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High Self‐Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success
Abstract
What good is self-control? We incorporated a new measure of individual differences in self-control into two large investigations of a broad spectrum of behaviors. The new scale showed good internal consistency and retest reliability. Higher scores on self-control correlated with a higher grade point average, better adjustment (fewer reports of psychopathology, higher self-esteem), less binge eating and alcohol abuse, better relationships and interpersonal skills, secure attachment, and more optimal emotional responses. Tests for curvilinearity failed to indicate any drawbacks of so-called overcontrol, and the positive effects remained after controlling for social desirability. Low self-control is thus a significant risk factor for a broad range of personal and interpersonal problems.
... According to the resource depletion model, selfcontrol is defined as the ability to overcome undesirable behaviors (Tangney et al., 2004). Self-control resources intensify in the face of factors that reduce the chances of achieving a goal (Vohs & Baumeister, 2004). ...
... Individuals differ in the extent to which they manage to deal with obstacles and hurdles when pursuing their goals (Sorys et al., 2023). Individuals with high levels of trait self-control are more successful in resisting temptations, inhibiting or altering impulses, and overriding undesired behavioral tendencies (Baumeister, 2002;Milyavskaya et al., 2015;Tangney et al., 2004;Vosgerau et al., 2020). Trait selfcontrol, as a personality trait, affects the frequency and intensity of certain forms of behavior, such as resisting temptations, suppressing undesirable impulses, and postponing the immediate satisfaction of needs for more distant or socially approved gratification (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996;Ent et al., 2015;Hofmann et al., 2012Hofmann et al., , 2013Tangney et al., 2004;Trope & Fishbach, 2000). ...
... Individuals with high levels of trait self-control are more successful in resisting temptations, inhibiting or altering impulses, and overriding undesired behavioral tendencies (Baumeister, 2002;Milyavskaya et al., 2015;Tangney et al., 2004;Vosgerau et al., 2020). Trait selfcontrol, as a personality trait, affects the frequency and intensity of certain forms of behavior, such as resisting temptations, suppressing undesirable impulses, and postponing the immediate satisfaction of needs for more distant or socially approved gratification (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996;Ent et al., 2015;Hofmann et al., 2012Hofmann et al., , 2013Tangney et al., 2004;Trope & Fishbach, 2000). Buczny and Międzyobrodzka (2014) assume that the effects of depletion of selfcontrol resources are lower among those with higher compared to those with lower self-control as a trait. ...
Background
Compensatory health beliefs may serve as one of many self-regulatory strategies that individuals employ to maintain healthy lifestyles. Past research with samples from a general population has shown, however, that compensatory beliefs are ineffective in this regard and may even lead to inaction in future health-related behaviors such as eating healthily or being active. To better understand this phenomenon, in the present study, changes in compensatory health beliefs regarding various life domains were examined in a group of pregnant women.
Participants and procedure
In a longitudinal study design, 166 women completed questionnaires in the first (t1), the second (t2), and the third (t3) tri-mester of their pregnancies. We assessed the level of their self-control as a trait (t1, t2, t3), compensatory health beliefs (t1, t2, t3), and unhealthy snacking (t3).
Results
As predicted, self-control as a trait decreased and the levels of compensatory beliefs increased over time. A linear mixed ef-fects analysis showed that self-control was the best predictor of compensatory beliefs in the third trimester. Finally, com-pensatory health beliefs in the third trimester mediated the effect of self-control at the beginning of pregnancy on un-healthy snacking in the third trimester.
Conclusions
It appears important to support pregnant women in opting for constructive self-regulatory strategies, especially in their final trimesters, when coping resources are exhausted by the challenges of this period.
... Age, perceived stress levels, pain tolerance, smartphone addiction, and moderate physical activity are among the multiple variables that can affect sleep quality (Kumar et al., 2019;Cavic et al., 2021;Memon et al., 2021). Furthermore, chronic physiological conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, menopause, and dietary habits also have a certain impact on sleep quality (Tasdemir and Oguzhan, 2016). These findings highlight the complexity and multifaceted nature of sleep quality, involving multiple factors that interact with each other. ...
... Self-control refers to the ability to regulate oneself based on goals, priorities, and environmental demands (Tangney et al., 2004), and is considered a key psychological mechanism. Self-efficacy and beliefs play a crucial role in self-control, as they influence people's feelings, thoughts, motivation, and behavior. ...
... Good self-control has been associated with better academic performance, greater adaptability, stronger interpersonal Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org skills, and improved emotional well-being, while poor self-control has been linked to negative outcomes in areas such as academic performance, social life, personal adaptation, and emotions (Tangney et al., 2004). In terms of sleep, good self-control is considered a protective factor against bedtime procrastination, depression, and anxiety (Geng et al., 2021), as people with better self-control tend to experience less bedtime procrastination and report better sleep quality (Brando-Garrido et al., 2022). ...
Introduction
Sleep quality has a significant impact on the health-related quality of life, particularly among college students. This study proposes a framework for identifying factors that influence college students’ sleep quality, including stress, self-control, bedtime habits, and neighborhood environment.
Methods
The study employed a cross-sectional analytical approach on a convenience sample of 255 medical students from a private university in China during the 2021/2022 academic year, of which 80.39% (205) were women. Two complementary methodologies, partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), and fuzzy sets qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), were utilized in the study.
Results
The results of the PLS-SEM analysis suggest that Stress and Self-control act as mediating variables in the model, with Bedtime habits and Neighborhood environment influencing sleep quality through these variables. Additionally, the fsQCA analysis reveals that Bedtime habits and Neighborhood environment can combine with Stress and Self-control, respectively, to influence sleep quality.
Discussion
These findings provide insight into how multiple factors, such as Stress, Self-control, Bedtime habits, and Neighborhood environment, can impact college students’ sleep quality, and can be used to develop intervention programs aimed at improving it. Moreover, the use of both methodologies enables the expansion of new methodological approaches that can be applied to different contexts.
... Evidence in support of the IOSC approach to IM comes from diverse sources (see Uziel, 2010b, for a review). As described above, in self-reports and informant reports high-IM is associated with traits incorporating sensitive social attunement and with trait self-control (Tangney et al., 2004;Uziel, 2014). Real-life outcomes also imply that IM is associated with controlled (social) behavior. ...
... Self-control is an important component of IM, but what characterizes individuals high on trait self-control (TSC) is their internalized self-regulatory capacity, which serves them across contexts (Tangney et al., 2004). High-TSC individuals are considered highly effective managers of internal conflicts, impulses, and behavioral regulation (Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999). ...
... Trait self-control TSC was measured with the brief (13-item) version of the Trait Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004; e.g., "I refuse things that are bad for me"; α = 0.87), which is the most widely applied self-control scale in recent years (De Ridder et al., 2012). Participants rated the extent to which each item reflects who they typically are using a 5-point Likert-type scale anchored with 1-not at all and 5-very much. ...
Impression management (IM) scales (often called lie or social desirability scales) have long been applied as validity scales in assessment processes. Recent developments have indicated that these scales measure a substantive personality predisposition and not response bias, but the nature of the disposition is disputable. According to the 'interpersonally oriented self-control' approach, IM is associated with high self-control exerted mainly in public social contexts to facilitate adaptation. Supported in laboratory settings, this approach has not been tested in real-life dynamics. In the present experience sampling study, participants reported 3 times a day (10 days) about their social condition (alone/'with others') and their level of self-control. Results revealed that IM was associated with stronger self-control when with other people than when alone. Comparable reactions to public social context were not found for self-deception enhancement, trait self-control, or agreeableness, marking this a unique aspect of IM. The findings further stress the need to reconsider the use of IM scales for validity purposes in assessment processes.
... According to research, self-control and trait mindfulness have a very strong and beneficial relationship [17]. Self-control refers to a person's capacity to regulate their feelings, stifle undesirable or inappropriate behavioral inclinations in their minds, and refrain from acting following those intentions [18]. Effective self-control behaviors depend on the resources that are accessible, and the more adequate the resources, the better the individual's self-control performance [19]. ...
... The Brief Self-Control Scale was created by Tangney [18,35,36]. The revised scale not only greatly reduced the response time but also better adapted to the cultural context of the study participants, as well as having good reliability and validity. ...
The impact of maternal trait mindfulness on the development of preschoolers’ social competence is receiving increasing attention from researchers. However, the mediating mechanisms that link maternal mindfulness to preschoolers’ social competence are still not well understood. This study examined the mediating effect of maternal self-control and problematic social media use on the association between maternal trait mindfulness and preschoolers’ social competence. We administered 407 mothers of preschoolers in China a questionnaire to assess their trait mindfulness, self-control, problematic social media use, and the degree of social competence of their children. After controlling for demographic variables, the results showed that (1) Maternal trait mindfulness was positively related to preschoolers’ social competence; (2) Maternal self-control and problematic social media use independently mediated the relationship between maternal trait mindfulness and preschoolers’ social competence; and (3) Maternal self-control and problematic social media use play a chain-mediating role between maternal trait mindfulness and preschoolers’ social competence. These findings have enhanced our understanding of how maternal trait mindfulness influences preschoolers’ social competence and holds important implications for interventions aimed at enhancing preschoolers’ social competence.
... To measure trait self-control, we used the well-validated Self-Control Scale developed by Tangney and colleagues (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). This scale comprises 36 items, which are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1=not at all like me to 5=very much like me). ...
... The increase in the Tangney self-control score over time, along with the interaction with the group, suggests that Slankers not only improves cognitive control but also has positive effects on participants' subjective experiences of self-control. The Tangney Self-control scale measures an individual's ability to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in accordance with internal goals and societal standards (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). The fact that the intervention group experienced a greater increase in selfcontrol compared to the control group further supports the effectiveness of the game training in enhancing self-control. ...
