Fitspiration-Bildern beeinflusst wird, stechen der eigene BMI sowie das Alter der Probanden hervor. Es ergeben sich, trotz einiger Limitationen, interessante Ansatzpunkte für weiterführende Forschung.
... Prior to 1999, pageant contestants wore one-piece swimsuits. Because the abdomen appears to be an important area of muscularity for women (Garvin and Damson 2008), images of winners after 1998 wearing two-piece swimsuits were selected. The following criteria were used to ensure that enough of the body was visible to make an accurate rating: (a) figures were positioned so that the body was within 45°of facing front or directly back; (b) at least three-fourths of the arms, upper torso, stomach, or legs were visible; (c) the figure was well-defined (i.e., figures were not covered by large or loose-fitting clothing); (d) only one woman was visible in each image; and (e) there was no text over the woman's body. ...
... Given the established deleterious psychological effects of thin and fit media (Benton and Karazsia 2015;Kelley et al. 2010;Sabiston and Chandler 2009), future research should continue to examine the impact of this changing ideal. Because exercise is necessary to achieve this figure, this Bideal^body may be equated with fitness and health (Garvin and Damson 2008). As a result, women may not feel the need to critically evaluate these media. ...
... This assumption would be unfortunate because critical media consumption appears to be a successful method of protecting oneself from the negative effects of thin ideal media (Shaw et al. 2009). Moreover, there is concern that this muscular and thin shape may be even more difficult for women to acquire than the traditional thin ideal figure (Garvin and Damson 2008) due to the necessity of maintaining a musclebuilding exercise routine while restricting caloric intake. As a result, this Bnew^figure may demonstrate even more unrealistic aspirations regarding the ideal female figure. ...
Research has documented an increased emphasis on fitness in media targeting women. However, it is unclear whether this emphasis has resulted in increased muscularity in the perceived ideal female body shape. We sought to evaluate whether the ideal female figure has incorporated increased muscularity into the existing ideal body type that already emphasizes thinness. In Study 1, 78 female undergraduates evaluated images of U.S. beauty pageant winners over the past 15 years on dimensions of thinness, muscularity, and attractiveness. Results indicated that muscularity and thinness ratings of pageant winners significantly increased over time. In Study 2, 64 female undergraduates evaluated two different versions of the same image of a model: a Thin Muscular image and a Thin Only image in which the appearance of muscularity was removed through digital editing. When images were presented in pairs, results indicated that participants found the Thin Muscular image more attractive than the Thin Only image. These results suggest that the current perceived ideal female figure includes both extreme thinness and muscularity and that women prefer this muscular thin figure to a solely thin figure. These findings have implications for clinical treatments related to body image, compulsive exercise, and media literacy. © 2018 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
... A small body of research exists demonstrating the negative impact of viewing ultra-fit images as distinct from thin-ideal images (e.g., Garvin and Damson 2008;Homan et al. 2012). Garvin and Damson (2008) demonstrated that women exposed to fitness magazines featuring ultra-fit images of individuals wearing swimwear, fitness clothing or engaging in exercise displayed greater depressive symptomatology and state anxiety in comparison to women who viewed neutral images from National Geographic. ...
... A small body of research exists demonstrating the negative impact of viewing ultra-fit images as distinct from thin-ideal images (e.g., Garvin and Damson 2008;Homan et al. 2012). Garvin and Damson (2008) demonstrated that women exposed to fitness magazines featuring ultra-fit images of individuals wearing swimwear, fitness clothing or engaging in exercise displayed greater depressive symptomatology and state anxiety in comparison to women who viewed neutral images from National Geographic. Homan et al. (2012) established that women who viewed photographs of thin and athletic women had greater levels of body dissatisfaction than did women who viewed control images of neutral objects. ...
... Other images can be considered non-functional in that they depict individuals in sedentary or posed positions, sometimes taken of themselves in the mirror (commonly termed Ba selfie^). Although previous research has investigated the effect of fitness media on body dissatisfaction and mood (Garvin and Damson 2008;Homan et al. 2012;Robinson et al. 2017;Tiggemann and Zaccardo 2015), it has not taken into account any differences in the way the bodies were presented in the images. ...
