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Self-Reported Use of Different Forms of Aggression in Late Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood
Abstract
Two studies investigated the psychometric properties of a self-report measure of commonly recognized forms of aggression (FOA) that could be used to efficiently gather aggression data in large samples. EFA and CFA in Study 1 suggested that a five-factor model (Physical, Property, Verbal, Relational, and Passive-Rational) best represented the data across high school and college students. However, factor analyses in Study 2 using an ethnically diverse university sample revealed a four-factor solution (combining Physical and Property items). As a confirmation of the construct validity of FOA, physical and property aggression were lower, and verbal and passive-rational aggression were higher in college versus high school students. Gender differences were observed across FOA subscales, except relational aggression. FOA subscales correlated as expected with other anger and personality scales. Overall, the data revealed adequate psychometric properties for the FOA and suggest that current category distinctions (e.g., direct-indirect) may not adequately account for different forms of aggression. Researchers may want to reevaluate these categories.
... In Sample 1, participants completed a shortened version of the Forms of Aggression measure (FOA; Verona et al., 2008) to assess physical, verbal, relational, and passiverational forms of aggression. Specifically, this version generally retained the four items on each subscale with the highest factor loadings in the original paper (Verona et al., 2008). ...
... In Sample 1, participants completed a shortened version of the Forms of Aggression measure (FOA; Verona et al., 2008) to assess physical, verbal, relational, and passiverational forms of aggression. Specifically, this version generally retained the four items on each subscale with the highest factor loadings in the original paper (Verona et al., 2008). The exception was on the passive-rational subscale; for the shortened version of the FOA, the two "passive" items with the highest loadings and the two "rational" items with the highest loadings were retained. ...
... All items were rated on a 5-point scale of frequency, producing sum scores from 4 to 20. Past work using the original FOA demonstrates its convergent validity and reliability (e.g., Schoenleber et al., 2011;Verona et al., 2008). Unfortunately, however, the physical aggression subscale suffered from poor variability in the present sample; at least 98% of participants responded in the same way (i.e. ...
Shame aversion has been theorized to motivate aggression against the self or others as means of down-regulating shame. Additionally, the direction of aggression may depend on tendencies to attribute blame or causes internally or externally. Data from two separate samples were used to examine shame aversion and its interaction with causal or blame attributions in relation to aggression, controlling for shame-proneness, which is more commonly studied. Results indicated that shame aversion was positively associated with verbal, relational, and passive-rational aggression, as well as with ruminative retribution and non-suicidal self-injury, after accounting for shame-proneness. Most noteworthy, a significant two-way interaction indicated that the association between shame aversion and ruminative retribution (fantasizing about people getting their comeuppance) was particularly strong at high levels of externalization of blame. Findings therefore suggest that although shame-proneness may create situations in which shame regulation strategies are necessary, aggressive fantasies may be used as a regulation strategy when individuals have difficulty tolerating shame and blame others for their circumstances.
... Based on the available studies, I focused on two dimensions: form and function. The form of aggression refers to the method that is used to deliver harm to another (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed II, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). Common methods include physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick, Ostrov, & Werner, 2006;Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996;Verona et al., 2008). ...
... The form of aggression refers to the method that is used to deliver harm to another (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed II, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). Common methods include physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick, Ostrov, & Werner, 2006;Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996;Verona et al., 2008). Different forms of aggression tend to have medium-to-large size correlations with each other (e.g., Evans et al. 2018;Verona et al., 2008), suggesting that people who engage in one form of aggression are likely to engage in multiple forms of aggression. ...
... Common methods include physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick, Ostrov, & Werner, 2006;Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996;Verona et al., 2008). Different forms of aggression tend to have medium-to-large size correlations with each other (e.g., Evans et al. 2018;Verona et al., 2008), suggesting that people who engage in one form of aggression are likely to engage in multiple forms of aggression. Some scales have unique subscales for each form of aggression (Buss & Perry, 1992;Raine et al., 2006;Straus et al., 1996), whereas other scales consider multiple forms together to create a general aggression score (e.g., Coccaro et al., 1997). ...
Trait impulsivity has long been proposed to play a role in aggression, but the results across studies have been mixed. One possible explanation for the mixed results is that impulsivity is a multifaceted construct and some, but not all, facets are related to aggression. The goal of the current meta-analysis was to determine the relation between the different facets of impulsivity (i.e., negative urgency, positive urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking) and aggression. The results from 93 papers with 105 unique samples (N = 36, 215) showed significant and small-to-medium correlations between each facet of impulsivity and aggression across several different forms of aggression, with more impulsivity being associated with more aggression. Moreover, negative urgency (r = 0.24, 95% [0.18, 0.29]), positive urgency (r = 0.34, 95% [0.19, 0.44]), and lack of premeditation (r = 0.23, 95% [0.20, 0.26]) had significantly stronger associations with aggression than the other scales (rs < 0.18). Two-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling showed that these effects were not due to overlap among facets of impulsivity. These results help advance the field of aggression research by clarifying the role of impulsivity and may be of interest to researchers and practitioners in several disciplines.
... Form refers to the method that is used to deliver harm to another (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;Verona et al., 2008). Common methods include, physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick et al 2006;Straus et al., 1996;Verona et al., 2008). ...
... Form refers to the method that is used to deliver harm to another (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;Verona et al., 2008). Common methods include, physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick et al 2006;Straus et al., 1996;Verona et al., 2008). Different forms of aggression tend to have medium-to-large size correlations with each other (e.g., Evans et al. 2018;Verona et al., 2008), suggesting that people who engage in one form of aggression are likely to engage in multiple forms of aggression. ...
... Common methods include, physical (e.g., punching), verbal (e.g., insulting), relational (spreading rumors), and sexual (insisting that a partner engage in sexual acts; Buss & Perry, 1992;Crick et al 2006;Straus et al., 1996;Verona et al., 2008). Different forms of aggression tend to have medium-to-large size correlations with each other (e.g., Evans et al. 2018;Verona et al., 2008), suggesting that people who engage in one form of aggression are likely to engage in multiple forms of aggression. Some scales have unique subscales for each form of aggression (Buss & Perry, 1992;Raine et al., 2006;Straus et al., 1996), whereas other scales consider multiple forms together to create a general aggression score (e.g., Coccaro et al., 1997). ...
Trait impulsivity has long been proposed to play a role in aggression, but the results across studies have been mixed. One possible explanation for the mixed results is that impulsivity is a multifaceted construct and some, but not all, facets are related to aggression. The goal of the current meta-analysis was to determine the relation between the different facets of impulsivity (i.e., negative urgency, positive urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking) and aggression. The results from 93 papers with 105 samples (N = 36, 215) showed significant and small-to-medium correlations between each facet of impulsivity and aggression across several different forms of aggression, with more impulsivity being associated with more aggression. Moreover, negative urgency (r = .24, 95% [.18, .29]), positive urgency (r = .34, 95% [.19, .44]), and lack of premeditation (r = .23, 95% [.20, .26]) had significantly stronger associations with aggression than the other scales (rs < .18). Two-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling showed that these effects were not due to overlap among facets of impulsivity. These results help advance the field of aggression research by clarifying the role of impulsivity and may be of interest to researchers and practitioners in several disciplines.
... A consists of the facets Trust, Straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty, and Tender-Mindedness (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and is represented by characteristics such as cooperative, empathic, polite, and kind in youth (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). RAgg was robustly negatively associated with Domain Level A across middle-schoolers (Gleason, Jensen-Campbell, & South Richardson, 2004), youth ages 6 -18 (Tackett, Daoud, De Bolle, & Burt, 2013;Tackett, Kushner, Herzhoff, Smack, & Reardon, 2014), and emerging adults (Burt, Donnellan, & Tackett, 2012;Burton, Hafetz, & Henninger, 2007;Miller, Zeichner, & Wilson, 2012;Vanbrabant et al., 2012;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). ...
... N consists of the facets Anxiousness, Angry Hostility, Depressiveness, Self-Consciousness, Impulsivity, and Vulnerability (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and is related to an individual's propensity to experience negative emotions-people high on this trait are anxious, prone to feel guilty, easily frustrated, and easily frightened (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005;Shiner & Caspi, 2003). RAgg was positively associated with Domain Level N across youth (Tackett et al., 2013;Tackett et al., 2014) and emerging adults (Burt et al., 2012;Miller et al., 2012;Verona et al., 2008), although this association has sometimes been found only in men (Burton et al., 2007). ...
... Children high on this trait are described as responsible, persistent, planful, and orderly (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). RAgg was negatively associated with Domain Level C across ages including youth ages 6 -18 (Tackett et al., 2013;Tackett et al., 2014), middle-schoolers (Gleason et al., 2004), and emerging adults (Burt et al., 2012;Miller et al., 2012;Verona et al., 2008), albeit sometimes only in women (Burton et al., 2007). However, Compulsivity (pathological C) and RAgg were positively associated in youth . ...
Relational aggression (RAgg) is a form of behavior intended to damage the victim’s social status or interpersonal relationships through the use of purposeful interpersonal manipulation or social exclusion (Archer & Coyne, 2005). RAgg is impairing, stable, and largely defined by dysfunctional patterns of interpersonal interactions—all of which invokes comparisons to personality and, more specifically, personality pathology. Leveraging research using the Five Factor Model (FFM) in personality disorder (PD) work, the present study aims to understand the personality context of RAgg by applying this FFM profile approach in 2 ways: (a) by compiling a personality profile of RAgg based on a thorough review of the relevant literature and (b) by compiling a personality profile of RAgg based on expert ratings (N = 19). We then compared these profiles to each other and to existing personality profiles of Cluster B PDs to examine how RAgg fits into the personality space represented by Cluster B PDs. These analyses indicate that both FFM profiles of RAgg show substantial overlap with the FFM profile of narcissistic PD. The present study has important implications for bridging disjointed domains of research on personality pathology and RAgg and underscores the relevance of RAgg for early emergence of PD characteristics.