Background
Self-control as the ability to manage desires and impulses, is a complex and remarkable construct, particularly in coping with every day challenges. The importance of self-control in regulating one’s action, emotion and cognition, has sparked interest in developing training programs. The present study adopted the Process Model of self-control to develop a video game called "Slankers" aimed at enhancing various aspects of self-control.Methods
Seventy participants (aged 18-35 years) were randomly assigned to the intervention and active control groups. The intervention group received Slankers game over ten sessions for two weeks, while the active control group engaged in equal number of mathematics problem-solving sessions. Participants were assessed using the Stroop test, the Kirby delay discounting questionnaire, the Barratt impulsiveness scale, and the 36-item Tangney Self-control scale, at baseline and at the end of the interventions using the Gorilla online platform. Data were analyzed using the Python programming language.ResultsThe results showed significant effects of group (F = 3.24, p < 0.001), time (F = 30.09, p < 0.001), and their interaction (F = 36.57, p < 0.001) on the Stroop interference effect. Game training significantly improved participant’s performance in the Stroop test. Moreover, Tangney self-control score increased due to time (F = 6.14, p = 0.01) and its interaction with group (F = 9.43, p = 0.003), whereas Delay discounting decreased over time (F = 4.05, p = 0.04) for both groups. Feasibility and acceptability data demonstrate that 97.14% of participants completed all training sessions and rated the clarity of instructions as 0.95 out of 1, game attractiveness as 0.94 out of 1, and the inclination to recommend the game to peers as 0.94 out of 1. Conclusions
Slankers shows potential in improving various aspects of self-control. Our primary results are consistent with prior research supporting the avenue of the video game training on measures of self-control. The acceptability and feasibility findings as well as the positive effects on subjective and cognitive aspects of self-control, show promises for capitalizing on the Slankers in the future studies.
... Foco temporal Presente α = .84; Foco temporal Futuro α = .84). 4) Escala breve de Autocontrol (BSCS, por sus siglas en inglés; Tangney et al., 2004): está compuesta por 13 ítems, con cinco opciones de respuesta de formato Likert. Es una escala unidimensional que evalúa el grado de autocontrol que presentan las personas. ...
... Esta evidencia abona los hallazgos previos que indican que el AC es un aspecto positivo de la personalidad. Altos niveles de AC se relacionan con menor nivel de psicopatología, mayor nivel de autoestima, mejores habilidades interpersonales y mejores respuestas emocionales (Tangney et al., 2004). ...
... Education to improve self-control can reinforce an individual's problem-solving abilities [16]. In case of a failure to regulate the impulse to be aggressive, aggression can be reduced through self-control [17] and be regulated by improving selfcontrol [18]. However, in previous studies [16][17][18], self-control improvement programs were applied that did not consider various aspects of aggression. ...
... In case of a failure to regulate the impulse to be aggressive, aggression can be reduced through self-control [17] and be regulated by improving selfcontrol [18]. However, in previous studies [16][17][18], self-control improvement programs were applied that did not consider various aspects of aggression. They considered only one aspect of aggression and had limitations in being selected as an intervention method to reduce both overt and relational aggression. ...
(1) Background: Child aggression is not easily reduced as children grow up, and it is a serious problem that can develop into a life of crime if left unaddressed. (2) Methods: This study was conducted among elementary school children and their parents in C and K provinces and D city. Data were collected through a survey. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze parental hostility and each child’s self-control and aggression. (3) Results: Child aggression had a significant negative correlation with self-control and a significant positive correlation with parental hostility. In particular, there was a significant positive correlation between physical aggression and revenge, which are sub-factors of parental hostility. In addition, the children’s self-control was significantly negatively correlated with parental hostility. (4) Conclusions: Since there is a positive correlation between children’s aggression and self-control, it is necessary to develop strategies to improve self-control when seeking intervention measures for children’s aggression. In addition, since there is a significant quantitative correlation between children’s aggression and parental hostility, it is necessary to deal with parental hostility in order to control children’s aggression. Since there is a significant negative correlation between parental hostility and children’s self-control, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of parental attitudes and behaviors to improve children’s self-control.
... The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS; Tangney et al., 2004) is a short version of the Total Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004) which measures respondents' level of self-control. The BSCS is has a unidimensional structure comprising 13 items, with nine items reverse-scored. ...
... The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS; Tangney et al., 2004) is a short version of the Total Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004) which measures respondents' level of self-control. The BSCS is has a unidimensional structure comprising 13 items, with nine items reverse-scored. ...
The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) is a popular instrument used to assess trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals in students and/or professional populations. This study examined the psychometric properties and construct validity of the Grit-S in a survey sample of Chinese physical education teachers (N = 256, 26.6% females, Mage = 33.96 years, SDage = 6.04 years). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the Grit-S scores supported the proposed two-factor model, comprising consistency of interest and perseverance of effort as subscales. Moreover, as expected, the Grit-S subscale scores showed acceptable internal consistency as well as satisfactory convergent and criterion validity, correlating with scores of external criteria variables (e.g., Big Five personality traits, self-control, and work burnout). These findings suggest that the Grit-S is an effective instrument for assessing grit in Chinese physical education teachers.
... Self-control pertains to the capacity to regulate one's thoughts, emotions, and actions in order to attain longterm objectives and effectively respond to evolving situational requirements [29]. Trait gratitude has been found to be positively associated with self-control among university students [30]. ...
... Instead, they engage in behaviors that offer long-term benefits [65]. In line with self-control theory [29], individuals who possess effective impulse regulation and resistance to temptation are less likely to engage in addictive behaviors, including online game addiction. Hence, it can be inferred that online game addiction may arise from a deficiency in self-control or a failure to exercise self-control. ...
Background
Online game addiction has become a prominent public concern, particularly among emerging adults, warranting in-depth investigation. Despite prior cross-sectional research indicating a negative correlation between gratitude and online gaming addiction, a dearth of longitudinal research exists in this area. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms that explain the link between gratitude and online gaming addiction remain poorly understood, highlighting a critical research gap in the field.
Methods
To bridge this gap, our study adopted a three-wave longitudinal design and constructed a multiple mediation model. Over the course of one year, data was collected from a sample of Chinese undergraduates, with 319 students participating at Time 1, 305 at Time 2, and 292 at Time 3. Participants were administered online self-report surveys, enabling the acquisition of valuable data regarding their levels of gratitude, online game addiction, self-control, and loneliness.
Results
The findings revealed a negative correlation between gratitude measured at Time 1 and online game addiction assessed at Time 3. Further analysis demonstrated that both self-control and loneliness played multiple mediating roles at Time 2 in the link between gratitude and online game addiction.
Conclusion
These research findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms between gratitude and online game addiction, which provide implications for developing interventions (e.g., interventions based on gratitude) for reducing young adults’ online game addiction.
... Participants had to respond via a 'Match' or 'No match' button press to indicate if the stimuli ) showing no significant group differences on any baseline characteristics. Fluid intelligence = IQ score derived from the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (Raven et al., 1988); Mental health difficulties = Difficulties score on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997); Emotion regulation difficulties = Total score on the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (Gratz & Roemer, 2004); Self-control = Total score on the Brief Self-control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004); Parental education = Highest parental education was measured as a proxy of socioeconomic status (SES); Asian = Included individuals selecting any of these answer options: Asian-other, Bangladeshi, Chinese, Indian, Pakistani; Black = Black is a term used in Britain to refer to citizens of African or African-Caribbean decent, here it included individuals who selected any of the following to describe their ethnicity: Black-African, Black-British, Black-Other; White = here refers to individuals who identified as White-British or White-other; Mixed/Other = here includes individuals who identified as being of mixed or other ethnicity than the available options by selecting Mixed/Other; Group size = average number of participants in the pre-and post-training assessment sessions. ...
... Self-regulation was assessed using the Brief Version of the Self-Control Scale (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004), which has been successfully used with adolescents (Duckworth, Kim, & Tsukayama, 2013). The scale includes 13 statements and participants had to indicate, on a 5-point scale from '0' Not at all to '4' Very much, how well each statement described them. ...
Background:
Everyday affective fluctuations are more extreme and more frequent in adolescence compared to any other time in development. Successful regulation of these affective experiences is important for good mental health and has been proposed to depend on affective control. The present study examined whether improving affective control through a computerised affective control training app (AffeCT) would benefit adolescent mental health.
Methods:
One-hundred and ninety-nine participants (11-19 years) were assigned to complete 2 weeks of AffeCT or placebo training on an app. Affective control (i.e. affective inhibition, affective updating and affective shifting), mental health and emotion regulation were assessed at pre- and post-training. Mental health and emotion regulation were assessed again one month and one year later.
Results:
Compared with the placebo group, the AffeCT group showed significantly greater improvements in affective control on the trained measure. AffeCT did not, relative to placebo, lead to better performance on untrained measures of affective control. Pre- to post-training change in affective control covaried with pre- to post-training change in mental health problems in the AffeCT but not the placebo group. These mental health benefits of AffeCT were only observed immediately following training and did not extend to 1 month or year post-training.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the study provides preliminary evidence that AffeCT may confer short-term preventative benefits for adolescent mental health.
... Self-control. In addition, we used the Brief Self-Control Scale [32] in both the pre-and post-survey to assess participants' self-control skills. This standardized scale targets the construct at trait level with 13 items on a vepoint Likert scale ("not at all like me" to "very much like me"). ...
Distractions are omnipresent and can derail our attention, which is a precious and very limited resource. To achieve their goals in the face of distractions, people need to regulate their attention, thoughts, and behavior; this is known as self-regulation . How can self-regulation be supported or strengthened in ways that are relevant for everyday work and learning activities? To address this question, we introduce and evaluate a desktop application that helps people stay focused on their work and train self-regulation at the same time. Our application lets the user set a goal for what they want to do during a defined period of focused work at their computer, then gives negative feedback when they get distracted, and positive feedback when they reorient their attention towards their goal. After this so-called focus session, the user receives overall feedback on how well they focused on their goal relative to previous sessions. While existing approaches to attention training often use artificial tasks, our approach transforms real-life challenges into opportunities for building strong attention control skills. Our results indicate that optimal attentional feedback can generate large increases in behavioral focus, task motivation, and self-control – benefitting users to successfully achieve their long-term goals.