The present study experimentally examined the impact of different forms of inspirational fitness images (“fitspiration”) on women’s body image. Australian female participants (n = 152, 17–30 years-old; Mage = 21.55, SD = 3.94) were randomly assigned to view fitspiration media which depicted the body in a functional (performing exercise) or non-functional (posed) way, with or without accompanying appearance-focused text. There were no main effects of image type or text presence for body satisfaction, mood, or state self-objectification. However, state body satisfaction decreased and negative mood increased over time following exposure to the fitspiration images. Trait self-objectification moderated the impact of image type and text on state body satisfaction, such that viewing functional images presented with appearance-focused text resulted in poorer body satisfaction for women with higher trait self-objectification, but not for those with lower self-objectification. The findings demonstrate that irrespective of focus or presence of text, exposure to fitspiration images decreases body satisfaction and increases negative mood, highlighting the potential negative consequences of engaging with fitspiration media.
... Although research has demonstrated a strong link between body dissatisfaction and the thin-ideal, research investigating the relationship between the athletic-ideal and body dissatisfaction is sparse. It has been shown that women experience a significant increase in state anxiety and depression, as well as lower mood, after being exposed to articles and images promoting an athletic female physique (Garvin & Damson, 2008). Studies examining the relationship between the athletic-ideal and body dissatisfaction more directly, suggest that exposure to images of lean athletic women produces an increase in body dissatisfaction (Homan, McHugh, Wells, Watson, & King, 2012) and a decrease in body satisfaction (Benton & Karazsia, 2015) amongst young women. ...
... It has also been found that after watching sports such as gymnastics and diving, where athletes epitomize the athletic ideal, women report higher levels of body dissatisfaction (Bissell, 2004). Although these sports also emphasize a very slender physique, and therefore it could be argued that the reported body dissatisfaction may be due to the thinness rather than athleticism of the athletes, other studies have demonstrated that images of 'larger' athletic women also lead to significant alterations in anxiety, increased ratings of depression and decreased mood amongst females (Garvin & Damson, 2008). The research described above involves 'exposure' of particular body ideals to women. ...
Background:
Investigations into female body image have suggested that rather than thinness, preference is now being given to a female "athletic ideal" characterised by a toned abdomen, firmer lower body and muscular upper body. This study sought to investigate a) whether greater internalization of the athletic-ideal is associated with higher body dissatisfaction, dieting, bulimic symptoms and compulsive exercise, and b) whether body dissatisfaction mediates the relationship between athletic-ideal internalization and the disordered eating and exercise behaviours of dieting, bulimic symptoms and compulsive exercise.
Methods:
Participants were 388 females aged between 17 and 35years. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires measuring athletic-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, compulsive exercise and bulimic symptoms.
Results:
Athletic-ideal internalization was not found to be associated with body dissatisfaction, but was found to predict dieting, bulimic symptoms and compulsive exercise directly. Body dissatisfaction did not mediate the relationship between athletic-ideal internalization and any of the disordered eating and exercise behaviours.
Limitations:
The study was limited by its cross sectional design which precluded conclusions being drawn about the direction of causality and temporal associations.
Conclusions:
Athletic-ideal internalization, while not associated with body dissatisfaction, was associated with a range of disordered eating and exercise behaviours. Results from the study suggest that the female athletic-ideal is an equally unrealistic and problematic ideal for women to strive towards.
... Exposure to a fit peer while exercising produced a decrease in body satisfaction relative to exposure to an unfit peer or no peer (Wasilenko, Kulik, & Wanic, 2007). Female college students reported an increase in negative mood states following 30 minutes of viewing a fitness magazine (Garvin & Damson, 2008). However, other research presents a healthier association. ...
... Women who viewed normal weight models exemplifying the fit ideal did not experience greater body dissatisfaction than those in the control condition, supporting our hypothesis that an ultra-fit physique alone does not produce body dissatisfaction. Thus, it is likely that previous reports of a link between reading fitness magazines and eating disorder tendencies or negative affect (Garvin & Damson, 2008;Harrison & Cantor, 1997) were due to the thinness of the models in those Note. N = 138. ...