... Aggressive tendencies were also assessed using the Forms of Aggression Questionnaire (FOA; Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008), which is a 40-item self-report measure of engagement in various forms of aggression. Participants rated each item on a 5-point scale ranging from Almost Never to Always to convey how frequently they act aggressively when they are upset or angry. ...
... Finally, to help interpret the meaning of frontal P3 to negative emotion words in the Go/No-Go task, we examined correlations between frontal P3 and measures of real-life behavioral dyscontrol. Specifically, we measured the level of aggressive responding in participants' everyday lives using both the clinician-rated LHA (Coccaro, Berman, & Kavoussi, 1997) and self-report FOA (Verona et al., 2008) measures of physical, verbal, and self-directed aggression. Correlations between the P3 negative emotional processing index and these aggression variables are reported in Table 2. Enhanced frontal P3 to negative emotion words across trials was associated with more verbal fighting and self-harm behaviors. ...
... LHA scales were rated as frequency of the particular behavior since age 13. FOA ϭ Forms of Aggression Questionnaire (Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008) subscales referred to aggression engaged in while "angry or upset" and were rated on a 5-point Likert scale. † p Ͻ .10. ء p Ͻ .05. ...
The field of personality disorders has had a long-standing interest in understanding interactions between emotion and inhibitory control, as well as neurophysiological indices of these processes. More work in particular is needed to clarify differential deficits in offenders with antisocial personality disorder (APD) who differ on psychopathic traits, as APD and psychopathy are considered separate, albeit related, syndromes. Evidence of distinct neurobiological processing in these disorders would have implications for etiology-based personality disorder taxonomies in future psychiatric classification systems. To inform this area of research, we recorded event-related brain potentials during an emotional-linguistic Go/No-Go task to examine modulation of negative emotional processing by inhibitory control in three groups: psychopathy (n = 14), APD (n = 16), and control (n = 15). In control offenders, inhibitory control demands (No-Go vs. Go) modulated frontal-P3 amplitude to negative emotional words, indicating appropriate prioritization of inhibition over emotional processing. In contrast, the psychopathic group showed blunted processing of negative emotional words regardless of inhibitory control demands, consistent with research on emotional deficits in psychopathy. Finally, the APD group demonstrated enhanced processing of negative emotion words in both Go and No-Go trials, suggesting a failure to modulate negative emotional processing when inhibitory control is required. Implications for emotion-cognition interactions and putative etiological processes in these personality disorders are discussed.
... Fourth, the 8-item Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) hostility subscale (Buss & Perry, 1992) measures cognitive aspects of hostility and is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely uncharacteristic of me) to 5 (extremely characteristic of me). Last, the Forms of Aggression questionnaire (FOA) (Verona et al., 2008) measures behavioral aspects of hostility and is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ((almost) never) to 5 (14) 13 (15) Note. I-CR = imagery enhanced cognitive restricting; CR = traditional cognitive restructuring; AC = active control condition. ...
... Note that in the current study participants were asked to indicate how often each behavior occurs in general instead of 'when angry', as is the case in the original FOA. All scales have shown good reliabilityin the present study α ′ s range from 0.73 to 0.88-and adequate validity (Coccaro et al., 2009;DeWall et al., 2013;Hornsveld et al., 2009;Lievaart et al., 2016;Verona et al., 2008). ...
Background and objectives
Cognitive restructuring (CR) is an effective intervention for hostility. However, the number of patients who fail to benefit suggest that the efficacy of CR can be further improved. The present study investigated whether enhancing CR with mental imagery techniques can increase its effectivity.
Methods
A high hostility sample (28% male, and 72% female) was randomized over one session of imagery enhanced CR (I-CR) (n = 34), traditional CR (n = 32) or an active control session (AC) (n = 21). Changes in hostile beliefs, aggressive tendencies, state anger and hostility traits were assessed pre- and post-treatment, and at one-week follow-up.
Results
Results showed that both I-CR and CR efficaciously reduced hostile beliefs, aggressive tendencies and anger, to a stronger degree than AC. I-CR was more efficacious and sustainable over time than both CR and AC in reducing hostile beliefs and aggressive tendencies.
Limitations
This study was conducted using a small, non-treatment seeking sample.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that implementing imagery techniques in CR for hostile beliefs enhances its’ efficacy.
... First, they were administered an adapted state-version of the eight-item hostility subscale of the Aggression Questionnaire(AQ-HS; Buss& Perry, 1992), measuring self-reported hostile thoughts in the past 3 days, which is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree; α = .90). Second, we administered the 15-item State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 state scale (STAXI-2S; Spielberger, 1999), measuring self-reported anger in the past 3 days, which is scored on a 4-point Likertscale rangingfrom1(notatall)to4(verymuch; α = .95).Third, they completed an adapted state-version of the Forms of Aggression State Questionnaire (FOAS; Verona et al., 2008), measuring selfreported aggressive behavior in the past 3 days, which is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ((almost) never) to 5 ((almost) always; α = .74). In contrast to the original FOA, our participants were asked to indicate how often each behavior occurred in general in the past 3 days insteadof "when angry." ...
... Finally, active alcohol and drug use were measured with the timeline follow-back questionnaire (Sobell & Sobell, 1990). All scales have demonstrated good reliability and adequate validity (Buss & Perry, 1992;Donker et al., 2010;Meesters et al., 1996;Sobell & Sobell, 1990;Verona et al., 2008). This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ...
Objective:
Hostility is a transdiagnostic phenomenon that can have a profound negative impact on interpersonal functioning and psychopathological severity. Evidence suggests that cognitive bias modification for interpretation bias (CBM-I) potentially reduces hostility. However, stringent efficacy studies in people with clinical levels of hostility are currently lacking.
Method:
The present study investigated the effects of CBM-I in two studies: one feasibility study (Study 1) in a mixed clinical-community sample of men (N = 29), and one randomized clinical study (Study 2) in a mixed-gender sample with clinical levels of hostility (N = 135), pre-registered at https://osf.io/r46jn. We expected that CBM-I would relate to a larger increase in benign interpretation bias and larger reductions in hostile interpretation bias, hostility symptoms and traits, and general psychiatric symptoms at post-intervention compared to an active control (AC) condition. We also explored the beneficial carry-over effects of CBM-I on working alliance in subsequent psychotherapy 5 weeks after finishing CBM-I (n = 17).
Results:
Results showed that CBM-I increased benign interpretation bias in both studies and partially reduced hostile interpretation bias in Study 2, but not in Study 1. Findings of Study 2 also showed greater reductions in behavioral (but not self-reported) aggression in CBM-I relative to control, but no condition differences were found in self-report hostility measures and general psychiatric symptoms.
Conclusions:
Overall, we found modest support for CBM-I as an intervention for hostility, with some evidence of its efficacy for hostile interpretation bias and aggression. We discuss study limitations as well as directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... These questions are also necessary to identify individuals for whom the motivation questions do not apply, because they do not have a history of cyber-aggression. For these items, we hypothesized that the frequency of perpetrating different types of online aggression would correlate positively with the frequency of offline aggressive acts (Forms of Aggression [FOA]; Verona et al., 2008) and favorable attitudes about online aggression (Positive Attitudes Toward Cyberbullying [PATC]; Barlett & Gentile, 2012). We also hypothesized that the correlations between the types of, and motivations for, cyber-aggression would be modest, suggesting each captures unique variance in online aggressive behavior. ...
... The following scales were administered to evaluate construct validity with the types for cyber-aggression: (a) PATC (Barlett & Gentile, 2012; adapted for use with an adult population) items were summed to create a total score, with higher values indicating more accepting attitudes toward cyberbullying (Cronbach's α = .75) and (b) FOA (Verona et al., 2008) items were summed to create a total score, with higher scores indicating more frequent use of offline forms of aggression (Cronbach's α = .94). ...
Empirical studies of adult cyber-aggression are sparse, partly due to a lack of validated assessments. We evaluated a new measure, the Cyber Motivations for Aggression and Deviance (Cyber-MAD) scale, designed to assess the motivations of adult cyber-aggression. Psychometric properties and factor structure were examined across three adult samples who regularly used the internet and reported a history of cyber-aggression. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the motivations for cyber-aggression indicated an eight-factor model best fit the data, with separable factors emerging for cyber-aggression motivated by a desire to affiliate with others ( Social Bonding), advance or defend political/social issues ( Social Activism), act on angry feelings ( Reactive Aggression), cope with relationship stress ( Interpersonal Distress), satisfy impulsive urges ( Impulsivity), adopt a new online persona ( Virtual Dissociation), experience excitement ( Thrill-Seeking), and seek revenge ( Vengeance). Overall, the Cyber-MAD scale showed good internal consistency, structural stability across samples, and construct validity, supporting its initial validation.
... Casper and Card, 2017) and little is known about the impact of this type of social stress across the lifespan, even though there is evidence that peer victimization persists into adulthood (e.g. Linder et al., 2002;Verona et al., 2008;Sandstrom and Cillessen, 2010;Ostrov et al., 2011;Leadbeater et al., 2014). Moreover, the links between peer victimization and symptoms of psychopathology may strengthen as youth develop from childhood to adolescence (Casper and Card, 2017), suggesting it is critical that we examine these associations during subsequent developmental phases such as emerging adulthood (i.e. the distinct developmental period between ages 18 and 25 years; Arnett, 2007). ...