... The Dutch translation of the Self Control Scale (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2008) was used to assess cognitive control. This scale measures an individual's ability to control impulses. ...
Trust plays an important role during adolescence for developing social relations. Although prior developmental studies give us insight into adolescents' development of differentiation between close (e.g., friends) and unknown (e.g., unknown peers) targets in trust choices, less is known about the development of trust to societal targets (e.g., members of a community organization) and its underlying neural mechanisms. Using a modified version of the Trust Game, our preregistered fMRI study examined the underlying neural mechanisms of trust to close (friend), societal (community member), and unknown others (unknown peer) during adolescence in 106 participants (aged 12–23 years). Adolescents showed most trust to friends, less trust to community members, and the least trust to unknown peers. Neural results show that target differentiation in adolescents' trust behavior is associated with activity in social brain regions implicated during mentalizing, reward processing, and cognitive control. Recruitment of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and OFC was higher for closer targets (i.e., friend and community member). For the mPFC, this effect was most pronounced during no trust choices. Trust to friends was additionally associated with increased activity in the precuneus and bilateral temporal parietal junction. In contrast, bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex were most active for trust to unknown peers. The mPFC showed increased activity with age and consistent relations with individual differences in feeling needed/useful.
... La Urgency, Premeditation, perseverance, and Sensation-Seeking Impulsive Behavior Scale (UPPS, Whiteside & Lynam, 2001), è un questionario, composto da 44 items, finalizzato alla valutazione dei fattori predisponenti delle condotte impulsive; le sue sottoscale si sono dimostrate utili a comprendere aspetti specifici di diverse forme di psicopatologia, catturando delle dimensioni dell'impulsività che difficilmente sono colte da altri strumenti simili. La Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS, Tangney, Baumeister & Boone, 2004) è un breve questionario self-report, composto da 13 items che indaga le condotte autoregolatorie, considerando cinque aspetti dell'autocontrollo: controllare i pensieri, le emozioni, gli impulsi, regolare i comportamenti/la performance, e liberarsi dalle dipendenze. ...
Background: Anger, alexithymia, impulsivity are clinical variables underlying aggression/crimes, therefore their evaluation with specific instruments in psychiatric patients samples could give the clinician deeper knowledge and useful information aimed to the rehabilitative work and the prevention of recidivism. Materials and Methods: 53 people with Schizofrenia, sectioned at the Barcellona Pozzo di Gotto Forensic Hospital-before its dismissing-, have completed STAXI-2, TAS-20, BIS-11 questionnaires. Exclusion criteria: Intellectual Disability. Pearson linear correlations have been performed to test associations between the three variables of anger, alexithymia, impulsivity and between a single variable and crimes. Logistic regressions have been used to further investigate links between clinical variables and crimes. Results: Correlations between variables: a) 17 alexithymic patients (TAS>60), mean score BIS-11: 58. Positive Pearson correlation between alexithymia and impulsivity; b) STAXI-2 RS/S, R/T, RT/T, RT/R, ER/IN are positively related to alexithymia; CR/IN e CR/OUT in a negative way; c) Impulsivity is related to STAXI-2 RT/T, ER/IN in a significant way. Correlations between variables and crimes: d) As TAS-20 scores increase, there is lower probability to commit a crime inside the family; e) As BIS-11 scores increase, there is lower probability to commit homicide; f) STAXI-2 RS/S is positively related to robbery. Discussion and conclusions: Our results about alexithymia and impulsivity, alexithymia and anger, and impulsivity and anger correlations go along with the literature about aggression/violence antecedents. Alexithymic subjects would commit crimes outside the family and murderers-in our sample-would have committed "low level of impulsivity" homicides, as far as the premeditation factor is concerned. Robbery is related to RS/S (feeling anger), to indicate how anger is manifested in such crimes
... However, preliminary analyses indicated that the Attentional Impulsivity and Non-Planning dimensions exhibited a latent correlation that did not differ from unity, so we collapsed these two subdimensions into a single factor. The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSC; Tangney et al., 2004) is a 13-item self-report measuring self-control defined as the "ability to override or change one's inner responses, as well as to interrupt undesired behavioral tendencies and refrain from acting on them" (p. 275). ...
Ethically and socially aversive behaviors have been attributed to several personality traits, including characteristics collectively referred to under the umbrella term of impulsivity. It is an open question, however, whether such characteristics are an integral part of ethically and socially aversive personality. Relying on three large samples (total N = 9854) and implementing longitudinal assessments, the present study provides a comprehensive investigation of the role of impulse and interference control in aversive personality. Based on contemporary conceptualizations of the impulsivity domain, a total of 17 dimensions spanning both self-reports and behavioral tasks are assessed. To represent aversive personality, we consider the D Factor of Personality (D), i.e., the basic disposition shared by all aversive traits. Results indicate that D co-occurs with a deficit in inhibiting the incorrect action when multiple actions are available, a preference for immediate rewards while failing to consider the consequences of one's actions, and maladaptive behavior directed towards regulating strong affect. However, most associations between D and dimensions of impulsivity were small or non-significant, thereby disconfirming the notion that characteristics related to a lack of impulse control are an integral feature of aversive personality in general.
... Measure of Self-Control. Tangney's Self-Control Scale (SCS) was used to measure self-control [27]. The Chinese version of SCS that was translated and revised by Unger, Bi, Xiao, and Ybarra (2016) was adopted in the present study [28]. ...
Studies suggest that resource scarcity leads to risky behaviors. From a cognitive perspective, a scarcity mindset affects the decision-making process. Does perceived scarcity therefore affect risk taking when making decisions? This study (N = 213) was conducted in western China to examine the effect of perceived scarcity on risky choices. Our results revealed that participants in the scarcity condition tended to be more risk averse than participants in the control condition when making a risky decision. Perceived scarcity increased the probability of choosing the safe option that offered a sure gain. The effect of psychological variables (emotion, risk attitude, personality, impulsivity, self-control and ego depletion) on risky choices was also tested. Risk attitude, urgency in impulsivity, and deliberate action in self-control also influence risky choices.
... after exclusion of the observing dimension due to low internal consistency, M = 3.37, SD = 0.57). Self-control was assessed via eight items based on the measure developed by Tangney et al. (2004) (e.g., "I am good at resisting temptation"). Participants responded to the items on a scale from 1 "does not apply at all" to 5 "fully applies" (α = 77, M = 3.03, SD = 0.73). ...
Many mobile phone usage behaviors and cognitions have become habitual, and many people have developed a strong connectedness to their mobile phones and the internet. Yet, habitualized mobile phone connectedness might evoke stress and counter long-term goals. Mindfulness has shown promise in counteracting destructive (mobile phone) habits. Over the course of three preregistered studies, we investigated the interrelations between mindfulness, four dimensions of mobile phone connectedness, and stress. Our results indicate that more mindful individuals check their mobile phones less automatically, perform less multitasking, have a lower mobile phone attachment, and experience less online vigilance. Self-control is an important mediator in these relationships. Further, mindful individuals experience less stress; however, mobile phone behaviors and cognitions do not mediate this relationship. Moreover, mindfulness-based stress reduction training or mediation apps seem to be powerful tools for cultivating mindfulness, as they promoted an increase in mindfulness and a decrease in the investigated dimensions of mobile phone connectedness and stress. Results are discussed regarding implications for research and practice.
... An influential line of research, though, has emphasized the positive role of self-control. For example, Tangney and colleagues [38] revealed that self-control positively correlated with better academic achievement, higher self-esteem, healthier diet, optimal emotional response, and quality relationships. ...
The current study adopted a person-centered approach to identify distinctive university students' profiles based on three variables (i.e., three academic motivations, grit, and self-control), regress multiple covariates (i.e., gender, age, study level, and college) on profile membership, and estimate differences on ambiguity tolerance across the estimated profiles. Data on 525 university students were modeled using Latent Profile Analysis. The findings found three latent profiles, which were: [1] Unmotivated and undisciplined students with low grit, [2] Moderately motivated and disciplined students with average grit, and [3] Highly motivated, gritty and disciplined students. Gender, study level, and college significantly predicted profile affiliation, identifying the characteristics of students within each profile. Significant differences were revealed in the ambiguity tolerance among the obtained profiles. These valuable results offer customized recommendations and prospective initiatives, strengthening the constructive effect of proper academic motivation types, purposeful grit, and intentional self-control (143 words).
... Specifically, the Herman scale (Herman et al., 1978) was measured by asking participants to indicate their responses to ten items (e.g., "In a typical week, how much does your weight fluctuate?") on a 4-point or 5-point scale. Besides, in line with existing literature on the food exposure (Madzharov, 2019), we measured the brief self-control scale (Tangney et al., 2004) as another control variable. Specifically, participants indicated their response to twelve items (e.g., "I have trouble concentrating," and "I have a hard time breaking bad habits") on a 5-point scale (1 = "not at all," and 5 = "very much"; Cronbach's α = 0.84). ...
Digital marketing tools (e.g., social media and touchscreens) allow consumers to freely interact with food cues and offer multiple ways for marketers to reach consumers. Across a series of six studies, we investigate how, why, and when digital exposure to unhealthy food (vs. nonfood) on social media or touchscreens affects the subse- quent consumption of unhealthy food. The results show that digital exposure to unhealthy food (vs. nonfood) induces a dieting goal (Study 1) and results in lower consumption volumes (Study 2). The reduced consumption is driven by the activation of a dieting goal (Studies 3a & 3b). We also find that the reduced effect does not extend to digital exposure to healthy food (Study 4). Marketers can highlight the different benefits (tasty vs. functional) of unhealthy food. We further demonstrate that the effect of food benefits (tasty vs. functional) on reduced consumption is more likely to occur among smartphone (vs. personal computer) users (Study 5). This research adds to the existing literature on digital marketing and food exposure and offers implications for consumers and marketers to reduce unhealthy consumption.