Modern ideals of female attractiveness include an extremely toned and fit appearance in addition to extreme thinness. Although viewing thin models has a negative effect on women's body image, research has not tested the effect of exposure to the ultra-fit physique separate from the thin-ideal. This randomized, posttest-only experiment tested the effects of the athletic aspect of the current ideal by exposing 138 undergraduate women to thin and athletic models, normal weight athletic models, or a control condition consisting of neutral objects. The study also tested the moderating effects of thin-ideal and athletic-ideal internalization. Exposure to thin ultra-fit models, but not normal weight ultra-fit models, produced an increase in body dissatisfaction and neither internalization variable moderated this effect. Findings suggest that interventions that focus on the benefits of fitness while challenging the desirability of thinness may offer promising results.
... Exposure to a fit peer while exercising produced a decrease in body satisfaction relative to exposure to an unfit peer or no peer (Wasilenko, Kulik, & Wanic, 2007). Female college students reported an increase in negative mood states following 30 minutes of viewing a fitness magazine (Garvin & Damson, 2008). However, other research presents a healthier association. ...
... Women who viewed normal weight models exemplifying the fit ideal did not experience greater body dissatisfaction than those in the control condition, supporting our hypothesis that an ultra-fit physique alone does not produce body dissatisfaction. Thus, it is likely that previous reports of a link between reading fitness magazines and eating disorder tendencies or negative affect (Garvin & Damson, 2008;Harrison & Cantor, 1997) were due to the thinness of the models in those Note. N = 138. ...
Although internalization of the thin ideal has been extensively researched and is now regarded as a risk factor for eating disturbance, endorsement of the firm, athletic body ideal has received only minimal attention. This short-term longitudinal study explored whether internalization of two aspects of the current cultural ideal (thinness and athleticism) prospectively predicted three potentially deleterious outcomes: body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Undergraduate women (N=231) completed self-report measures at the beginning of the academic year and again 7 months later (N=156 at Time 2). Athletic-ideal internalization predicted change in compulsive exercise over the 7-month study period but not body dissatisfaction or dieting; thin-ideal internalization predicted change in all three outcomes. When both internalization measures were tested simultaneously, neither contributed unique variance. Results suggest that athletic-ideal internalization is not as detrimental as thin-ideal internalization.
... One mechanism by which body image and self-worth are potentially linked is the accumulation of reduced positive affect or increased negative affect each time a person's body image is threatened. For instance, there is evidence that experimental exposure to athletic and toned models increases both negative mood and body dissatisfaction in women (Garvin & Damson, 2008;Prichard et al., 2018), and increased negative affect (e.g., body shame) has been consistently correlated with low self-esteem (Moradi & Huang, 2008). Furthermore, longitudinal data in adolescents shows that body dissatisfaction predicts both negative mood and low self-esteem (Paxton et al., 2006). ...
Online apparel shopping is popular amongst women and offers salient visual information for making body image and self-worth judgements. Apparel segments which emphasize the value of women's bodies are particularly effective for eliciting low body image and self-worth. Across two studies, we investigated the association between self-reported and experimental online activewear exposure on women's self-worth, body image, appearance attitudes, mood and gaze behavior. In Study 1, participants (N = 399) completed a survey collecting their online apparel shopping habits, body appreciation, self-esteem, appearance comparison tendencies and self-objectification attitudes. Activewear was the second-most popular apparel segment amongst women (after casualwear) and weekly activewear browse time was positively correlated with appearance comparison tendencies, desires to be muscular/athletic and body shame. In Study 2, participants (N = 126) were randomly allocated to browse an activewear, casualwear or homewares website and completed pre and post measures of mood, body image, implicit self-esteem and body gaze behavior. In the activewear condition, there was a significant reduction in positive body image and implicit self-esteem scores. There were no experimental effects for body gaze behavior. These findings illustrate that apparel choices have value for understanding the aetiology of maladaptive body image attitudes and low self-esteem in women.
... When individuals view idealized versions of others' lives, those who experience a feeling of envy perceive their own lives negatively and feel poorly (Vogel & Rose, 2016). More importantly, exposure to idealized (ultra-fit) woman portrayals in a fitness magazine was found to increase state anxiety in female viewers (Garvin & Damson, 2008). In the context of motherhood, Padoa and colleagues (2018) conducted an online survey to examine how Instagram and Facebook use influence the mental health of new mothers with perfectionism. ...