... Although neural response to reward-related feedback is only one factor subsumed under the umbrella of anhedonia, the present study focused on the RewP in order to be better able to identify specific associations between life stress and correlates of anhedonia. Because peer victimization is present in emerging adulthood (Linder et al., 2002;Verona et al., 2008;Sandstrom and Cillessen, 2010;Ostrov et al., 2011;Leadbeater et al., 2014) and previous research has shown that, in younger samples, peer victimization is associated with disrupted reward processing (Casement et al., 2014), we hypothesized that greater past-year peer victimization would be associated with a more blunted RewP. Since relatively little research has investigated differential associations between physical and relational forms of peer victimization, we conducted exploratory analyses regarding these distinct types of social stress. ...
Anhedonia is associated with multiple forms of psychopathology, yet relatively little is known about how anhedonia develops. Emerging evidence suggests that anhedonia is the result of interactions between life stress and the brain's reward systems, and that social stress, in particular, may drive these processes. One potent form of social stress is peer victimization, but very little research has focused on peer victimization beyond adolescence, and even less has examined the associations between peer victimization and neural response to rewards. The present study sought to identify associations between past-year history of peer victimization and neural response to rewards in emerging adults (N = 61). Relational and physical forms of victimization were assessed separately since these distinct types of social stress have different trajectories across development and different associations with psychopathology. Reward sensitivity was indexed with the event-related potential component known as the RewP, which was elicited using a forced-choice monetary reward guessing task. Results demonstrated that past-year relational, but not physical, victimization was associated with a blunted neural response to rewards. These findings provide insight into one potential mechanism in the etiology of anhedonia, which may, in turn, help us to better identify pathways to multiple psychopathologies.
... Although peer victimization may peak in adolescence, it is an interpersonal stressor that can occur at any point in the life span (Knack, Iyer, & Jensen-Campbell, 2012;Rex-Lear, 2011). Social sanctions against physical forms of aggression (e.g., charges of assault) spur a decline in this form of victimization from childhood through adulthood (Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). However, relational forms of aggression remain widespread (Rex-Lear, Walker, Richardson, & Green, 2000) and being victimized by peers does continue into college (Chapell, Casey, De la Cruz, & Ferrell, 2004;Gros, Stauffacher Gros, & Simms, 2009;Knack et al., 2012;Leenaars & Lester, 2011;Yeung Thompson & Leadbeater, 2013). ...
... However, relational forms of aggression remain widespread (Rex-Lear, Walker, Richardson, & Green, 2000) and being victimized by peers does continue into college (Chapell, Casey, De la Cruz, & Ferrell, 2004;Gros, Stauffacher Gros, & Simms, 2009;Knack et al., 2012;Leenaars & Lester, 2011;Yeung Thompson & Leadbeater, 2013). In a study that specifically compared the use of different forms of aggression in high school versus college, Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, and Bhattacharjee (2008) found that there were no differences in self-reported rates of relational aggression between the two age-groups. ...
This study tested two possible ways that being relationally victimized may affect social cognition. Victims may develop a rejection attribution bias (i.e., experiencing social pain by engaging in cue distortion and attributing ambiguous social behavior to intentional rejection). Conversely, victims may develop an overall more generalized sensitivity to social pain (experiencing negative mood and threats to basic social needs across a wider spectrum of social situations-even those where they are obviously included and excluded). Participants (Males = 55, Females = 134) completed on-line surveys containing demographic, personality, and peer victimization measures. In a later session, participants came to the lab and were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: overt exclusion, ambiguous non-exclusion, and overt inclusion as part of an online ball-tossing game (Cyberball). The results provided more support for the theoretical model of victims having a more generalized sensitivity to social pain; the rejection attribution theory was not supported.
... During childhood, there is ample evidence that girls are more likely to engage in relationally aggressive behavior than boys (Coyne, Archer, & Eslea, 2006); however, the role of gender in relational aggression remains unclear among older adolescents and adults. Some studies found no gender differences (e.g., Bailey & Ostrov, 2008;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008), others have found that men are more likely to engage in relational aggression than women (e.g., LentoZwolinski, 2007), and still others have found that there may be gender differences in some contexts (e.g., romantic relationships) but not others (e.g., MurrayClose, Ostrov, Nelson, Crick, & Coccaro, 2010). Thus, we included respondent gender as a variable in order to assess its role in this sample. ...
... In an effort to clarify the inconsistent findings in the literature with regard to gender and relational aggression as well as to provide information about the potential role of race, we compared college students by gender and race on both forms of relational aggression and victimization: general/peer and romantic. Consistent with previous studies of relational aggression using older adolescent and adult samples (Bailey & Ostrov, 2008;Czar et al., 2011;Verona et al., 2008), we found little basis for the common depiction of relational aggression as a female form of aggression. The commonly reported finding that girls are more likely to engage in relationally aggressive behaviors than boys does not appear to persist into late adolescence. ...
For this study we explored relational aggression and victimization in a college sample (N = 307), examining potential gender and race differences, correlates, and the link between relational aggression and common emotional and behavioral problems, independent of relational victimization. Gender and race differences were observed on relational aggression and victimization. Relational aggression in peer and intimate relationships was positively correlated with depression, anxiety, stress, anger, and alcohol problems. Independent of gender, race, and relational victimization, peer relational aggression was predicted by anxiety, trait anger, and personal problems related to alcohol use.
... As would be expected from a sample of individuals with a criminal history, seeking substance use treatment, or both, a substantial number of participants met criteria for substance use disorders . In this sample, 141 (43.9%) met criteria for lifetime AD, and 192 (59.8%) met criteria for lifetime DD., Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). The FOA consists of 40 items that measure engagement in various forms of reactive aggression, including physical aggression ( " I start fights " ; .92), ...
... Participants in this study endorsed range of severity on the FOA subscales; for example, scores on the Physical Aggression subscale ranged from 6 to 38 (out of a possible 40). Research has indicated that the FOA shows convergent validity with other measure of aggression, including the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Warren, 2000; r .65 with FOA total score), and taps into personality traits related to low agreeableness , low conscientiousness, and high neuroticism (Verona et al., 2008). Thus, this measure assesses mostly hostile or reactive aggression that is manifested in various forms (e.g., physical , verbal, relational).- ...
Little research has examined different dimensions of narcissism that may parallel psychopathy facets in criminally involved individuals. In this study, we examined the pattern of relationships between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, assessed using the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-16 and the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale, respectively, and the four facets of psychopathy (interpersonal, affective, lifestyle, and antisocial) assessed via the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version. As predicted, grandiose and vulnerable narcissism showed differential relationships to psychopathy facets, with grandiose narcissism relating positively to the interpersonal facet of psychopathy and vulnerable narcissism relating positively to the lifestyle facet of psychopathy. Paralleling existing psychopathy research, vulnerable narcissism showed stronger associations than grandiose narcissism to (a) other forms of psychopathology, including internalizing and substance use disorders, and (b) self- and other-directed aggression, measured with the Life History of Aggression and the Forms of Aggression Questionnaire. Grandiose narcissism was nonetheless associated with social dysfunction marked by a manipulative and deceitful interpersonal style and unprovoked aggression. Potentially important implications for uncovering etiological pathways and developing treatment interventions for these disorders in externalizing adults are discussed.
... Thus, individuals high only on the Antisocial Lifestyle dimension of psychopathy may use reactive physical aggression as a shame regulation strategy; however, we do not expect that those high only on the Interpersonal/ Affective dimension of psychopathy will be as likely to use reactive aggression in response to shame because they are particularly unlikely to experience that emotion. appearing arguments, and undermining another person's abilities (Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). 8 No research currently exists on the connection between shame and passive-rational aggression. ...
... engaging in acts designed to impede the goal attainment of others; e.g.,Björkqvist, Österman, & Lagerspetz, 1994). However, the findings ofVerona et al. (2008) suggest that these two forms of aggression may be highly overlapping. They note that future research is still needed to better determine whether passive-aggression and rational-appearing aggression should indeed be treated as separable forms of aggression. ...
Drawing on extant work on shame and emotion regulation, this article proposes that three broad forms of maladaptive shame regulation strategies are fundamental in much of personality pathology: Prevention (e.g., dependence, fantasy), used preemptively, lessens potential for shame; Escape (e.g., social withdrawal, misdirection) reduces current or imminent shame; Aggression, used after shame begins, refocuses shame into anger directed at the self (e.g., physical self-harm) or others (e.g., verbal aggression). This article focuses on the contributions of shame regulation to the development and maintenance of personality pathology, highlighting how various maladaptive shame regulation strategies may lead to personality pathology symptoms, associated features, and dimensions. Consideration is also given to the possible shame-related constructs necessitating emotion regulation (e.g., shame aversion and proneness) and the points in the emotion process when regulation can occur.
... Physical aggression and verbal aggression as well as anger/hostility have each been identified and separately tested as unique indicators of aggression in previous research (e.g., Ireland & Archer, 2004;Kiewitz & Weaver, 2007;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). Studies have provided support for the Entry risk into the juvenile justice system idea that different types of aggression differentially predict maladaptive behavioral outcomes (e.g., Crick, 1997;Werner & Crick, 1999;Verona et al., 2008). ...
... Physical aggression and verbal aggression as well as anger/hostility have each been identified and separately tested as unique indicators of aggression in previous research (e.g., Ireland & Archer, 2004;Kiewitz & Weaver, 2007;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). Studies have provided support for the Entry risk into the juvenile justice system idea that different types of aggression differentially predict maladaptive behavioral outcomes (e.g., Crick, 1997;Werner & Crick, 1999;Verona et al., 2008). Thus, our decision to focus on these three types of aggression was made due to empirical evidence from exploratory factor analyses, but also for conceptual reasons that are consistent with previous research. ...
Findings on disproportionate minority contact remain mixed. Few empirical studies have examined to what extent entry risk into juvenile justice varies across ethnic/racial groups, and to what extent childhood aggressive behaviors foretell later deviance and entry risk. In the current study, we sought to address these shortcomings by implementing a survival analysis on a representative sample of youth followed from age 8 to 18.