... This trait affecting effort, persistence and resilience (Pintrich & Schumk, 2002), is in relatioship with self-control and self-esteem (Tangney et al., 2004). Furthermore, Breland and colleagues (2020) reports that high levels of self-efficacy lead to better accept the measures preventing the spread of pandemic. ...
Background: In 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic has imposed a lockdown in several countries all around the world. In Italy a decret-law on March 9, 2020 lockdown was extended to schools and Universities. This situation caused symptoms such as: anxiety, insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder and somatization. In these conditions, loneliness likely exacerbated symptoms of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, changes due to online teaching, managing relationship with professor could affect well-being and mood. This research aims to verify how a low level of depression, high self-esteem, internal Locus of Control and high self-efficacy are predictors of well-being and allowing a good management of the critical situation due to the pandemic.
Methods: This study has been carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. The experimental subjects were psychology students and postgraduates in psychotherapy. Tests were administered measuring: personality traits, self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived social support, depression, internal addiction.
Results: Both experimental groups showed difficulties in socialization and in motivational support and the students showed higher anxiety and depression with respect to postgraduates. Furthermore, a correlation between depression, anxiety and stress was observed. Also, stress proved to be a cross-cutting factor in conditions of anxiety and low mood, while depression and anxiety were correlated. Additionally, high self-efficacy is related to low score of stress, anxiety and depression, such as internal Locus of Control. Last, internet addiction is in relationship with low perceived social support and low capacity of handling the situation.
Conclusions: Internal Locus of Control is crucial to handle anxiety, depression and internet addiction and a high level of self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived social support are protective factors for anxiety and depression.
... Self-control in some people can be more efficient than in others when we consider the capacity to pursue one goal that conflicts with another. Researchers have shown that a greater capacity for self-control is associated with better psychological adjustment, better interpersonal relationships, and better performance on achievement-related tasks in college students (Tangney et al., 2004). It is also a better predictor of academic performance than intelligence (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005), lower alcohol consumption, substance abuse, and other risky behaviors (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004). ...
Religiousness generally favors self-control and is associated with fewer occurrences of impulsive behavior. Religions often favor delayed rewards as this factor is directly linked to religious principles and dogma. We aimed to analyze the possible association between religiosity, impulsivity, and delayed gratification in Brazilian adults. The study sample consisted of 538 adults evaluated using instruments validated for virtual platform administration through which aspects such as religiosity, impulsiveness, delayed gratification, mental health, personality, and socioeconomic conditions were assessed. We determined the associations among variables through Pearson correlation and regression analysis and found significant correlations between general impulsivity and organized religiosity, nonorganized religiosity, and intrinsic religiosity. We also found significant but weak correlations between gratification delay and religiosity categories. The results of our study suggest that people who are more religious are generally less impulsive and more capable of delaying gratification, although it is a slight correlation. Some mechanisms by which religiosity might be connected to self-control are discussed.
... The present study also points to a link between an avoidant attachment style and lower self-regulation, a finding consistent with Bowlby's theoretical argument that insecure attachment experiences can exacerbate personality and psychological disorders associated with diminished emotional and behavioral regulation [25]. Several previous studies have found a negative association between attachment avoidance and self-regulation ( [43,55]), with a possible explanation being that avoidant individuals often feel negative emotions when interacting with others, creating a greater risk for internalizing and externalizing problems with their interpersonal relationships, causing them to lose control of their attention, impulses, and emotions, which in turn may lead to even lower levels of self-regulation. ...
This study examines the nature of phubbing (i.e., smartphone snubbing) within an attachment theory perspective to empirically demonstrate both direct and indirect associations between attachment avoidance, smartphone attachment, self-regulation, and phubbing within a sample of 440 young adults. The study provides empirical evidence indicating smartphone attachment and self-regulation mediate the relationship between avoidant attachment and phubbing. Six hypotheses are posited, and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) controlling for age, gender, and time spent per day on smartphones was performed to test the hypothesized relationships. The CFA model was confirmed, and all six hypotheses were supported revealing the joint-mediated effect of smartphone attachment and self-regulation on the relationship between avoidant attachment style and phubbing.
... Self-control was measured using eight items. These were adopted from previous studies in which the scale exhibited high levels of reliability and validity (Baron et al. 2016;Gu et al. 2018;Molino et al. 2018;Tangney et al. 2004;Van Gelderen et al. 2015). Some of the sample items included: 'People think I have iron self-discipline', and 'I can work effectively to reach long-term objectives'. ...
Entrepreneurial intention (EI) is necessary for developing entrepreneurship as it
is a good predictor of engaging in actual entrepreneurial activities. On this account, it is necessary to understand the determinants of EI. Nevertheless, a study incorporating
mechanisms and boundary conditions on the relationship between need for achievement (nAch) and EI, from a developing country’s perspective, has been lacking.Firstly, in the current study the aim is to assess the relationship between nAch and EI. Secondly, the aim is to establish whether entrepreneurial attitudes (EA) positively mediate the relationship between nAch and EI. Thirdly, the study examined whether SCP moderates the indirect nAch– EA– EI relationship. The study was conducted among students from all faculties at a South African university. The authors adopted a quantitative research method, and data were collected using a questionnaire distributed to 723 students at a South African university. The analysis was performed using the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling PLS-SEM statistical software. The findings showed a positive and significant relationship between nAch and EI. Furthermore, it was shown that EAs positively mediate the link between nAch and EI. The indirect nAch – EA – EI relationship was also positively and significantly moderated by SCP. In conclusion, this study shed light on the nuanced understanding of the nAch –EA– EI association by proposing and validating the moderating role of SCP, an approach that has been lacking in existing studies.The study contributes to the body of knowledge, through new empirical findings
generated from the moderated mediation analysis in the context of a developing country.
... B. "Ich hatte das Gefühl, dass ich mich tatsächlich in der virtuellen Nachbarschaft befand"). Die Selbstkontrolle wurde anhand einer Skala mit 11 Items gemessen (Tangney et al., 2004). Die fünfstufige Skala umfasste Items wie "Ich kann gut der Versuchung widerstehen" oder "Manchmal kann ich mich nicht davon abhalten, etwas zu tun, auch wenn ich weiß, dass es falsch ist" (stimme überhaupt nicht zustimme voll und ganz zu). ...
... Items include questions such as: "I am good at resisting temptations" and "I have trouble concentrating." Scores are averaged with the lowest possible score of 1 indicating low self-control and the highest possible score of 5 indicating high self-control (Tangney et al., 2004). Considerable examination of the brief Self-Control Scale factorial composition has been completed in recent years (e.g., de Ridder et al., 2011;Fung et al., 2020;Maloney et al., 2012). ...
Research has supported the use of preperformance routines to successfully manage the period preceding sport performance. In contrast, little research has been done on the period succeeding skill execution. This article introduces a three-stage model for postperformance routines (PoPR) for novice motor learning and performance including emotion regulation, performance analysis and correction, and continuation to the next performance trial. To test this model, 38 novice golfers completed a putting task after random assignment to either a PoPR or a control condition. Putting performance was measured after each putt, and self-efficacy, arousal, affect, and perceived task difficulty were recorded every 10 putts. Participants in the PoPR group improved their performance from baseline to postintervention (d = −0.55), while performance in the control group remained unchanged (d = −0.01). No significant differences were observed for performance consistency, emotions, self-efficacy, and perceived task difficulty. Thus, practitioners implementing a PoPR in novice athletes may consider the proposed three-stage framework for improvements in motor learning and performance.
... Self-control measured with the Trait Self-Control Scale. 72,73 Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with on 13 items (eg "I am good at resisting temptation") with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all like me, 5 = very much like me). Items were averaged so that higher scores indicated greater self-control ability. ...
Introduction:
Identifying risk and protective factors of aggressive behavior during adolescence is beneficial for the intervention and prevention treatments. Although studies show that attachment quality is closely related to aggression, the underlying psychological mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the links of parental attachment with proactive and reactive aggression and to examine the mediating role of perspective taking and self-control among Chinese adolescents.
Methods:
A cluster sampling method was used to recruit participants from several high schools located in the central regions of China. A total of 2982 participants (Mage = 17.28, SD = 0.83, range 15~20 years; 1602 girls, 1380 boys) were included in the final analysis.
Results:
Correlation analysis showed that participants possessing higher attachment security with parents were more likely to report lower levels of proactive and reactive aggression. And, self-control and perspective taking were positively associated with parental attachment, and negatively associated with both types of aggression. Moreover, structural equation models indicated that parental attachment directly, and indirectly predicted proactive and reactive aggression through self-control and perspective taking.
Discussion:
Overall, this study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the explanatory mechanisms that link adolescent-parent attachment and aggression, and suggest that high quality of adolescent-parent interactions may promote adolescents' self-control and perspectives taking, which further reduces their aggression propensity.
... Self-control. We used the 19-item Self-Control Scale by Tangney and colleague [51], which assesses resistance to temptation, healthy habits, temperance of enjoyment, impulse control, and focused work. Sample items include "I am good at resisting temptation" and "I have a hard time breaking bad habits" (reverse-scored). ...
Background:
Cyberbullying has become more prevalent, more difficult to detect, and more harmful to the victims. Whereas considerable prior work has investigated predictors and consequences of cyberbullying, additional research is needed to better understand the mechanisms by which these factors relate to cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. The goal of the present study was to examine the extent to which the link between individual differences in moral disengagement and cyberbullying perpetration is mediated by low self-control and, if so, whether this mediation effect varies by individuals' degree of callous-unemotional traits.
Method:
To explore these questions, we used cyberbullying, moral disengagement, self-control, and callous-unemotional traits scales and collected online survey data from a sample of 860 Chinese internet users aged 18 years old or older.
Result:
As hypothesized, a significant positive relation between moral disengagement and cyberbullying emerged that was mediated by individual differences in self-control. Additionally, evidence of moderated mediation was found. That is, the indirect effect varied by degree of callous-unemotional traits, with a significantly stronger mediation effect (and association between self-control and cyberbullying) for individuals who were relatively higher in callous-unemotional traits.