Social media has drastically increased the amount of parenting content that mothers encounter in their day-to-day lives. Among this content is an abundance of idealized portrayals of motherhood, which may be putting increased pressure on mothers and negatively affecting their mental health. This study was designed to provide evidence that new mothers make comparisons to motherhood portrayals on social media and that exposure to idealized portrayals can have harmful effects. In an online experiment, 464 new mothers (i.e., mothers with a child 3 years old or younger) in the United States were exposed to 20 Instagram posts portraying motherhood that varied in idealization (i.e., idealized vs. non-idealized portrayal) and source (i.e., posted by a mommy influencer vs. an everyday mother). The mothers then responded to measures including state social comparison, perceived similarity, envy, and state anxiety. The findings illustrate that new mothers make greater social comparisons and perceive more similarity to portrayals that are non-idealized (vs. idealized) and to portrayals that are from everyday social media mothers (vs. mommy influencers). Regardless of the source (everyday mother or mommy influencer), idealized posts cause significantly higher levels of envy and state anxiety, which may be detrimental to mothers’ mental health.
... Long-term exposure to the mass media can have a range of harmful effects on college students, such as feeling of isolation (Wright and Pritchard, 2009), anxiety (Garvin and Damson, 2008), and media internalized pressure (Ouyang et al., 2021). Media internalized pressure refers to the pressure that arises after an individual internalizes the ideal body shape which is promoted by the media and mentally compares it with his or her body shape (Stice et al., 2000;Thompson and Stice, 2001;Dittmar et al., 2009). ...
Background
Restrained eating behavior has become the norm in college students' lives, and considering the harm it causes to college students, it is necessary to explore the factors associated with it. The aim of this study was to explore the association between media internalized pressure, body esteem, social physique anxiety, and restrained eating behavior.Methods
The participants in this study were 1,032 Chinese college students (439 males and 593 females) and had a mean age of 20.22 years (SD = 1.277). They completed the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-3, Body Esteem Scale (BES), Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), and Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ).ResultsThe results showed that media internalized pressure was significantly and positively associated with college students' restrained eating behavior, that body esteem and social physique anxiety played a mediating role between media internalized pressure and restrained eating behavior, respectively, and that body esteem and social physique anxiety can also play a chained mediating role.Conclusion
This study reveals the relationship between media internalized pressure and restrained eating behavior, and the important role played by body esteem and social physique anxiety. Future interventions targeting restrained eating should focus on the aspects of body esteem and social physique anxiety.
... Images that are muscular, athletic and fit are characteristics of fitspiration images on social media (Betz and Ramsey 2017), and results from the experimental research demonstrate that exposure to such images has detrimental effects on women's body image. For example, thirty minutes of exposure to a fitness magazine (as compared to a fashion magazine) led to increases in undergraduate women's anxiety, mood disturbance, tension and depression (Garvin and Damson 2008). Benton and Karazsia (2015) had women view images that were either thin (high thinness, low muscularity), athletic (high thinness, moderate muscularity) or hyper-muscular (high thinness, high muscularity). ...
This research provides a comprehensive descriptive content analysis of empirical research focused on muscularity and published in refereed journals from 2000 through 2019. This article presents the first part of a two-part series. In this part, the research aims were to characterize the research on muscularity with respect to the methods of inquiry and participant demographics. Specific research questions were: what methods of inquiry (e.g. research strategy, data analyses, sampling, use of hypotheses) describe this research? And what demographics describe the participants in this research? Multiple databases were searched to locate relevant research. This search resulted in 176 empirical articles published in English that contained 203 studies. The descriptive content analysis revealed that researchers primarily conducted cross-sectional research using survey methodology and intermediate levels of statistical analysis. Research questions/hypotheses were often absent. About three times as many males participated as females. Participants were primarily college students of White/Caucasian ethnicity selected through nonprobability sampling. Although age, body mass index, ethnicity and sexuality are the types of demographic information known to be related to muscularity, body satisfaction and the cultural ideal of beauty, they were often not reported.
... In contrast to body dissatisfaction and self-consciousness, internalization focuses more on the awareness of cultural pressures regarding certain physical appearances (Cusumano & Thompson, 1997). Alongside with the aforementioned cognitive outcomes, researchers also found that continuous comparison between one's own body and the unrealistically skinny or athletic bodies in the media elicited negative emotions (e.g., Anschutz, Engels, Becker, & Van Strien, 2009;Garvin & Damson, 2008), which may further develop into mental health risks, such as depression and anxiety (e.g., Mazzeo, Trace, Mitchell, & Gow, 2007). Furthermore, negative perceptions and emotions toward one's body ultimately resulted in a series of harmful health behaviors, namely disordered eating behavior and excessive exercise (e.g., Cohen, Newton-John, & Slater, 2018;Irving, 1990;Tiggemann, 2005). ...