The sample included N = 2,754 lower to lower-middle SES youth from five different ethnic/racial groups (African American, American Indian, Asian American, European American, and Hispanic youth), part of a large-scale violence prevention effort. Aggressive behaviors were rated by teachers during elementary school, entry risk into juvenile justice was measured by official data, while SES was based on census data.
Developmental entry risk into the juvenile justice system peaked at age 14 and subsequently declined. No differences were found across the four racial groups; however, Hispanic youth were at elevated risk (by 73%). Only childhood physical aggressive behavior increased entry risk (by 87%); this was above and beyond a 'simple' maturational liability we found and net any effects by sex, race/ethnicity, and SES.
Some evidence suggested disproportionate minority contact, but only for Hispanic youth. Entry risk was invariant by race, but differed for males versus females and for youth from relatively higher socioeconomic status (SES) strata compared to youth from lower ones. Intervention efforts should target physically aggressive children during the elementary school years; however, some of the evidence also suggests that there exists a 'maturational liability' developmentally over time, between the ages of 8 and 18, independent of any of the focal predictors tested.
... Moreover, current studies examining links between SCL levels and functional subtypes of aggression among emerging adults have mostly focused on reactive and proactive aggression (Armstrong et al., 2019;Murray-Close et al., 2017). Among emerging adults, the most endorsed aggression types are physical, verbal, and relational aggression (D. A. Nelson et al., 2008;Verona et al., 2008). Thus, studies should also focus on the impact of SCL levels on other subtypes of aggression. ...
The link between childhood harsh parenting and later aggression is well established. However, harsh parenting may occur within the context of nonviolent discipline. Moreover, sympathetic nervous system activity may moderate the effects of harsh parenting on aggression. This study examined whether sympathetic nervous system activity, measured by skin conductance level (SCL), and childhood nonviolent discipline moderate the link between childhood harsh parenting and later aggression among emerging adults. Participants (N = 264, mean age = 19.37, 54% females) reported retrospectively on experiences of childhood harsh parenting and nonviolent discipline as well as current anger, hostility, verbal, and physical aggression. We also measured resting SCL. Regression analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction between childhood harsh parenting, nonviolent discipline, and resting SCL accounting for anger and a significant two-way interaction between childhood harsh parenting and resting SCL accounting for hostility. Results suggested that (1) at high levels of resting SCL and low levels of childhood nonviolent discipline and (2) at low levels of resting SCL and high levels of childhood nonviolent discipline, the link between childhood harsh parenting and anger was stronger. Moreover, the association between childhood harsh parenting and hostility was stronger among participants who exhibited high resting SCL. The findings are consistent with the biological sensitivity to context theory. Our study highlighted the importance to examine the influence of both environmental and biological variables underlying emerging adults’ aggression.
... In contrast, these gender differences do not appear as salient in late adolescents and adults. In fact, several studies have found no significant gender differences in relational aggression when populations of adults and older adolescents were examined (Bailey & Ostrov, 2008;Burton, Hafetz, & Henninger, 2007;Dahlen, Czar, Prather, & Dyess, 2013;Loudin, Loukas, & Robinson, 2003;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008), although some other studies have shown that men exhibit greater levels of relational aggression and victimization than women (Linder et al., 2002;Murray-Close et al., 2010). These findings challenge the assumption that relational aggression is predominantly a female trait and suggest that whilst gender differences may exist in children, the picture becomes somewhat less clear in adulthood and late adolescence. ...
This study examined the role of gender, romantic relational victimization, stress, physical activity, and sleep quality on romantic relational aggression in a sample of young adults (N = 371). Findings indicated that women reported using romantic relational aggression more than men, while men were more likely to report being a victim of romantic relational aggression than women. Stress emerged as a positive predictor of romantic relational aggression, explaining most of the variance, while physical activity and romantic relational victimization emerged as negative predictors. Additionally, stress mediated the relationship between physical activity and romantic relational aggression. The present study indicates that stress and physical activity are potential avenues to explore during the development of prevention and intervention protocols.
... -Questionnaire for measuring aggressive tendencies (FOA), based on the questionnaires of Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, and Bhattacharjee (2008). The questionnaire included 10 items reported by the child relating to the extent of the child's involvement in various types of aggression. ...
The identification of children and adolescents with characters from the television programs they watch is not limited to the time when they view the program. The connection with the characters continues across the use of various digital means and in various realms of the children’s lives. The purpose of the present study was to examine the connections between patterns of use of various media, the degree of identification with characters from the programs watched, and the fears and nightmares experienced by the children after watching these programs. This is a mixed-method study. Two hundred ninety-six Israeli children and adolescents participated in the study; 45 children and adolescents among those who completed questionnaires were interviewed. The data were collected in 2017-2018. The data revealed that negative identification with the show characters was higher among children than in adolescents. Positive identification with the characters was higher among viewers of scary programs, among those who suffered from nightmares and fears, and among those who perceived the characters and plot as realistic. It was found that interest in programs involving tension, drama, and action increases the risk of nightmares and fears after watching these programs.
... Beliren yetişkinlik döneminde yapılan alanyazın incelemesinde saldırganlık çokça araştırılmış olmasına karşın çok sınırlı değişkenler açısından incelenmiş demografik ve kişisel değişkenler açısından risk faktörleri kapsamlı olarak ele alınmamıştır. Alanyazında ele alınan bu değişkenlerin internet bağımlılığı (Şahin, 2014), müzik tercihleri (Yağışan, 2013), kişilerarası problem çözme becerileri, kişilerarası ilişki tarzları, iletişim becerileri, empati (Hasta ve Güler, 2013;Koç ve Büyükgöze Kavas, 2015), romantik ilişkilerde irasyonal inançlar (Gündoğdu, Yavuzer ve Karataş, 2018), kimlik gelişimi, benlik saygısı, düşük benlik kontrolü (Morsünbül, 2015;Tiedemann, 2017), yetişkin bağlanma, ana baba tutumu, riskli davranışlar (Rabinovitch, 2016;Tiedemann, 2017), okul uyumsuzluğu, çocukluk sıkıntıları ve saldırgan antisosyal davranışlar (Wallinius ve diğerleri, 2016), düşmanlık, normatif inançlar (Bailey ve Ostrov, 2008), kişilik bozuklukları (Ostrov ve Houston, 2008), öfke (Guerra ve White, 2017), çocukluk yıllarında ebeveynler arasında yaşanan şiddete maruz kalma (Gözün Kahraman ve Kurt, 2013), cinsiyet (Camadan ve Yazıcı, 2017;Guerra ve White, 2017;Gündoğdu ve diğerleri, 2018;Hasta ve Güler, 2013;Morsünbül, 2015;Moroschan, Hurd ve Nicoladis, 2009;Shaban ve Kumar, 2016;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed ve Bhattacharjee, 2008), sınıf düzeyi, ana-baba tutumu, üniversiteye gelmeden yaşanılan yer, ekonomik düzey (Camadan ve Yazıcı, 2017), yaş, spor yaşı ve sporda elde edilen derece (Ersoy, Tazegül ve Sancaklı, 2012) olduğu görülmektedir. ...
Bu
çalışmanın amacı beliren yetişkinlikte saldırganlıkla ilişkili olabilecek risk
faktörlerini belirlemektir. Genel tarama modellerinden betimsel çalışma olarak
kurgulanan bu çalışma beliren yetişkinlik döneminde olan 409 üniversite
öğrencisi ile gerçekleşmiştir. Çalışmada KAR-YA Saldırganlık Ölçeği
kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde iki düzeyli değişkenlerde bağımsız gruplar
t testi, üç ve daha fazla düzeyli değişkenlerde ise tek yönlü varyans analizi
kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada elde edilen bulgular incelendiğinde; Beliren
yetişkinlerin saldırganlık puanlarında cinsiyete göre anlamlı farklılıklar
olduğu; kronik hastalığı olup olmama durumuna göre saldırganlık puanlarının
farklılaşmadığı görülmüştür. Sorunla kolaylıkla baş edip etmeme durumlarına,
psikolojik travma yaşayıp yaşamamalarına göre saldırganlık puanlarının anlamlı
olarak farklılaştığı, fiziksel travma yaşayıp yaşamadıklarına göre ise
saldırganlık puanlarının anlamlı olarak farklılaşmadığı görülmektedir.
Psikolojik yardım alanlarla almayanların saldırganlık puanları farklılık
göstermektedir. Anne öğrenim düzeylerine göre saldırganlık puanlarının anlamlı
olarak farklılaşmadığı, baba öğrenim düzeylerine göre ise farklılıklar olduğu
görülmüştür. Ekonomik düzey, ana baba tutumu, aile bütünlüğü, anneden ve
babadan şiddet görüp görmemelerine göre saldırganlık puanlarının anlamlı olarak
farklılaştığı görülmektedir. Ayrıca, beliren yetişkinlerin aile içi
ilişkilerini tanımlamalarına, kolay arkadaş edinip edinememelerine ve çok
arkadaşı olup olmamasına göre saldırganlık puanlarının anlamlı olarak
farklılaşmadığı görülmektedir. Duygusal ilişki yaşayıp yaşamamaya, sosyal medya
kullanımına, sigara kullanma durumlarına ve kendilerini tanımlama durumlarına
göre saldırganlık puanları anlamlı olarak farklılaşmıştır. Sonuç olarak beliren
yetişkinlerin saldırganlıklarında önemli olan risk faktörleri; cinsiyet,
sorunla kolaylıkla baş edip etmeme durumları, psikolojik travma yaşayıp
yaşamamaları, psikolojik yardım alıp almama, baba öğrenim düzeyi, ekonomik
düzey, ana baba tutumu, aile bütünlüğü, anneden şiddet görüp görmeme, babadan
şiddet görüp görmeme, duygusal ilişki yaşayıp yaşamama, sosyal medya kullanımı,
sigara kullanma durumları, kendilerini tanımlama durumları olarak belirlenmiştir.