Conclusion:
We conclude that moral disengagement partially predicts cyberbullying through self-control, while callous-unemotional traits moderate the pathway between self-control and cyberbullying.
... 5 items adapted from [18] used to measure financial self-efficacy: (1) "I don't use credit when unexpected expenses occur", (2) "I don't worry about running out of money in retirement", (3) "I fell challenged to make progress toward achieving my financial goals", (4) "I don't have a hard time figuring out solution when facing financial challenge", (5) "I feel confidence in my ability to manage my finances". 5 items adapted from [20] and [25] used to measure self-control: (1) "Before acting, I thought all the alternatives", (2) "I don't get distracted easily", (3) "I wish I could be more discipline", (4) "I never allow myself to lose control", (5) "I focus on long term goals". ...
The aim of this study was to determine the role of Attitude toward Money, Locus of Control, Financial Self-Efficacy and Self-Control in explaining Financial Management Behavior among workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. The samples used in this study are workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. This study collected 208 samples who are workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. The respondents selected by using convenience sampling method. This research used Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to analyze data. The result of this study indicated that Attitude toward Money, Locus of Control, Financial Self-Efficacy and Self-Control has positive influence on explaining Financial Management Behavior.
... 5 items adapted from [18] used to measure financial self-efficacy: (1) "I don't use credit when unexpected expenses occur", (2) "I don't worry about running out of money in retirement", (3) "I fell challenged to make progress toward achieving my financial goals", (4) "I don't have a hard time figuring out solution when facing financial challenge", (5) "I feel confidence in my ability to manage my finances". 5 items adapted from [20] and [25] used to measure self-control: (1) "Before acting, I thought all the alternatives", (2) "I don't get distracted easily", (3) "I wish I could be more discipline", (4) "I never allow myself to lose control", (5) "I focus on long term goals". ...
The aim of this study was to determine the role of Attitude toward Money, Locus of Control, Financial Self-Efficacy and Self-Control in explaining Financial Management Behavior among workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. The samples used in this study are workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. This study collected 208 samples who are workers that use E-commerce and live in Jakarta. The respondents selected by using convenience sampling method. This research used Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to analyze data. The result of this study indicated that Attitude toward Money, Locus of Control, Financial Self-Efficacy and Self-Control has positive influence on explaining Financial Management Behavior.
This study was conducted to identify the influence of academic stress and self-control on the psychological well-being of university students in the Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia campus. Besides that, gender ethnicity and location (on-campus and off-campus) have been compared according to academic stress, self-control and psychological well-being. This study uses a quantitative method in which 320 university students were involved. The research questionnaire consists of the Perception of Academic Stress Scale (PAS), the Sense of Control Scale and the Psychological Wellbeing (PWB) Scale were used as instruments of this study. This study found that academic stress and self-control are direct predictors of the psychological well-being of university students during the COVID-19, with beta value, the study findings showed (Beta =-0.18, R² = 0.056, p < 0.05) and self-control (Beta = 0.17, R² = 0.052, p < 0.05). Based on this indicates, academic stress contributed (5.6%) and self-control (5.2%) to the psychological well-being of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is due to the academic stress from the aspect of workload that is given during the online teaching and learning sessions. Therefore, university student needs to give importance to self-control and other recreational activity for them to be psychologically happy during the COVID-19 pandemic. With high self-control, students can manage their academic stress and increase their psychological well-being.
Artan çevre sorunlarıyla birlikte oluşmaya başlayan çevre bilinci, pazarlama uygulamalarında da önem kazanmaya başlamıştır. Öte yandan, bu bilinç, her zaman tüketici davranışlarına yansımamaktadır. Bu nedenle tüketicilerin yeşil satın alma davranışına yönelmesinde etkili olan motivasyonların anlaşılması önemli olmaktadır. Çalışmada öz kontrolün yeşil satın alma davranışı üzerindeki etkisi ve söz konusu etkide mental iyi oluşun yordayıcı etkisi araştırılmıştır. Araştırma Eskişehir’de öğrenim gören 401 üniversite öğrencisi kapsamında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma modeli 374 katılımcı üzerinde test edilmiştir. Analizler SPSS ve AMOS paket programları aracılığıyla yapılmıştır. Araştırma sonuçları öz disiplin boyutunun yeşil satın alma davranışı üzerinde pozitif yönde anlamlı bir etkisi olduğunu ve dürtüsellik boyutunun ise negatif yönde anlamlı bir etkisi olduğunu göstermiştir. Mental iyi oluşun öz disiplin ve yeşil satın alma davranışı üzerinde yordayıcı bir etkiye sahip olduğu ve dürtüsellik ve yeşil satın alma davranışı üzerinde ise yordayıcı bir etkisi olmadığı görülmüştür.
This study was conducted to identify the influence of academic stress and self-control on the psychological well-being of university students in the Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia campus. Besides that, gender ethnicity and location (on-campus and off-campus) have been compared according to academic stress, self-control and psychological well-being. This study uses a quantitative method in which 320 university students were involved. The research questionnaire consists of the Perception of Academic Stress Scale (PAS), the Sense of Control Scale and the Psychological Wellbeing (PWB) Scale were used as instruments of this study. This study found that academic stress and self-control are direct predictors of the psychological well-being of university students during the COVID-19, with beta value, the study findings showed (Beta = –0.18, R² = 0.056, p < 0.05) and self-control (Beta = 0.17, R² = 0.052, p < 0.05). Based on this indicates, academic stress contributed (5.6%) and self-control (5.2%) to the psychological well-being of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is due to the academic stress from the aspect of workload that is given during the online teaching and learning sessions. Therefore, university student needs to give importance to self-control and other recreational activity for them to be psychologically happy during the COVID-19 pandemic. With high self-control, students can manage their academic stress and increase their psychological well-being.
A frugalidade está associada a um estilo de vida simples e sem excessos, não está necessariamente relacionada à restrição ou à falta de renda para a aquisição de bens ou serviços, sendo uma decisão voluntária do consumidor em não adquirir o que julgue desnecessário. O objetivo deste estudo é averiguar o papel moderador do autocontrole na relação entre antipatia às compras, idade, religiosidade e consumo frugal na Amazônia Legal. Para tanto, realizou-se uma pesquisa quantitativa, com mulheres residentes em Boa Vista, no Estado de Roraima, localizado na Amazônia Legal do Brasil. A coleta deu-se na segunda quinzena de setembro de 2022, de forma on-line, por meio de questionário, divulgado o link nas redes sociais. Ao todo, coletou-se e validou-se 251 respostas. As evidências indicaram que a idade e a religiosidade influenciam a intenção de consumo frugal, demonstrando relação direta negativa, e direta positiva, respectivamente. Já quanto à antipatia às compras, o resultado indicou não haver relação de influência no consumo frugal. Além disso, identificou-se que o autocontrole não potencializa a relação de antipatia e religiosidade, ambas relacionadas com a intenção de consumo frugal. Este estudo contribui por demonstrar que as consumidoras gostam de consumir, e que o autocontrole não produz efeito no consumo delas. Isso denota que a comunicação e os apelos de marketing não necessitam estar voltados aos consumidores autocontrolados, uma vez que não há moderação nas relações.
Metacognition is important for self‐regulated learning, and it has recently been argued that it may play an important role in self‐control more generally. We studied multiple aspects of metacognition in self‐control, namely metacognitive knowledge including a person's repertoire (“toolbox”) of different self‐regulatory strategies, metacognitive regulation (planning, monitoring, and evaluation), and polyregulation (using more self‐regulatory strategies in a single self‐control conflict) as predictors of people's self‐control success in daily life. In a preregistered experience sampling study, N = 503 participants reported their self‐control conflicts up to eight times per day for 10 days, yielding 9,639 reports of daily self‐control conflicts. Analyses showed that higher levels of metacognitive knowledge, planning, monitoring, evaluation, and polyregulation as well as a larger strategy repertoire were associated with higher levels of success in resolving daily self‐control conflicts. Additionally, higher levels of trait self‐control were associated with higher levels of metacognitive knowledge, planning, and monitoring. These findings highlight the importance of metacognition and polyregulation for successful self‐control.
Many concepts describe how individuals sustain effort despite challenging circumstances. For example, scholars and practitioners may incorporate discussions of grit, hardiness, self-control, and resilience into their ideas of performance under adversity. Although there are nuanced points underlying each construct capable of generating empirically sound propositions, the shared attributes make them difficult to differentiate. As a result, substantial confusion arises when debating how these related factors concomitantly contribute to success, especially when practitioners attempt to communicate these ideas in applied settings. The model proposed here-psychological endurance-is a unified theory to explore how multiple concepts contribute to sustained goal-directed behaviors and individual success. Central to this model is the metaphor of a psychological battery, which potentiates and sustains optimal performance despite adversity. Grit and hardiness are associated with the maximum charge of the psychological battery, or how long an individual could sustain effort. Self-control modulates energy management that augments effort required to sustain endurance, whereas resilience represents the ability to recharge. These factors are constrained by both psychological and physiological stressors in the environment that drain the psychology battery. Taken together, these ideas form a novel framework to discuss related psychological concepts, and ideally, optimize intervention to enhance psychological endurance.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to study the relationship between trait self-control (TSC) and emotional exhaustion, and to examine the mediating role of effort–reward imbalance (ERI) and emotional demands.
Design/methodology/approach
A quantitative study was conducted using data from 441 employees working in different organizations in the information technology sector in India. PROCESS macro with a bootstrap sample size of 5,000 was used for mediation analysis.
Findings
TSC demonstrated a significant negative relationship with emotional exhaustion. Results indicated the crucial role played by ERI and emotional demands in influencing the emotional exhaustion of employees with higher TSC.
Originality/value
This study adds substantially to our knowledge of the role of TSC in employee experiences of emotional exhaustion. Results suggest how employees’ ERI perceptions and experiences of emotional demands determine whether higher TSC would reduce experiences of exhaustion. This adds to the knowledge of positive outcomes of self-control while throwing some light on why the use of self-control does not always incur a psychological cost, as suggested by some studies. The findings suggest that self-control is an individual resource that has the ability to alleviate emotional exhaustion through its influence on employees‘ effort–reward perceptions and experiences of emotional demands.