A growing body of research on the media’s effects on body image suggests that media of different forms plays a vital role in shaping people’s body image concerns and behavioral intentions. By conducting a comprehensive meta-analysis of published and gray literature (in total 127 studies yielding 543 effect sizes of seven measures), this study examined the relationship between media and a wide range of body image-related outcomes as well as moderators (e.g., media type, outcome type, age group, gender proportion in the sample, and study design). The analysis demonstrated that the magnitude of this relationship significantly varied across media types (i.e., television commercial, television program, magazine commercial, magazine contents, and social media) and outcome types (i.e., affective, cognitive, or behavioral outcomes). Moreover, there were three major findings of this meta-analysis: 1) both women and men of all age groups across multiple countries could be affected by thin/athletic-ideal media exposure; 2) media with a commercial purpose compared to those with no commercial purpose was less effective in increasing body image concerns; 3) media exposure was the most influential in provoking the eating disorder and the internalization of thin-ideal.
... Similarly, Benton and Karazsia (2015) found that images of athletically built women that emphasize both thinness and muscularity were just as harmful to women's body satisfaction as the 'traditional' thin ideal, but not exposure to images depicting a strictly muscular ideal (see also Robinson et al., 2017). Although these results suggest that it is the thinness of athletic-ideal images rather than muscularity alone that predicts body dissatisfaction, some research has revealed that images of athletic women who are not thin can also lead to a significant increase in depressive symptomatology and state anxiety compared to control images (Garvin & Damson, 2008). As such, in this study we examined the influence that muscularity, as portrayed in media images, has on women's experience with body image concerns. ...
Recent evidence suggests that the ideal female body has shifted from an ultra-thin image toward one that is both thin and toned, or muscular. Furthermore, the ideal male body may be more athletic, characterized by moderate muscularity combined with leanness, than bodybuilder-muscular. Thus, we experimentally examined women's (n = 92) and men's (n = 106) cognitive processing style in response to idealized body types, i.e., thin images, athletic images (thin and muscular), or hyper-muscular images (moderately thin and extremely muscular). Results revealed that women in the athletic condition were the most likely to generate negative social comparisons. Women in the thin condition were more likely to generate counter-arguments compared to women in the other two conditions. Men in the hyper-muscular condition were more likely to generate counter-arguments than men in the other two conditions. Further, among women in the thin condition, negative social comparisons were inversely related to body appreciation but positively related to internalization of appearance ideals. Findings confirm that the athletic ideal likely poses problems for women's body image. Both women and men seemed to be able to "talk back" when exposed to their gendered body ideal.
... Until very recently, positive representations of fat exercisers were conspicuous by their absence. Images of exercisers used in magazines, gyms, and on social media usually display mesomorphic body types with minimal visible body fat and a high degree of muscularity (Garvin & Damson, 2008;Kenen, 1987) and content may overtly demonize fat bodies (Dworkin & Wachs, 2009). When fat people are depicted exercising, the images are often unflattering at best, and frequently derisory or stigmatizing (e.g., Boe, n.d.; Holloway, n.d.). ...
An inverse relationship has been observed between body mass index and physical activity levels. In the present article, we draw from a range of literatures to construct a novel, theoretical dual-pathway model that identifies direct and indirect impacts of societal weight stigma on exercise behavior. The direct pathway operates via experiences or threat of stigma and discrimination, which create traumatic learning experiences and impair the development of exercise self-efficacy. The indirect pathway impedes engagement in physical activity due to the absence of positive representations of fat exercisers, and a glut of negative representations, resulting from societal anti-fat attitudes. Thus, fat people lack role models from whom they may develop vicarious self-efficacy. Low self-efficacy, in turn, hinders the development of active fat identities. We review the existing literature for evidence supporting such a model, identify directions for future research, and briefly consider the implications of this framework for public health and policy aims.