... For women, moral disengagement predicted less involvement in all of the prosocial defending strategies, and more relationally aggressive defending. In contrast, moral disengagement among men was only related to verbally aggressive defending, an interesting finding considering men are more willing to engage in verbal aggression in general (Verona et al. 2008). The gender differences in responding to physical aggression might be a result of the higher prevalence of physical aggression among males (Card et al. 2008). ...
Peer victimization is prevalent among college-aged students, yet no study to our knowledge has examined various strategies of defending peers from victimization among this population. This study investigated the associations between multiple defending strategies (i.e., direct, indirect, including prosocial and aggressive defending), how moral disengagement and perception of harm were associated with multiple defending strategies, and gender differences in these associations. Participants were 372 ethnically diverse college students (18–53 years old, M = 21.24, SD = 4.13; 76% women) from a medium-sized university who watched two short videos depicting events of peer victimization and answered questions about how they would respond. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the associations between key variables, and multi-group modeling was used to assess gender differences in defending responses predicted by moral disengagement and perception of harm. Results showed that college students used both prosocial and aggressive defending strategies. Moral disengagement and perception of harm were associated in generally expected ways with defending strategies, but the associations differed across victimization scenarios and participant gender. Interventions to encourage college students to defend should stress the use of prosocial rather than aggressive strategies and be tailored to differences in defending responses based on form of victimization.
... The use of relational and social bullying may change in the context of the college environment. Verona et al. (2008) found that US college students were less likely to report the use of physical aggression but are more likely to report the use of indirect aggression, including highly subtle forms, such as passive aggression and rational-appearing aggression. Rational-appearing aggression involves behavior intended to disrupt a target's ability to succeed while appearing rationally motivated, such as Bpublicly questioning [his/her] sense of judgement^and Breducing [his/ her] opportunities to express opinions^ (Kaukiainen et al. 2001, p. 363). ...
In this study, we wished to examine the potential relationships between the skills measured by an individually administered standardized measure of cognitive ability and a self-report measure of indirect bullying, overt aggression, and prosocial skills. Therefore, a sample of 106 female students were recruited from a private, faith-based university located in an urban setting in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA (US; M = 19.34 years; 84.9% White) to investigate the relationships between cognitive variables and interpersonal behavior. Multiple regression analyses revealed that participants’ performance on a Verbal Comprehension subtest significantly predicted their self-reported prosocial skills, with their Visual-Auditory Learning–Delayed skills enhancing this prediction. Additionally, in this sample, females’ Visual Matching skills were significantly predictive of overt aggression. However, despite the researchers’ hypotheses to the contrary, no cognitive skills were found to significantly predict forms of relational and social bullying. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.
... Summary of the included studies (Anderson et al., 2011;Bertoletti et al., 2014;Eisenbarth et al., 2013;Gilmore et al., 2010;Perdeci et al., 2010;Racer et al., 2011;Veit et al., 2013). Buss and Perry, 1992), Lifetime History of Aggression Questionnaire (LHAQ; Coccaro et al., 1997), Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11;Patton et al., 1995), Impulsive/Premeditated Aggression Scales (IPAS; Stanford et al., 2003), Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach and Rescorla, 2001), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997), Forms of Aggression Questionnaire (FOA; Verona et al., 2008), Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire (PDQ; Hyler, 1998), Psychopathy Checklist (PCL, Hare, 1991;Short version, Hart et al., 1995;Young Version, Forth et al., 2003); Task -visual (v), auditory (a), Continuous Performance Task (CPT); Results -non-significant (ns); reduced amplitude or latency (↓); increased amplitude or delayed latency (↑), PCL Factor 1 (F1), PCL Factor 2 (F2) Table 2 summarises the results of the reviewed studies. A detailed description of the variables may be found in the Method − Data Extraction Section. ...
In 2009, Gao and Raine's meta-analysis analysed P3 modulation over the antisocial spectrum. However, some questions remained open regarding the P3 modulation patterns across impulsive and violent manifestations of antisocial behaviour, phenotypic components of psychopathy, and P3 components. A systematic review of 36 studies was conducted (N = 3514) to extend previous results and to address these unresolved questions. A clear link between decreased P3 amplitude and antisocial behaviour was found. In psychopathy, dimensional approaches become more informative than taxonomic models. Distinct etiological pathways of psychopathy were evidenced in cognitive tasks: impulsive-antisocial psychopathic traits mainly predicted blunted P3 amplitude, while interpersonal-affective psychopathic traits explained enhanced P3 amplitude. Supporting the low fear hypothesis, the interpersonal-affective traits were associated with reduced P3 amplitude in emotional-affective learning tasks. From the accumulated knowledge we propose a framework of P3 amplitude modulation that uncovers the externalizing link between psychopathy and antisocial behaviour. However, the main hypotheses are exploratory and call for more data before stablishing robust conclusions.
... Meskipun demikian, kekerasan fisik hanyalah salah satu bagian dari kekerasan saja. Kekerasan dalam banyak jenisnya (fisik, verbal, psikologikal, emotional, overt, covert) selalu menjadi perdebatan hangat para ilmuwan (Verona et al., 2008). Selain frekuensi, agresivitas remaja juga dapat diukur dari perasaan agresif yaitu agresivitas fisik, verbal, kemarahan dan kekejaman remaja pada sesama (Buss & Perry, 1992;Lochman & Dodge, 1998). ...
There is a vague link between parent–adolescent communication and adolescents’ aggressiveness. Usually, the agressive perpetrators are the victims from their past experiences of abusive behavior from their surroundings. This present study aimed to examine influence among parent-adolescent communication pattern, parental physically and verbally harsh communication toward adolescents, parents-adolescents mutual avoidance, frequency of adolescents aggressivity toward others, and adolescents aggressiveness. Using Albert Bandura’s learning theoretical framework about violence messages reproduction, this study have been conducted using 367 adolescents sample of Bogor District and City. This report used quantitative and using cross sectional study design. Researcher also employed self-reported, survey methods in order to collect data. Result shown significant relation and influence among parental physically and verbally communication towards adolescents; parents-adolescents mutual avoidance; frequency of adolescents aggressivity toward others; and adolescents aggressiveness. Using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analyses, result proved that the victims of violence usually become perpetrators in future life.
... Background "Antisocial behavior" designates an intentional disrespect for implicit or explicit social norms of everyday life, manifested as covert or relational aggression, overt verbal aggression and, in extreme cases, violent physical aggression (Burt et al. 2011;Burt and Donnellan 2009;Verona et al. 2008). Antisocial behaviors of young people often present as non-cooperation and rebellion or, alternatively, as deception, aggression and destructive behaviors (Grove et al. 2008). ...
The social conduct of an individual comprises all the interpersonal behaviors that he or she exhibits in the social contexts he or she is exposed to. The Social Conduct Scale (SCS) is a self-report instrument developed to provide researchers and clinicians with information on prosocial, antisocial and oppositional-defiant tendencies of Portuguese-speaking children and adolescents. In the present study, we conducted an analysis of the criterion validity of the SCS by comparing the scores obtained from a large population-based sample (N = 1,172) against an offender (N = 129), a scholar (N = 31), and a clinic-referred (N = 24) sample of adolescents with marked previous conduct problems. As expected, antisocial youths had significantly higher means on antisocial behaviors and lower means on prosocial tendencies when compared to the population-based sample. Overall, findings supported the hypothesized criterion validity of the SCS. The instrument might play a role as a helpful resource for researchers, clinicians and practitioners interested in assessing the social conduct of Brazilian children and adolescents.
... Examples include social exclusion, spreading hurtful rumors, and public embarrassment. Relational aggression is linked to several indicators of social and emotional maladjustment for children and adolescents (Goldstein et al. 2008;Murray-Close 2007;Ostrov 2008; for reviews, see Card et al. 2008;Marshall et al. 2015) but also for emerging adults (Gros et al. 2010;Loudin et al. 2003;Ostrov and Houston 2008;Storch et al. 2004;Verona et al. 2008). Relational aggression may in fact be particularly significant during the developmental period of emerging adulthood. ...
When studying factors that may heighten risk for relational aggression in youth, it is important to consider characteristics of both the individual and their environment. This research examined the associations between parental psychological control and reactive and proactive relational aggression in emerging adults in college. Given that sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation may underlie differences between reactive and proactive aggression and has been shown to moderate the effects of parenting on youth development, the moderating role of SNS reactivity [indexed by skin conductance level reactivity (SCLR)] was also examined. Emerging adults (N = 180; 77.2 % female) self-reported on perceptions of parental psychological control and reactive and proactive relational aggression. SCLR was assessed in response to an interpersonal laboratory challenge task. Parental psychological control was positively associated with reactive relational aggression only for emerging adults who exhibited high SCLR. Parental psychological control was positively associated with proactive relational aggression only among emerging adults who showed low SCLR. This study extends previous research on parenting and aggression and suggests that parental psychological control is differentially associated with reactive versus proactive relational aggression, depending on emerging adults' SCLR to interpersonal stress.
... As a result, emerging adults may resort to more covert, relationally aggressive acts. Consistent with this idea, emerging adults report more relational aggression than high school students, whereas the reverse is true for physical aggression (Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). Furthermore, emerging adulthood represents a developmental period in which youth transition from family to peers as primary sources of support (Collins & Madsen, 2006); as a result, negative peer experiences such as relational victimization may be especially influential for this age group. ...