The present study describes changes in young adults' sexual behaviors during the early COVID-19 pandemic. Latent class growth analyses (LCGAs) conducted with four waves of data collected between July 2019 to May 2020 in N = 775 college students (Mage = 18.61, SD = 0.33; 50.3% female, 90.2% White) revealed the presence of high- and low-risk classes in separate models for oral, vaginal, and anal sexual risk taking. As anticipated, vaginal and oral risk taking declined in spring 2020. Membership in high-risk trajectories was attributable to high COVID-19-related financial problems, early sexual debut, low self-control, and being in a romantic relationship. Other COVID-19 factors and demographic control variables were not linked to trajectory membership. Thus, while many young adults' sexual risk taking changed during the early pandemic, their perceptions of and experiences with COVID-19 were not predictive of sexual risk trajectory membership.
Insomnia confers a 2.5-to-3-fold risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after a traumatic event. The mechanism underlying this increased risk, however, remains unknown. We postulate insomnia may contribute to PTSD by disrupting rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, as REM sleep disruption has been shown to impair fear inhibitory processes, which are central to the natural recovery from trauma. To test this hypothesis, the following protocol aims to: (1) examine the relationship between REM sleep and fear inhibition in insomnia, and (2) examine whether reducing REM fragmentation by treating insomnia, in turn, improves fear inhibition. Ninety-two adults with Insomnia Disorder will be block randomized (1:1; stratified by sex) to an active treatment (7 weekly sessions of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia (CBT-I) via telehealth) or waitlist control condition. REM sleep (latent variable derived from REM %, REM efficiency, and REM latency) and fear inhibition (i.e. safety signal and extinction recall) will be assessed pre- and post-treatment in a 4 night/3 day testing protocol via at-home polysomnography and the fear-potentiated startle paradigm, respectively. Fear extinction recall will serve as the primary outcome, while safety signal recall will serve as the secondary outcome. In summary, this study aims to test an underlying mechanism potentially explaining why insomnia greatly increases PTSD risk, while demonstrating an existing clinical intervention (CBT-I) can be used to improve this mechanism. Findings will have potential clinical implications for novel approaches in the prevention, early intervention, and treatment of PTSD.
The adoption and maintenance of physical activity (PA) is an important health behavior. This paper presents the first comprehensive empirical test of the Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance (PAAM) model, which proposes that a combination of explicit and implicit self-regulatory processes is involved in PA adoption and maintenance. Data were collected via online questionnaires in English, German, and Italian at two measurement points four weeks apart. The study included 422 participants (M age = 25.3, SD age = 10.1; 74.2% women) from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Canada, and the U.S. The study results largely supported the assumptions of the PAAM model, indicating that intentions and habits significantly mediate the effects of past PA on future PA. In addition, the effect of past PA on future PA was shown to be significant through a mediation chain involving affect and habit. Although the hypothesis that trait self-regulation moderates the intention-behavior relationship was not supported, a significant moderating effect of affect on the same relationship was observed. The results suggest that interventions targeting both explicit and implicit processes may be effective in promoting PA adoption and maintenance.
Previous research found that performing an initial self-control task impairs subsequent self-control performance, which is referred to as ego depletion. However, recent meta-analyses and replication studies have led to controversies over whether the ego depletion effect is as reliable as previously assumed. The present study aimed to shed more light on these controversies by combining depletion measurement task type and personality as moderators. Study 1 investigated trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on stop-signal task (inhibitory control). Study 2 examined the trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on a majority congruent Stroop task (goal maintenance). Results showed that trait self-control moderated the ego depletion effect on stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). High trait self-control people were less vulnerable to the ego depletion effect on the reactive inhibitory control task, whereas the moderating role of trait self-control for ego depletion was not found in the goal maintenance task. More particularly, high action-oriented people were less susceptible to the ego depletion effect on the goal maintenance task, but there was no moderation effect of action orientation for ego depletion in the stop-signal task. We discuss types of task for depletion measurement and individual differences in ego depletion, and we suggest possible avenues for future research.
Discretionary foods account for over a third of the average adult's total daily energy intake. But its excess consumption is a risk factor for obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and other diet-related diseases. This study aimed to use temporal self-regulation theory (intention, past behaviour, habit, self-regulatory capacity) and food reward sensitivity to identify predictors of discretionary food consumption. Two hundred and seventy-three participants aged between 18 and 80 (M = 42.55, SD = 17.07) comprising of mostly females (79.5%) and those residing in Australia (93.4%), completed a two-part online survey, one week apart. Participants completed measures of intention, past behaviour, habit, self-regulatory capacity, food reward sensitivity and demographic information at time one, and discretionary food consumption at time two. Data was analysed using a hierarchical multiple regression analysis. All variables in combination accounted for a significant 40.3% of the variance in discretionary food consumption (R2 = 0.40, p < .001). However, past behaviour and intention were the only unique significant predictors of discretionary food consumption. No significant moderation effects found. Findings offer insight into the motivators of discretionary food consumption, which can inform the development of effective interventions to reduce discretionary food consumption. Past behaviour should be considered, and intention targeted in interventions to reduce discretionary food consumption.
Studies examining the associations between social media use and subjective well-being have revealed inconsistent results and mainly refer to the between-person level. We conducted a 14-day diary study among 200 youths ages 10 to 14 to examine within- and between-person associations of social media use (Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube), subjective well-being (positive/negative self-worth, positive/negative affect), and upward social comparisons (general impression of others being better off). Multilevel structural equation models showed that social media use was linked to lower positive and higher negative self-worth on a daily basis, and that upward social comparisons were linked to diminished subjective well-being on all dimensions. Furthermore, our findings were consistent with (partial) mediation of the effect of social media use on subjective well-being by upward social comparisons on the between- and within-person levels. Youths’ feelings that others are better off than themselves may help explain part of the heterogeneity of previous findings.
Contrary to the law of less work, individuals with high levels of need for cognition and self-control tend to choose harder tasks more often. While both traits can be integrated into a core construct of dispositional cognitive effort investment, its relation to actual cognitive effort investment remains unclear. As individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment are characterized by a high intrinsic motivation towards effortful cognition, they would be less likely to increase their effort based on expected payoff, but rather based on increasing demand. In the present study, we measured actual effort investment on multiple dimensions, i.e., subjective load, reaction time, accuracy, early and late frontal midline theta power, N2 and P3 amplitude, and pupil dilation. In a sample of N = 148 participants, we examined the relationship of dispositional cognitive effort investment and effort indices during a flanker and an n-back task with varying demand and payoff. Exploratorily, we examined this relationship for the two subdimensions cognitive motivation and effortful-self-control as well. In both tasks, effort indices were sensitive to demand and partly to payoff. The analyses revealed a main effect of cognitive effort investment for accuracy (n-back task), interaction effects with payoff for reaction time (n-back and flanker task) and P3 amplitude (n-back task) and demand for early frontal midline theta power (flanker task). Taken together, our results partly support the notion that individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment exert effort more efficiently. Moreover, the notion that these individuals exert effort regardless of payoff is partly supported, too. This may further our understanding of the conditions under which person-situation interactions occur, i.e. the conditions under which situations determine effort investment in goal-directed behavior more than personality, and vice versa.
Self‐control is a concept used by sociologists to explain differences among people in the frequency of engaging in a wide variety of acts, including crime and delinquency, that cause harm to others. It is defined as the tendency to avoid acts whose long term costs exceed their momentary advantages
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight sub-scales measuring: 1) Drive for Thinness, 2) Bulimia, 3) Body Dissatisfaction, 4) Ineffectiveness, 5) Perfectionism, 6) Interpersonal Distrust, 7) Interoceptive Awareness and 8) Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N = 113) are differentiated from female comparison (FC) subjects (N = 577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminate validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
Data from a longitudinal study of a large sample of boys followed from kindergarten to high school were used to test two alternative hypotheses concerning the association between delinquency and accidents. The first hypothesis proposes that delinquency and accidents are correlated because they are both the product of a failure to learn self-control during childhood. The alternative hypothesis proposes that self-control during childhood will explain part of the association between delinquency and accidents during adolescence, but delinquency will still increase the risk for accidents. Linear structural equation modelling was used to test the alternative hypotheses with data collected from teachers, mothers and self-reports, at 6, 10, 14 and 15 years of age. Results supported the hypothesis that childhood self-control levels only explain part of the association between driving accidents and delinquency during early adolescence, and delinquency increases the risk of accidents. Results also indicated that the association between delinquency and accidents increased with age, suggesting that the risk of accidents during adolescence increases as involvement in delinquency increases. Details of a case of delinquent behaviour which led to a fatal car accident are given. It was also suggested that longitudinal studies of the association between self-control and antisocial behaviour should focus on their early development during the preschool years.
Research on the link between the self and emotional distress has produced many measures that have unknown conceptual and empirical interrelations. The authors identified two classes of self-related variables shown previously to be important predictors of emotional distress. The first class, termed self-regulatory vari- ables, included ego-resiliency, ego-control, ego-strength, and har- diness. The second class, termed self-structure variables, included self-complexity, self-discrepancy, self-consistency, self- attitude ambivalence, and role conflict. Using a two-step struc- tural equation modeling (SEM) strategy, the authors examined first the factor structure of this set of measures. Second, they determined that Elasticity and Permeability (two self-regulatory factors) accounted for unique variance in the prediction of per- ceived emotional distress (Agitation and Dejection), whereas Self-Discrepancy and Self-Complexity (two self-structure factors) did not.
This article assesses empirically whether Gottfredson and Hirschi's “general theory” can account for the “gender gap” in crime and, when rival theories are included in the analysis, can explain criminal behavior for both males and females. Based on a sample of 555 adults, the results indicate that the relationship of gender to crime becomes nonsignificant when self-control is introduced into the analysis. Further, when males and females are analyzed separately, self-control is related, albeit differently, to males' and females' criminal involvement. These results suggest that Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory should be incorporated into future empirical assessments of gender and crime.