... This modern version of the unrealistic female body standard (i.e., thin with lean muscularity: Benton & Karazsia, 2015;Homan et al., 2012) showcasing athleticism conveys conflicting messages regarding fitness and health, which fuses notions of physical appearance and objectification with body competence or functionality . Further, relevant theory (Franzoi, 1995;Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997;Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999) and research (Benton & Karazsia, 2015;Garvin & Damson, 2008;Homan et al., 2012;Mulgrew & Hennes, 2014;Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016) would predict that exposure to such images in turn has the potential to promote additional risk for body image disturbance, disordered eating, and psychological distress among the increasing number of women who are practicing yoga in the West. ...
The present analysis investigated temporal trends in physical appearance attributes and attire worn by female cover models of Yoga Journal magazine between the years 1975-2015. Covers featuring a single female model (N = 168) were coded for: pose activity, amount of body visibility, perceived body size, body shape, breast size, skin exposure, and revealing or form-fitting attire. When collapsed across all decades, the majority of cover models was actively posed with high body visibility, rated as at most low normal weight, possessed either a “thin/lean” or “skinny/boney” body shape, and were “flat-chested” or “small-breasted”. Greater body visibility, pose activity, thinness/leanness, skin exposure, and form-fitting attire were featured on more recent years’ covers. Findings suggest that the female “yoga body” conforms to the contemporary thin- and-toned media fitness ideal, particularly recently, which may promote objectified body competence, an unhealthy drive for leanness, and dissuade higher weight women from considering yoga practice.
... Homan, McHugh, Wells, Watson, and King (2012) found exposure to thin ultra-fit models leads to an increase in body dissatisfaction. Garvin and Damson (2008) recorded negative mood states from female college students after viewing a fitness magazine, and a negative correlation was discovered between hours of watching sports programs and body dissatisfaction (Bissell & Zhou, 2004). Conversely, exposure to sports programming and images of female athletes has also produced positive correlations. ...
Many studies offer clear evidence that exposure to glamorized and sexualized media images results in distorted body image perceptions in girls and young women. Researchers have examined the link between sports media exposure and the negative effect on body perceptions of young girls and women, though a gap exists in the examination of the relationship between media images and positive impact. Grounded in the theories of self-objectification and social comparison, this study tested the relationships between self-objectification and body esteem and sports media exposure. Using a between-participants experimental design, this study examined how three different images of elite female athletes—performance, glamorized, and overly sexualized—impacted collegiate-level female athlete's tendency to self-objectify and their levels of body esteem. Results suggest that less self-objectification occurs and greater body satisfaction is achieved when images of performance athletes are viewed, suggesting a need for more of these images in mainstream media.
... More recent studies report a state anxiety of 36.2 in 210 male and female students (Johnson, Vincent, Johnson, Gilliland & Schlegel, 2008). Wertz, Garvin and Damson (2008) reported a state anxiety in females of almost 36 and in male of about 33. We did not find a sex-dependent difference in state anxiety. ...
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether nursing students assigned to a home hospital experience less stress and improved academic performance. Students were assigned to a home hospital clinical placement (n = 78) or a control clinical placement (n = 79). Stress was measured using the Student Nurse Stress Index (SNSI) and Spielberger's State Anxiety Inventory. Academic performance included score on the RN CAT, a standardized mock NCLEX-RN(®)-type test; nursing grade point average; and first attempt pass-fail on the NCLEX-RN. There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups for age, gender, marital status, ethnicity, or score on the nurse entrance examination. There were significant changes in SNSI over time but not between groups. Academic load and state anxiety showed an interaction of time by group, with the home hospital group showing reductions over time, compared with the control group.
Abstract Several psychometric instruments can be used to measure state-dependent variations in anxiety, including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Profile of Mood States (POMS), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and the Visual Analog Scales (VAS). Each of these instruments rests on specific theoretical assumptions about the construct of state anxiety, and has been widely used for this purpose in different research domains. However, it remains difficult to determine what may be the specificities of these four instruments, when the goal is to measure transient state-dependent variations in anxiety. In this work, we provide a systematic and comparative literature review of studies which have explored rapid fluctuations (i.e., test-retest intervals not exceeding 24 hours) in state anxiety by means of these specific instruments. Almost 200 studies were eventually included in our review. This comparative review confirms that, despite some disparities and specificities, each of these four instruments provides a reliable measure to capture rapid state-dependent variations in anxiety, although they have been used in non-overlapping research domains or experimental contexts.