This research examined the moderating effect of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) on the associations between relational victimization and reactive and proactive relational aggression. Both branches of the ANS, the parasympathetic nervous system (indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity; RSA-Reactivity) and the sympathetic nervous system (indexed by skin conductance level reactivity; SCL-Reactivity), were examined. Emerging adults (N = 168) self-reported on relational victimization and proactive and reactive relational aggression; RSA-Reactivity and SCL-Reactivity were assessed in response to a laboratory stressor. Relational victimization predicted heightened reactive relational aggression given RSA augmentation/high SCL-Reactivity (i.e., coactivation) and RSA withdrawal/low SCL-Reactivity (i.e., coinhibition). In addition, relational victimization predicted heightened reactive relational aggression given RSA augmentation/low SCL-Reactivity (i.e., reciprocal parasympathetic activation). This study extends previous research on relational victimization and provides novel evidence that (a) exposure to relational victimization is associated with reactive relational aggression, but not proactive relational aggression, and (b) parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system reactivity jointly moderate the link between relational victimization and reactive relational aggression. Aggr. Behav. 9999:XX-XX, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Finally, it should be noted that the sample was predominantly female and was limited in racial diversity. While gender differences PARENTING AND RELATIONAL AGGRESSION 19 in in relational aggression do not appear to persist into late adolescence and young adulthood (Bailey & Ostrov, 2008;Czar et al., 2011;Verona et al., 2008), additional research using more diverse samples is warranted. Similarly, while the present findings provide useful information concerning the possible role of race in the relationship between parenting and relational aggression/prosocial behavior, the sample did not include sufficient numbers of participants who were neither African American nor Caucasian, limiting the comparisons that could be made. ...
This study investigated the role of remembered parenting styles and parental psychological control in the prediction of relational aggression and prosocial behavior in a college student sample (N = 323). Participants’ retrospective ratings of how they were parented were related to relational aggression and prosocial behavior; however, somewhat different relationships emerged for African American and White participants. Permissive parenting, authoritative parenting, and parental psychological control predicted relational aggression. Participant race and all 3 parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) predicted prosocial behavior. Participant race moderated the relationship between psychological control and prosocial behavior. Specifically, parental psychological control was inversely related to prosocial behavior for African American, but not White, participants.
... The total score was used as the primary measure of aggression proneness (α = .95) as it indexes general risk for aggression, and the AQ subscales correlate highly with each other (Buss and Perry, 1992;Verona et al., 2008;Webster et al., 2014). ...
Aggressive behavior is observed in persons with various mental health problems and has been studied from the perspectives of neuroscience and psychophysiology. The present research reviews some of the extant experimental literature to help clarify the interplay between domains of functioning implicated in aggression proneness. We then convey a process-oriented model that elucidates how the interplay of the Negative Valence and Cognitive System domains of NIMH's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) helps explain aggression proneness, particularly reactive aggression. Finally, we report on a study involving event-related potential (ERP) indices of emotional and inhibitory control processing during an emotional-linguistic go/no-go task among 67 individuals with histories of violence and criminal offending (30% female, 44% African-American) who reported on their aggressive tendencies using the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Results provide evidence that tendencies toward angry and aggressive behavior relate to reduced inhibitory control processing (no-go P3) specifically during relevant threat-word blocks, suggesting deterioration of cognitive control by acute or sustained threat sensitivity. These findings highlight the value of ERP methodologies for clarifying the interplay of Negative Valence and Cognitive System processes in aggression proneness.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.
... The possible differential use of aggression by boys and girls at the mean level was presently evaluated using measures that combine the forms and functions of aggression, whereas previous works had particularly focused on one or the other. Results for the present work only partially concur to our hypothesis concerning the forms of aggression, that boys would report higher levels of overt aggression than girls, but no differences would be found for relational aggression (Card et al. 2008;Prinstein et al. 2001;Verona et al. 2008). On the contrary, for the present sample, boys not only reported more overt but also more relational aggression than girls. ...
Aggression in adolescence may assume different forms and functions, and is often associated with maladjustment. To adequately assess aggression in adolescence, instruments need to evaluate both its forms and its functions, as is the case with the Peer Conflict Scale. This research presents and evaluates the Portuguese version of this instrument, and evaluates levels of aggression in an adolescent community sample (n = 785; 63.6 % female, mean age of 15.97 years old). The four factor structure originally proposed for the instrument (i.e. proactive overt, reactive overt, proactive relational and reactive relational aggression) represented a satisfactory solution for the data, and for both girls and boys. Results also have shown adequate reliability. Regarding levels of aggression, boys reported being overall more aggressive than girls. When aggression is impulsive/ reactive, both boys and girls practice its overt form. It is only when the aggression is pondered upon (proactive) that boys and girls chose to use different forms of aggression. Accurately evaluating different forms and functions of aggression has implications for designing, implementing and evaluating adequate and tailored interventions.
... In addition to being the preferred way of aggressing against others [33], research has also shown that females typically direct their indirect aggression at other females [34][35][36], and that the victimization of other females increases in relation to experimentally primed mating motives [37]. The use of indirect aggression also increases with age [22,[38][39][40] and is used at a similar rate [41] by females during adolescence [22] and young adulthood [33]. The fact that indirect aggression is primarily used by teenage girls and young women, who direct their aggression at same-sex peers, is in keeping with the hypothesis that indirect aggression is used in the context of competing for mates. ...
Indirect aggression includes behaviours such as criticizing a competitor's appearance, spreading rumours about a person's sexual behaviour and social exclusion. Human females have a particular proclivity for using indirect aggression, which is typically directed at other females, especially attractive and sexually available females, in the context of intrasexual competition for mates. Indirect aggression is an effective intrasexual competition strategy. It is associated with a diminished willingness to compete on the part of victims and with greater dating and sexual behaviour among those who perpetrate the aggression.
... For example, studies of aggressive children (up to middle school) have found that highly aggressive children tend to misinterpret social cues and tend to overestimate their social status (Kenny et al., 2007;Lansford, Malone, Dodge, Petit, & Bates, 2010). To date, none of the available selfreport aggression measures (e.g., Fite, Stauffacher, Ostrov, & Colder, 2008;Leadbeater, Boone, Sangster, & Mathieson, 2006;Little, Jones, Henrich, & Hawley, 2003;Tackett & Ostrov, 2010;Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008) have directly assessed how youth reporting comparatively high levels of aggression perceive themselves as being ignored or excluded by others. Our findings suggest that adolescents who report higher levels of aggression and disruption are somewhat sensitive to their social experiences. ...
This study validates a new self-report measure, the Ostracism Experience Scale for Adolescents (OES-A). Nineteen items were tested on a sample of 876 high school seniors to assess 2 of the most common ostracism experiences: being actively excluded from the peer group and being largely ignored by others. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, bivariate correlations, and hierarchical regression provided support for the construct validity of the measure. The findings provided psychometric support for the OES-A, which could be used in research into the nature and correlates of social ostracism among older adolescents when a brief self-report measure is needed. Further, the OES-A may help determine how social ostracism subtypes differentially predict health-compromising behaviors later in development, as well as factors that protect against the most pernicious effects of ostracism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
... ps .01) measured with an independent measure of aggressive behavior, the Forms of Aggression Questionnaire (Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, & Bhattacharjee, 2008). In contrast, the variance associated with AQ Hostility correlated only with the nonphysical, covert forms of aggressive behavior (verbal r .20, ...
Women and men generally differ in how frequently they engage in other- and self-directed physical violence and may show distinct emotional risk factors for engagement in these high-impact behaviors. To inform this area, we investigated gender differences in the relationship of emotional tendencies (i.e., anger, hostility, and anhedonic depression) that may represent risk for other-directed violence (i.e., physical fighting, attacking others unprovoked) and self-directed violence (i.e., self-injury, suicide attempts).
The ethnically diverse sample consisted of 372 adults (252 men and 120 women age 18-55) with a history of criminal convictions. Facets of emotional risk assessed with the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Warren, 2000) and Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire (Watson et al., 1995) were entered simultaneously as explanatory variables in regression analyses to investigate their unique contributions to other- and self-directed physical violence in men and women.
Analyses revealed that anhedonic depressive tendencies negatively predicted other-directed violence and positively predicted self-directed violence in men and women, consistent with a model of depression in which aggression is turned inward (Henriksson et al., 1993). Gender differences, however, emerged for the differential contributions of anger and hostility to other- and self-directed violence. Trait anger (i.e., difficulty controlling one's temper) was associated with other-directed violence selectively in men, whereas trait hostility (i.e., suspiciousness and alienation) was associated with self- and other-directed violence among women.
The divergent findings for trait anger and hostility underscore the need to examine gender-specific risk factors for physical violence to avoid excluding potentially useful clinical features of these mental health outcomes.
The content to which children are exposed by reality television shows is of great concern for parents and educators, especially because of excessive amounts of relational aggression. Parental mediation is suggested as an effective approach for reducing the risk of this exposure and to derive learning value. In two studies, we used qualitative and quantitative methods to examine the effects of different types of mediation and children’s preferences with regard to who they liked to watch TV with on children’s attitudes and perceptions about characters that appear in reality shows and of their acts. Findings from both studies revealed that more active parental mediation leads to fewer adverse reactions and more desirable attitudes towards the characters. The current study suggests that active parental mediation during reality television viewing may transform the risks stemming from watching reality shows into important advantages for children's social development.