Procrastination is variously described as harmful, innocuous, or even beneficial. Two longitudinal studies examined procrastination among students. Procrastinators reported lower stress and less illness than nonprocrastinators early in the semester, but they reported higher stress and more illness late in the term, and overall they were sicker. Procrastinators also received lower grades on all assignments. Procrastination thus appears to be a self-defeating behavior pattern marked by short-term benefits and long-term costs.
This study uses academic dishonesty as a unique type of fraudulent behavior upon which to test Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime. The study utilizes self‐report data from a survey of undergraduate students enrolled in sociology courses at a large southwestern university. With these data, the authors examine a number of the core theoretical propositions of Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory. That is, we test issues concerning the dimensionality of low self‐control, the influence of parenting on the development of self‐control, the association between levels of self‐control and involvement in academic dishonesty, and the interactive effects of low self‐control and opportunity on the frequency of academic dishonesty. The results of our analyses, although rather mixed, do provide qualified support for the theory.
review the theoretical literature, showing that many psychologists have failed to distinguish between shame and guilt when discussing the role of these emotions in psychological disorders / focus on depression . . . to argue that proneness to shame—not guilt—is a potent and potentially maladaptive affective style with negative implications for psychological adjustment / review the relevant empirical literature to demonstrate that when shame and guilt are measured in a theoretically appropriate manner, shame-proneness is associated with depression and other psychological symptoms, whereas a tendency to experience "shamefree" guilt is essentially unrelated to maladjustment / highlight results from a recent study considering 2 different methods for assessing a dispositional tendency toward shame and guilt / speculate about the nature of "pathological" guilt . . . suggesting that guilt experiences become maladaptive largely when they become fused with shame (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using student interviews, teacher ratings, and achievement test outcomes, we validated a strategy model of student self-regulated learning as a theoretical construct. Forty-four male and 36 female high school students were asked to describe their use of 14 self-regulated learning strategies in six contexts, and their teachers rated these students for their self-regulated learning during class. Factor analyses of the teachers' ratings along with students' scores on a standardized test of mathematics and English revealed a single self-regulated learning factor that accounted for nearly 80% of the explained variance and two smaller factors that were labeled Student Verbal Expressiveness and Achievement. Students' reports of using self-regulated learning strategies during a structured interview correlated .70 with the obtained teachers' rating factor and were negatively related to the Student Verbal Expressiveness and Achievement factors. Our results indicate both convergent and discriminative validity for a self-regulated learning construct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight subscales measuring: Drive for Thinness, Bilimia, Body Dissatisfaction, Ineffectiveness, Perfectionism, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N=113) are differentiated from femal comparison (FC) subjects (N=577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminant validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
Both guilt and empathic perspective taking have been linked to prosocial, relationship-enhancing effects. Study 1 found that shame was linked to personal distress, whereas guilt was linked to perspective taking. In Studies 2 and 3, subjects were asked to describe a recent experience of interpersonal conflict, once from their own perspective, and once from the perspective of the other person. Guilt-prone people and guilt-dominated stories were linked to better perspective taking (measured by changes between the two versions of the story) than others. Shame had no effect. Guilt improved relationship outcomes but shame harmed them. Path analysis suggested that trait guilt-proneness leads to perspective taking, which leads to actual guilt feelings, which produces beneficial relationship outcomes. Guilt feelings may mediate the relationship-enhancing effects of empathy.
This article proposes that binge eating is motivated by a desire to escape from self-awareness. Binge eaters suffer from high standards and expectations, especially an acute sensitivity to the difficult (perceived) demands of others. When they fall short of these standards, they develop an aversive pattern of high self-awareness, characterized by unflattering views of self and concern over how they are perceived by others. These aversive self-perceptions are accompanied by emotional distress, which often includes anxiety and depression. To escape from this unpleasant state, binge eaters attempt the cognitive response of narrowing attention to the immediate stimulus environment and avoiding broadly meaningful thought. This narrowing of attention disengages normal inhibitions against eating and fosters an uncritical acceptance of irrational beliefs and thoughts. The escape model is capable of integrating much of the available evidence about binge eating.
Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale is a widely used measure of global self-esteem; however, the unidimensional nature of the scale has been questioned. A unidimensional confirmatory factor analytic model was tested and found consistent to the data.
In this study, we sought preliminary information about the relationships among measures of self-efficacy, self-regulation, collaborative learning behavior, and grades. The collaborative verbal behavior of 20 students in a computer course was observed. Also, students responded to a questionnaire to assess their academic self-efficacy. A teacher rated each student's self-regulated learning behaviors. The measures were taken at various points throughout the school year, and the data were analyzed using path analysis. Although students scoring higher on self-regulation tended to score higher also on the measures of collaborative verbal behavior than did those who scored lower on self-regulation, scores on self-regulation rather than on verbal engagement were correlated with grades. The findings were discussed in the light of social cognitive theory and recommendations were made for further study.
Claims that attributions and their related behaviors may reflect a type of perceived control that is generally overlooked. People attempt to gain control by bringing the environment into line with their wishes (primary control) and by bringing themselves into line with environmental forces (secondary control). Four manifestations of secondary control are considered: (a) Attributions to severely limited ability can serve to enhance predictive control and protect against disappointment; (b) attributions to chance can reflect illusory control, since people often construe chance as a personal characteristic akin to an ability ("luck"); (c) attributions to powerful others permit vicarious control when the individual identifies with these others; and (d) the preceding attributions may foster interpretive control, in which the individual seeks to understand and derive meaning from otherwise uncontrollable events in order to accept them. (5½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The general theory of crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) proposes that self-control is the primary individual-level cause of crime and that its effect is contingent on criminal opportunity. This study conducted a prospective test of self-control and opportunity as predictors of property crime and personal crime among drug-using offenders. Each predictor had a main effect; property crimes and personal crimes were more frequent among offenders lower on self-control and those with higher opportunity. A significant interaction between these predictors was also detected. About four percent of the variance in each type of crime was explained by these predictors. Results support the proposition that self-control is a causal factor in criminal behavior and suggest that its effect is partially contingent on opportunity, but self-control and opportunity, as measured here, had very modest explanatory power.
• In the last half-generation or so there has been increased emphasis on an understanding of personality functioning. It is asked what, if anything, is known or agreed to in this field. Is there a typical mother of schizophrenics, for example? In all the talk about the "creative personality" or the "authoritarian personality" just what is meant by these terms? What really is "hysteria"? Doctor Jack Block's monograph introduces the California Q-set—a method for describing comprehensively in contemporary psychodynamic terms an individual's personality. This method for encoding personality evaluation will prove highly useful in research applications by psychiatrists, psychologists, and sociologists, for it permits quantitative comparisons and calibrations of their evaluations of patients. He compares the Q-sort procedure with conventional rating methods and adjective check lists. He considers in detail the various forms of application of Q-sort procedure and appropriate statistical procedures to employ for these applications. Included in the Appendices are conversion tables for calculation of Q-sort correlations, California Q-set descriptions of various clinical concepts to be employed for calibration purposes, and an adjective Q-set for use by non-professional sorters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
• In the last half-generation or so there has been increased emphasis on an understanding of personality functioning. It is asked what, if anything, is known or agreed to in this field. Is there a typical mother of schizophrenics, for example? In all the talk about the "creative personality" or the "authoritarian personality" just what is meant by these terms? What really is "hysteria"? Doctor Jack Block's monograph introduces the California Q-set—a method for describing comprehensively in contemporary psychodynamic terms an individual's personality. This method for encoding personality evaluation will prove highly useful in research applications by psychiatrists, psychologists, and sociologists, for it permits quantitative comparisons and calibrations of their evaluations of patients. He compares the Q-sort procedure with conventional rating methods and adjective check lists. He considers in detail the various forms of application of Q-sort procedure and appropriate statistical procedures to employ for these applications. Included in the Appendices are conversion tables for calculation of Q-sort correlations, California Q-set descriptions of various clinical concepts to be employed for calibration purposes, and an adjective Q-set for use by non-professional sorters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research has indicated the potential value of Anger Control Training as an intervention in work with individuals who have acted aggressively towards others. However, the general suitability of this method for work with convicted violent offenders has not been explored in any systematic way. This paper reports results from a small scale survey of offenders (n = 39) with convictions for violence and placed on probation. The aim of the study was to assess the extent to which lack or loss of control had contributed to the occurrence of violent acts. Data were gathered from supervising Probation Officers by means of a structured questionnaire and interview schedule, in which offence incidents were to be described and analysed using a prescribed set of guidelines. Results suggest that loss of self-control is seen as having played an important part in acts of personal violence, and that a significant proportion of offender/clients may be able to benefit from direct training in self-control and be motivated to change. The study involved only an indirect form of data collection, and future research is recommended to examine these issues in more depth using direct interview and psychometric assessments.
Cloninger's Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) is a self-report inventory designed to assess Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, and Reward Dependence, the three primary dimensions of his Biosocial Learning Model of normal and abnormal personality. We examined the structural validity of the TPQ and the relations among the TPQ lower- and higher-order scales to those of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; Tellegen, 1982) in a sample of 1,236 adults. The factor structure of the TPQ was congruent with Cloninger's predicted three-factor genotypic structure with one notable exception: the component scales of the Reward Dependence dimension share essentially no variance, and thus load on different factors. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses indicate that the TPQ and the MPQ share considerable variance, but that each inventory contains variance unpredicted by the other. In addition, the TPQ Harm Avoidance dimension appears to tap primarily a Negative Emotionality or neuroticism factor, rather than a disposition toward behavioral inhibition. These results support a number of Cloninger's predictions concerning the structural and external validity of the TPQ, but also suggest that the TPQ may fail to adequately operationalize several components of his model.