This study explored college women's cognitive processing of print advertisements featuring images of highly attractive female models. The relationship of counterarguing (critical processing) and social comparison in response to these images with a number of body image-related variables was examined. Participants were 202 undergraduate females. Research was conducted in two phases. In one phase, participants wrote their thoughts in response to three advertisements taken from recent women's magazines. In the second phase, women completed a number of self-report measures focusing on body image, along with a number of distracter measures. Results suggest that making negative outcome, upward social comparisons in response to such images is significantly associated with greater internalization of the thin ideal and decreased satisfaction with one's own appearance. Despite predictions that counterarguing might act as a protective factor, the tendency to generate counterarguments in response to these images was not related to appearance-related dissatisfaction, internalization of the media ideal, or importance of appearance.
One of the causes of the underuse of the Solomon four-group design may be that the complete details for the statistical analysis have not previously been presented. The primary issue previously unaddressed was how to combine an analysis of the effect of the treatment in the posttest-only groups with the same effect in the pre- and posttest groups (after an earlier phase of the analysis has shown no evidence of pretest sensitization.) A meta-analytic solution for this problem is proposed, and the entire analysis is presented, complete with flowchart and example. It is shown that the analysis has adequate statistical power even if the total
N is not increased from that of a posttest-only design, removing the last of the serious objections to the Solomon design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors investigate the impact of advertising beauty images on female preadolescents and adolescents. An experiment using 4th, 8th, and 12th graders demonstrated that exposure to advertising with highly attractive models raises comparison standards for physical attractiveness, but does not affect self-perceptions of physical attractiveness. The findings also suggest that the tendency of female pre-adolescents and adolescents to compare themselves to models in ads increases with age, and this tendency is greater for those with lower self-perceptions of physical attractiveness and/or self-esteem. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This article reviews theories that might explain how advertising causes dissatisfaction with the self. It is hypothesized that consumers compare themselves with idealized advertising images. Exposure to such images may change consumers comparison standards for what they desire or lower perceptions of their own performance on relevant dimensions; the result is lowered satisfaction. Explanatory and experimental research examined these hypotheses in the context of idealized images of physical attractiveness in ads targeted at young women. Evidence for comparison was found. Results suggest that idealized images raised comparison standards for attractiveness and lowered satisfaction with one's own attractiveness. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
In analyzing the data associated with a Solomon Four-Group Design, the posttest scores are initially subjected to a 2x2 factorial ANOVA, with the two main effects being a.) pretest versus no pretest and b.) treatment versus no treatment. Campbell and Stanley (2) maintain that if this analysis yields non-significant F-ratios for both the main effect of pretesting and the pretesting-treatment interaction, it might be advantageous to reanalyze the data from the two pretested groups with an analysis of covariance (using pretest and posttest scores as the covariate and criterion variables, respectively). Assuming a high pretest-posttest correlation, the more powerful covariance might pick up a significant treatment effect which was not found in the initial analysis. Although Campbell and Stanley were correct in noting that this use of covariance must be preceeded by a non-significant pretesting-treatment interaction, the present authors argue that the covariance analysis is completely valid even if there is a true main effect for pretesting. A second point of this paper involves a recommendation for data analysis if the interaction from the initial two-way ANOVA does, in fact, turn out to be significant.
Although researchers have postulated that the thin-ideal body image portrayed in the media contributes to eating pathology among females, little research has directly examined the effects of these images on women. The central aim of the present study was to experimentally assess the effects of exposure to the thin-ideal on women's affect, body satisfaction, and endorsement of the thin-ideal stereotype. The secondary aim was to link these putative mediators to bulimic symptomatology. Female undergraduates (N = 157) were randomly exposed to pictures from magazines containing either ultra-thin models, average-sized models, or no models. Results indicated that exposure to the thin-ideal produced depression, stress, guilt, shame, insecurity, and body dissatisfaction. Further, multiple regression analyses indicated that negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and subscription to the thin-ideal predicted bulimic symptoms.
A content analysis of 28 different prime-timetelevision situation comedies examined the body weightsof 52 central female characters (88% White, 10% Black,2% Asian), the verbal comments they received from other characters as a function of bodyweight, and their self-comments with respect to theirown body weight, shape and dieting behaviors. Comparedwith the general population, below average central female characters were over-represented insituation comedies; above average weight characters wereunder-represented. Below average weight femalecharacters received significantly more positive verbal comments from male characters with regards tobody weight and shape than their heavier counterparts.Dieting female characters gave themselves significantlymore verbal punishment for their body weight and shape than those less involved in dieting.This combination of modeling the thin ideal and theverbal reinforcement associated with this modelinglikely contributes to the internalization of the thin ideal and may put some young female viewers atrisk for developing eating disorders.