Hostility and other related terms like anger and aggression are often used interchangeably to describe antagonistic affect, cognition, and behavior. Psychometric studies suggest that hostility consists of multiple separate factors, but consensus is currently lacking. In the present study we examined the hierarchical structure of hostility. The hierarchical structure of hostility was examined in N = 376 people (i.e., a mixed community and highly hostile sample), using both specific and broad hostility self-report measures. A series of Principal Components Analyses revealed the structure of hostility at five levels of specificity. At intermediate levels, hostility can consistently be expressed in affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. At the most specific level, hostility can be expressed in terms of Angry Affect; Hostile Intent; and Verbal, Relational, and Physical Aggression. The pattern of associations showed significant convergence, and some divergence with broad and more specific hostility measures. The present findings stress the need for novel instruments that capture each hostility facet separately to reduce conceptual confounding.
The present study sought to examine the influence of aggressive behavior, psychopathy, and gender on moral judgments of aggressive transgressions. A two-dimensional conceptualization of aggression was used, such that proactive relational aggression, reactive relational aggression, proactive physical aggression, and reactive physical aggression were treated as distinct subtypes of aggression and also as distinct subtypes of moral judgments of aggression. Participants were 421 emerging adults (215 women). Self-report measures of aggression, psychopathy, and moral judgments were collected. Peer-reports of aggression and psychopathy were obtained from a randomly assigned subsample of 73 participants (46 women) for validity purposes. Unique associations were found between subtypes of aggression and corresponding moral judgments of the same subtypes.
This study examined the relationship between participants’ negative or positive identification with television characters and their behavior, and how their reactions in times of anger — whether simply negative or physically violent — varied between at-risk participants and normative ones. Participants were 86 children and adolescents from Israel who filled in four questionnaires on the topics of viewing habits, attitudes, self-image, and aggression. The findings revealed that at-risk children and adolescents reacted with more anger than did their normative counterparts, and that their reaction became stronger when they identified with a character’s negative behavior. It was further revealed that the more they watched, the higher their identification with the character and the greater their negative reaction during anger. A violent physical reaction in times of anger is more strongly associated with viewing alone than with viewing with friends. The findings also revealed that identification with the character is a mediating variable between the amount and type (solitary or with friends) of viewing and negative and violent reactions. At-risk children and adolescents tend to choose programs that show violent behaviors, and such programs could ultimately lead them to exhibit violent reactions. The question is how can the amount of children and adolescents’ viewing be limited while avoiding arguments and punishment? The key to success is finding a solution that will be formulated with the children and adolescents’ full cooperation.
In this article, the perceptions of preadolescent children (ages 9-11) regarding factors that influence and protect against power imbalance associated with covert aggression and bullying are explored. In aggression research, the term covert has been typically used to describe relational, indirect, and social acts of aggression that are hidden. These behaviors contrast with overt physical and verbal aggression. Children have previously conveyed their belief that covert aggression is harmful because adults do not see it even though children, themselves, are aware. We used focus groups to explore children's understanding of covert aggression and to identify children's experience and perception of adult support in relation to bullying. Thematic analysis supported the definition of covert aggression as that which is intentionally hidden from adults. Friendship, social exclusion, and secret from teacher were identified as factors that influence power imbalance, while support from friends and adult support protected against power imbalance.
Mindanao, considered as one of the least peaceful part of the country, has been an interesting site for the study of aggression, an intentional act that is directed toward another individual with the goal of inflicting harm or injury. With Mindanao's high ethnic diversity, this study was conducted to determine the heritability and the variability of aggressive behavior among selected groups in Mindanao, specifically the Maranao, Cebuano, Boholano, Ilocano, Ilonggo, Bicolano, Chavacano and Butuanon. The data were gathered from the 240 family respondents from selected areas in Mindanao with the aid of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the Box plot were used to analyze the variability of aggression among the eight cultural groups in the four subtypes of aggression: Anger, Hostility, Verbal Aggression and Physical Aggression. The ANOVA test showed significant difference in hostility and physical aggression among the groups while the box plot analysis showed the Ilonggos as the group being the most hostile and most physically aggressive, followed by the Maranao group. For the heritability of aggression, the correlation analysis was used between the paired up mother-daughter, mother-son, father-daughter, and father-son. Some pairs among the different cultural groups showed a positive correlation while other pairs showed low or no correlation at all. The positive correlation indicated the genetic basis of the aggression while the low correlation or no correlation indicated the strong environmental influence on human aggression in Mindanao.
Former researches of adaptive behaviour showed that children with special needs integrated in regular schools have lower level of adaptive behaviour than typical peers (Z ̌ic, 2000). The aim of this research was to investigate whether there are differences in estimations of children's adaptive behaviour at school from perspectives of children, parents and teachers. The sample consisted of pupils aged 12 years attending 6 th grade of primary school, both sex, their parents and teachers. The sample of pupils consisted of children with special needs (N=81) and typical peers (N=81). Adaptive behaviour was measured by Behaviour rating pro{Thorn} le (BRP-2, Brown, Hammill, 1990; Croatian adaptation Z ̌ic, 2000). Mann Whitney u test was used for counting differences between estimations of child adaptive behaviour from parent, children and teacher's side. In accordance with previous researches of adaptive behaviour children are more positive in their estimations than parents and teachers. It was found that children with special needs estimated their motivation for school work, and acceptance from others, higher than teachers did, but there was no difference between typical peers and teachers. Children with special needs estimated their ability to seat calm higher than teachers did. Contrary, typical children estimated that ability lower than teachers did. Comparison of children's estimations showed signi{Thorn} cant differences in favour to typical children that are more satis{Thorn} ed with their progress in school, better concentrate and teachers less gets angry with them. Children with special needs noted more psychosomatic symptoms, and more teacher's unfairness then typical children. Estimation of parents and teachers show that parents of children with special needs rate their children less lazy than teachers. It can be concluded that children with special needs overrate in their estimation of adaptive behaviour, but perception of their teachers and parents are saturated with real behaviour of children and their unful{Thorn} lled expectation of behaviour. Differences in estimations are partly caused by insuf{Thorn} cient support to children with special needs.
Introduction
Covert bullying in schools is associated with a range of academic, social, emotional and physical health problems. Much research has focused on bullying, but there remains a gap in understanding about covert aggression and how to most accurately and reliably measure children's own reports of this behaviour. This paper reviews relevant literature and outlines a research project that aims to develop a self-report instrument that effectively measures covert aggression and bullying. It is anticipated that this research will result in a standardised instrument that is suitable for exploring preadolescent children's experiences of covert aggressive behaviour. The data collected by the instrument will enhance health and education professionals understanding of covert bullying behaviours and will inform the design and evaluation of interventions.
Methods and analysis
Relational developmental systems theory will guide the design of an online self-report instrument. The first phase of the project will include a critical review of the research literature, focus groups with children aged 8–12 years (grades 4–6) in Perth, Western Australia, and expert review. The instrument will be explored for content and face validity prior to the assessment of convergent and discriminant validity, internal consistency and test-retest reliability.
Ethics and dissemination
The study has been approved by the Curtin University of Human Research Ethics Committee (RDHS-38-15) and by the Executive Principal of the participating school.
Anger, aggression, and violence have been the significant sources of human suffering throughout history and remain a problem in society today. The impact of such destructive human behavior has been documented by epidemiological studies, government statistics collected through the criminal justice system, evidence provided by authorities including the World Health Organization, and experts representing particularly vulnerable populations such as children and teens, women, minorities, and the elderly. Human anger, aggression, and violence are commonly observed in clinical settings, however, delineating the exact boundary conditions for these constructs is difficult. That is, the point at which anger becomes aggression and aggression becomes violence is difficult to determine. The assessment and conceptualization of these is further complicated because anger, aggression, and violence occur across clinical syndrome types and severity levels. This chapter describes how anger, aggression, and violence have been conceptualized and outlines how the measures reviewed were identified and categorized. The chapter ends with an outline of the information and criteria that were used to evaluate each measure.
Predictors of relational aggression and the moderating role of religiousness on associations between relevant predictors and relational aggression were examined in a sample of 244 university students. Increased childhood relational aggression, increased adult relational victimization, lower agreeableness, and lower emotional stability significantly predicted increased adult relational aggression. Prayer moderated the relationship between agreeableness and adult relational aggression, and the association between relational victimization and aggression, while religious service attendance moderated the relationship between emotional stability and relational aggression. Results are discussed in terms of the higher level latent personality constructs of self-regulation and communion, which suggest a potential protective function for religiousness in associations with relational aggression.
Scientific research on the relationship between suppression and aggression is rather scarce. Consequently, practitioners searching for means to reduce workplace aggression do not have adequate data on which factors are related to aggressive behavior in the workplace. To shed light on this relationship, this study investigated emotional suppression in a sample of 17 participants by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and examined their aggressive behavior by using an inventory assessing five types of aggressive behavior. Results of fMRI analysis suggest that the insula, cingulate cortex, and calcarine sulcus are involved in suppression. When the blood-oxygen-level–dependent signals of all the significant regions were tested for correlation with the ratings of the five types of aggression given by the participants’ significant others (e.g. family members and/or close friends), a significant correlation was found between activation in the calcarine sulcus during suppression and property aggression. The findings not only indicate the potential neural correlates of observed aggressive behaviors but also emphasise the detrimental effect of unsuccessful, superficial emotion regulation on organisations.
Former researches of adaptive behaviour showed that children with special needs integrated in regular schools have lower level of adaptive behaviour than typical peers (Žic, 2000).
The aim of this research was to investigate whether there are differences in estimations of children’s adaptive behaviour at school from perspectives of children, parents and teachers.
The sample consisted of pupils aged 12 years attending 6 th grade of primary school, both sex, their parents and teachers. The sample of pupils consisted of children with special needs (N=81) and typical peers (N=81). Adaptive behaviour was measured by Behaviour rating profile (BRP-2, Brown, Hammill, 1990; Croatian adaptation Žic, 2000). Mann Whitney U test was used for counting differences between estimations of child adaptive behaviour from parent, children and teacher’s side.