In this study, the authors tested two hypotheses drawn from the general theory of crime. The first hypothesis is that low self-control is a major individual-level cause of crime. The second, that the effect of self-control is contingent on criminal opportunity. The measure of self-control used was a 23-item self-report index. To measure criminal opportunity, two proxy variables were used: gender and crime-involved friends. Crime measures included number of criminal acts of force and number of criminal acts of fraud reported in a 6-month recall period by a sample of 522 criminal offenders. Self-control was lower among offenders reporting more crimes of force and fraud, but the variance explained by self-control was low in each case. The relationship between self-control and fraud crimes was contingent on criminal opportunity, but the relationship between self-control and force crimes was not. Implications of these findings for the general theory of crime are reviewed.
The possibility that love and work in adulthood are functionally similar to attachment and exploration in infancy and early childhood was investigated. Key components of attachment theory—developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the role of attachment in exploratory behavior—were translated into terms appropriate to adult love and work. The translation centered on the 3 major types of infant attachment and exploration identified by Ainsworth: secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relations between adult attachment type and work orientation are similar to attachment/exploration dynamics in infancy and early childhood, suggesting that the dynamics may be similar across the life span. Implications for research on the link between love and work are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of an attachment-theoretical approach to the study of adults.
The present study investigated problem drinking and symptoms of disordered eating in relation to (a) restrained drinking and eating, and (b) cognitive self-control. One hundred and ninety-eight high school students (97 males and 101 females; mean age = 16.45 years) completed questionnaires that assessed problem drinking, symptoms of disordered eating, restrained eating and drinking, and cognitive self-control. Using principal components analysis, three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were found to summarize the interrelationships among the examined measures. For both sexes, the first two factors primarily reflected problem drinking and restrained drinking, and problem eating and restrained eating, respectively. The third factor reflected a more general problem with control underlying aspects of both problem drinking and problem eating.
The present study examines the link between alcohol consumption and personality, using the California Psychological Inventory in a large well-adjusted sample and tests four hypotheses, including one that states that persons who drink no alcohol at all are less well adjusted than persons who drink moderate amounts. The results confirm the hypotheses. Alcohol consumed correlates positively with sociability and extraversion, but negatively with conscientiousness and willingness to conform. The results also show, in a large sample and using a comprehensive personality inventory, that persons who drink no alcohol at all are a little more withdrawn, a little less ambitious, a little less generally well-organised and competent, than people who drink in moderation.
A self-report instrument that included a parental management scale, a self-control scale, and measures of deviance was administered to 289 university students. Models based on Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory were tested by using path analysis. The analysis generally supported Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory, and suggested the usefulness of a measure of self-control that includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects.
Ethological attachment theory is a landmark of 20th century social and behavioral sciences theory and research. This new paradigm for understanding primary relationships across the lifespan evolved from John Bowlby's critique of psychoanalytic drive theory and his own clinical observations, supplemented by his knowledge of fields as diverse as primate ethology, control systems theory, and cognitive psychology. By the time he had written the first volume of his classic Attachment and Loss trilogy, Mary D. Salter Ainsworth's naturalistic observations in Uganda and Baltimore, and her theoretical and descriptive insights about maternal care and the secure base phenomenon had become integral to attachment theory. Patterns of Attachment reports the methods and key results of Ainsworth's landmark Baltimore Longitudinal Study. Following upon her naturalistic home observations in Uganda, the Baltimore project yielded a wealth of enduring, benchmark results on the nature of the child's tie to its primary caregiver and the importance of early experience. It also addressed a wide range of conceptual and methodological issues common to many developmental and longitudinal projects, especially issues of age appropriate assessment, quantifying behavior, and comprehending individual differences. In addition, Ainsworth and her students broke new ground, clarifying and defining new concepts, demonstrating the value of the ethological methods and insights about behavior. Today, as we enter the fourth generation of attachment study, we have a rich and growing catalogue of behavioral and narrative approaches to measuring attachment from infancy to adulthood. Each of them has roots in the Strange Situation and the secure base concept presented in Patterns of Attachment. It inclusion in the Psychology Press Classic Editions series reflects Patterns of Attachment's continuing significance and insures its availability to new generations of students, researchers, and clinicians.
The relation of 4- to 6-year-olds' sociometric status to teacher- or peer-reported negative emotionality and regulation was examined across two semesters (Tl and T2), Social status at T2 was positively related to teacher-reported regulation and negatively related to emotional intensity, as well as peer-reported anger and crying. Regulation and emotionality (in combination) accounted for additional variance in T2 social status after controlling for initial social preference. Initial (Tl) social status infrequently predicted subsequent regulation and emotionality after controlling for scores on initial emotionality/regulation. Thus, emotionality/regulation predicted future social status whereas social status did not appear to account for changes in emotionality and regulation over time. Social behavior (aggression) did not mediate the relation of emotionality/regulation to later social status.
Total SAT score, average grade earned in high school, and 32 personality variables are examined via forward multiple regression analyses to identify the best combination for predicting GPA in a sample of 201 psychology students. Average grade earned in high school enters first, accounting for 19% of the variance in GPA. Self-control enters second, and SAT third; these account for 9% and 5% of the variance, respectively. No other predictors accounted for substantial portions of variance. This pattern of results converges with findings reported by other investigators using other measures of personality. It was recommended that the global trait of self-control or conscientiousness be systematically assessed and used in college admissions decisions.
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a widely used self-report instrument for evaluating individual self-esteem, was investigated using item response theory. Factor analysis identified a single common factor, contrary to some previous studies that extracted separate Self-Confidence and Self-Depreciation factors. A unidimensional model for graded item responses was fit to the data. A model that constrained the 10 items to equal discrimination was contrasted with a model allowing the discriminations to be estimated freely. The test of significance indicated that the unconstrained model better fit the data-that is, the 10 items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale are not equally discriminating and are differentially related to self-esteem. The pattern of functioning of the items was examined with respect to their content, and observations are offered with implications for validating and developing future personality instruments.
Disadvantaged preschool children attending a program of compensatory education were studied to determine if change in self-concept, delay of gratification, and exercise of self-control were related to growth in achievement. Girls displayed self-concept growth and a decline in delay of gratification, while boys showed growth in self-control. (Author/DST)
Variations of the self-imposed delay-of-gratification situation in preschool were compared to determine when individual differences in this situation may predict aspects of cognitive and self-regulatory competence and coping in adolescence. Preschool children from a university community participated in experiments that varied features of the self-imposed delay situation. Experimental analyses of the cognitive–attentional processes that affect waiting in this situation helped identify conditions in which delay behavior would be most likely to reflect relevant cognitive and attentional competencies. As hypothesized, in those conditions, coherent patterns of statistically significant correlations were found between seconds of delay time in such conditions in preschool and cognitive and academic competence and ability to cope with frustration and stress in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined body shape preferences, body dissatisfaction, and self-focus between dieters and nondieters. Ss were 70 women. 35 were classified as chronic dieters, and 35 were classified as nondieters. Dieters were found to be more dissatisfied with their bodies than were nondieters. Although dieters did not have more stringent standards for body shape than nondieters, there was a larger discrepancy between ideal and current shape for dieters owing to their greater body weights. Dieters were also found to be highly and negatively self-focused on the Exner Sentence Completion Task. Dieting status was correlated with public rather than private self-consciousness, suggesting that dieters were concerned with their public image. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
On the basis of a series of recent investigations linking personality, social behavior, and social satisfaction, as well as the theoretical concept of relational competence, we propose a model of relationship satisfaction. The model is based on the notion that personality in general and empathy in particular affect relationship satisfaction through their influences on specific mediating behaviors. The tenets of the model were tested by assessing the key constructs for both members of 264 heterosexual romantic couples. In general, the model was strongly supported, as three separate facets of dispositional empathy had separate and predictable influences on self-reported behavior, which in turn significantly influenced partners' perceptions of those behaviors. Also as expected, perceptions of partner behavior were significant influences on one's satisfaction with the relationship. The model worked especially well for longer term relationships and somewhat better for predicting female behavior; the role of one facet of empathy—perspective taking—was especially strong for longer relationships. Thus, the model appears to be a fruitful way to examine the role of personality on social and psychological well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relationship between individual differences in self-control at an early age and adult behavior, using data from a Finnish longitudinal study on the social development of 196 males and 173 females, followed up between ages 8–32 yrs. Results show that the concept of self-control was useful when the risks of crime and accidents were described: Low self-control in childhood and adolescence was a precursor to crime and accidents. However, the relationship between low self-control and crime and accidents was found to be non-linear, as significant results were obtained only for Ss exhibiting prominent negative behavior (above the 75th percentile) patterned with other problem behaviors. Findings suggest that problem behaviors and adverse life conditions accumulated in these Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In "Losing Control," the authors provide a single reference source with comprehensive information on general patterns of self-regulation failure across contexts, research findings on specific self-control disorders, and commentary on the clinical and social aspects of self-regulation failure. Self-control is discussed in relation to what the "self" is, and the cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors that impinge on one's ability to control one's "self." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined psychological variables that influence individual rates of savings. 98 members of a local credit union (aged 20–61 yrs) responded to a questionnaire assessing individual, demographic and financial characteristics of the Ss. The influence of variables such as, age, sex, self-control, locus of control, total income, marital status, rent or own home, whether or not there was a temporary influence on ability to save, number of dependents, and type of saving was analyzed. 82.5% of the Ss had a long-term saving plan, while 15.5% did not. Ss were divided into 3 groups: High (13.5% savings or more); average (11.9%); and low savers (5.8% or less). It is suggested that understanding of psychological factors that influence savers could be useful in alternating current low rates of saving in US. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
describes . . . a descriptive model, the "Big Five" dimensions of personality description, derived from analyses of the natural-language terms people use to describe themselves and others
describes the history of the lexical approach and the discovery of the five dimensions / presents more recent research replicating and extending this model, both in English and in several other languages
present a consensual definition of the five dimensions, which I [the author] then use . . . to discuss numerous other dimensions of personality, temperament, mood, and interpersonal behavior proposed by researchers outside the lexical tradition
address some criticisms of the Big Five structure, and discuss problems and issues that still await resolution (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)