The aim of the study was to investigate prospectively the direction of the relationship between media exposure and body image disturbance. Participants were 214 female high school students (mean age = 14 years) who completed questionnaire measures of media exposure (magazines and television), internalization of appearance ideals, appearance schemas, body dissatisfaction, and drive for thinness at Time 1, and then again one year later at Time 2. It was found that Time 1 reading of appearance magazines and watching of soap operas predicted Time 2 internalization, appearance schemas, and drive for thinness. However, regression analyses controlling for Time 1 body image variables showed that no media exposure variable predicted change in any body image measure. Neither did body image predict change in media exposure. Appearance schemas, however, did predict change in body dissatisfaction. It was concluded that, for this age group, media exposure and body image co-occur, but that neither one is temporally antecedent to the other. Thus the study demonstrated no causal role for media exposure in the body image of adolescent girls.
Although laboratory experiments indicate that brief exposure to thin models leads to acute body dissatisfaction and negative affect in women, research has not tested whether longer term exposure results in lasting effects. Accordingly, we randomly assigned 219 adolescent girls to a 15-month fashion magazine subscription or a no-subscription condition and followed them over time. Despite evidence that the experimental manipulation successfully increased exposure to the fashion magazine and the ample statistical power, there were no main effects of long-term exposure to thin images on thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect, or bulimic symptoms. However, there was evidence that vulnerable adolescents, characterized by initial elevations in perceived pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction and deficits in social support, were adversely affected by exposure to these images. Results suggest that exposure to thin-ideal images has lasting negative effects for vulnerable youth.
A content analysis of 18 prime-time television situation comedies (two episodes each) examined the body weights of 37 central female characters (92% White, 8% Black), the negative comments they received from male characters about their weight or bodies, and the audience reactions (e.g., laughter) following the negative comments. It was found that (a) below-average weight females were overrepresented in the programs, (b) the heavier the female character, the significantly more negative comments were made about or to her, and (c) negative comments were significantly associated with audience reactions. These results indicate that situation comedies present males making derogatory remarks about heavier women's weights and bodies, with this behavior being reinforced by audience laughter. This combination of thinness modeling and vicarious reinforcement likely contributes to the internalization of gender and weight stereotypes which deleteriously affect the health of female adolescents.
An Athletic Image Scale including female physiques with and without muscular definition is currently in the developmental phase. With shading, contouring, and three-dimensionality not offered previously on figure-rating scales, this instrument was designed to examine an apparent growing interest on the part of women in atheletic body-image ideals. The athletic level of each figure on the scale was based on responses of a group of college women. The 30-figure pilot scale was then tested by rating current and ideal body-shape preferences of two groups of first-year college women, 65 who exercised regularly and 45 who engaged in no regular exercise. Analysis showed no relationship between current and ideal physique choice and exercise status. Most exercising and nonexercising women chose a mesomorphic ideal physique with upper-body muscularity unlikely to occur without substantial amounts of physical activity. The associations among exercise status, figure choice, subscale scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory, and Self-esteem Scale scores were also examined. Women choosing moderately mesomorphic figures as their current shape had the lowest Body Dissatisfaction scale scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory irrespective of exercise status. Current- and ideal-shape preferences were not related to self-esteem scores. The pilot Athletic Image Scale offered several figures which seemed to be relevant to women although it must be noted that the scale purposely emphasized particular physiques. Even so, it is important to recognize that greater than sixty percent of the women preferred images with athletic physiques which are not offered on figurerating scales presently in use.
The purpose of this study was to assess the immediate influence of brief exposure to images taken from print media on the general self-consciousness and body self-consciousness of 67 college women. After viewing photographs of either thin female models or control photographs, the women completed the Self-consciousness Scale and the Body Self-consciousness Questionnaire. Although alpha was .45, the college women who looked at images of thin female models gave immediate ratings significantly (p < .001) higher on both general Self-consciousness and Body Self-consciousness than those who looked at control images.