In accordance with previous researches of adaptive behaviour children are more positive in their estimations than parents and teachers. It was found that children with special needs estimated their motivation for school work, and acceptance from others, higher than teachers did, but there was no difference between typical peers and teachers. Children with special needs estimated their ability to seat calm higher than teachers did. Contrary, typical children estimated that ability lower than teachers did. Comparison of children’s estimations showed significant differences in favour to typical children that are more satisfied with their progress in school, better concentrate and teachers less gets angry with them. Children with special needs noted more psychosomatic symptoms, and more teacher’s unfairness then typical children. Estimation of parents and teachers show that parents of children with special needs rate their children less lazy than teachers.
It can be concluded that children with special needs overrate in their estimation of adaptive behaviour, but perception of their teachers and parents are saturated with real behaviour of children and their unfulfilled expectation of behaviour. Differences inestimations are partly caused by insufficient support to children with special needs
Examined the relationship between social network density and aggression by administering self-report measures of each variable to 148 undergraduates (92 women, 52 men). Males with high-density networks reported more indirect than direct aggression, and less direct aggression than males with low-density networks. Use of direct and indirect aggression by females was not related to network density. Explanations consider possible inhibitory and facilitating effects of network density. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study examined two explanations for gender differences in expression of direct and indirect aggression. The social sanction model suggests that aggressor and target gender effects may be accounted for in terms of social sanctions against behaving aggressively; indirect aggression is the likely outcome of inhibitions against expression of direct aggression. The threat argument suggests that high levels of direct aggression in male-male dyads as well as apparent inhibitions against harming females might be accounted for by the fact that males are more threatening targets than are females. Research participants completed a questionnaire measure of direct and indirect aggression twice, once with reference to their behavior toward a same-gender target and once with reference to their behavior toward an other-gender target. Although most direct aggression was reported by male aggressors toward male targets, gender of target did not relate to indirect aggression. Males reported approximately equal levels of indirect and direct aggression. Although females reported using more indirect than direct aggression, they did not differ from males in their reports of the frequency of use of indirect aggression. These results provided some support for both models of gender effects on human aggression and suggest the appropriateness of a relatively complex model of gender effects on aggression. Aggr. Behav. 25:425–434, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Certain personality traits have been associated with impulsive aggression in both college and community samples, primarily irritability, anger/hostility, and impulsivity. The literature regarding the psychopathology associated with impulsive aggression is relatively sparse and strongly emphasizes DSM-IV-TR [APA, 2000] Axis II personality disorders, although some comorbidity with Axis I clinical disorders has been reported. The current study compares impulsive aggressive (IA) college students with their non-aggressive peers on several self-report measures of personality and psychopathology. Personality results were as predicted, with IAs scoring higher than controls on measures of impulsivity and aggression. Additionally, the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI), which was given for exploratory purposes, revealed a unique pattern of psychopathic traits in impulsive aggression that contained key differences from the callous-unemotional profile seen in premeditated aggression. Contrary to our hypothesis that a specific pattern of psychopathology (personality disorders, bipolar disorder, and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) would emerge for impulsive aggression, IAs scored significantly higher than controls on nearly every clinical scale of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Somatic Complaints, Anxiety, Anxiety-Related Disorders, Depression, Mania, Schizophrenia, Borderline Features, Antisocial Features, Alcohol Problems, and Drug Problems), indicating a global elevation of psychopathology. In conclusion, while the personality traits and behaviors that characterize impulsive aggression are relatively consistent across individuals, its associated psychopathology is unexpectedly variable. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–10, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Research on human aggression has progressed to a point at which a unifying framework is needed. Major domain-limited theories of aggression include cognitive neoassociation, social learning, social interaction, script, and excitation transfer theories. Using the general aggression model (GAM), this review posits cognition, affect, and arousal to mediate the effects of situational and personological variables on aggression. The review also organizes recent theories of the development and persistence of aggressive personality. Personality is conceptualized as a set of stable knowledge structures that individuals use to interpret events in their social world and to guide their behavior. In addition to organizing what is already known about human aggression, this review, using the GAM framework, also serves the heuristic function of suggesting what research is needed to fill in theoretical gaps and can be used to create and test interventions for reducing aggression.
Gender differences regarding aggressive behaviour were investigated in 167 school children, 11 to 12 years of age, through peer-rating techniques supported by self-ratings and interviews. The social structure of the peer groups also was studied.The principal finding was that girls made greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas the boys tended to employ direct means. Gender differences in verbal aggression were less pronounced. The social structure of peer groups was found to be tighter among girls, making it easier for them to exploit relationships and harm their victims by indirect manipulative aggression.Because indirect aggression has rarely been satisfactorily studied with tests of aggression, this finding may help to explain 1) the generally lower correlation found between peer-rated and self-rated aggression in girls than among boys (indirect means not being so readily recognized by the subject as a kind of aggression) and 2) the low stability of aggressiveness in girls often found in developmental studies.
Seven experts on personality measurement here discuss the viability of public-domain personality measures, focusing on the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) as a prototype. Since its inception in 1996, the use of items and scales from the IPIP has increased dramatically. Items from the IPIP have been translated from English into more than 25 other languages. Currently over 80 publications using IPIP scales are listed at the IPIP Web site (http://ipip.ori.org), and the rate of IPIP-related publications has been increasing rapidly. The growing popularity of the IPIP can be attributed to five factors: (1) It is cost free; (2) its items can be obtained instantaneously via the Internet; (3) it includes over 2000 items, all easily available for inspection; (4) scoring keys for IPIP scales are provided; and (5) its items can be presented in any order, interspersed with other items, reworded, translated into other languages, and administered on the World Wide Web without asking permission of anyone. The unrestricted availability of the IPIP raises concerns about possible misuse by unqualified persons, and the freedom of researchers to use the IPIP in idiosyncratic ways raises the possibility of fragmentation rather than scientific unification in personality research.
In this article, we meta-analytically examine experimental studies to assess the moderating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. Convergent evidence shows that, whereas unprovoked men are more aggressive than women, provocation markedly attenuates this gender difference. Gender differences in appraisals of provocation intensity and fear of danger from retaliation (but not negative affect) partially mediate the attenuating effect of provocation. However, they do not entirely account for its manipulated effect. Type of provocation and other contextual variables also affect the magnitude of gender differences in aggression. The results support a social role analysis of gender differences in aggression and counter A. H. Eagly and V. Steffen's (1986) meta-analytic inability to confirm an attenuating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression.
This research was designed as an initial attempt to assess relational aggression in preschool-age children. Our goal was to develop reliable measures of relational aggression for young children and to use these instruments to address several important issues (e.g., the relation between this form of aggression and social-psychological adjustment). Results provide evidence that relationally aggressive behaviors appear in children's behavioral repertoires at relatively young ages, and that these behaviors can be reliably distinguished from overtly aggressive behaviors in preschool-age children. Further, findings indicate that preschool girls are significantly more relationally aggressive and less overtly aggressive than preschool boys. Finally, results show that relational aggression is significantly related to social-psychological maladjustment (e.g., peer rejection) for both boys and girls.
This article examines the construct validity of reactive and proactive aggression, as assessed by the teacher-rating scale developed by K. A. Dodge and J. D. Coie (1987). In Study 1 (n = 149 boys), confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a 2-factor model, in which a substantial correlation was observed between the 2 latent factors, presented a better fit than a single-factor model. Study 2 (n = 193 boys) examined the relations presented by the 2 forms of aggression with peer status, leadership, social withdrawal, and victimization by peer. Reactive and proactive aggressive behaviors presented distinct patterns of relations consistent with the theoretical definitions. The results of these studies suggest that the questionnaire measures 2 forms of aggressive behavior that, although being substantially related, have a unique discriminant dimension.
Psychologists have often categorized human aggression as hostile or instrumental. Hostile aggression is "hot," impulsive behavior that is motivated by a desire to hurt someone; instrumental aggression is "cold," premeditated behavior used as a means to some other end. This dichotomy was useful to the early development of aggression theories and continues to capture important features of nonhuman aggression, but it has outlived its usefulness as a descriptor of fundamentally different kinds of human aggression. It is confounded with the automatic-controlled information-processing dichotomy, and it fails to consider aggressive acts with multiple motives. Knowledge structure models of aggression easily handle these problems. Taking extreme measures to preserve the hostile-instrumental dichotomy will delay further advances in understanding and controlling human aggression. Therefore, this seems a proper time to "pull the plug" and allow the hostile-instrumental aggression dichotomy a dignified death.
Examined the relative and combined associations among relational and overt forms of aggression and victimization and adolescents' concurrent depression symptoms, loneliness, self-esteem, and externalizing behavior. An ethnically diverse sample of 566 adolescents (55% girls) in Grades 9 to 12 participated. Results replicated prior work on relational aggression and victimization as distinct forms of peer behavior that are uniquely associated with concurrent social-psychological adjustment. Victimization was associated most closely with internalizing symptoms, and peer aggression was related to symptoms of disruptive behavior disorder. Findings also supported the hypothesis that victims of multiple forms of aggression are at greater risk for adjustment difficulties than victims of one or no form of aggression. Social support from close friends appeared to buffer the effects of victimization on adjustment.
Trajectories of relational aggression were examined in a large, diverse sample of fourth-grade students. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine relational aggression over 1 calendar year. The results indicated that relational aggression increased in a linear fashion for girls over the course of the study. In addition, increases in friend intimate exchange were associated with time-dependent increases in relational aggression among girls only. Relational aggression and internalizing "tracked" together across the course of the study. Overall, the findings suggest relational aggression becomes increasingly common among elementary school girls, and girls' close, dyadic relationships may fuel relationally aggressive behavior in some contexts. Finally, the results indicate that relational aggression trajectories are dynamically associated with maladjustment.
Social aggression consists of actions directed at damaging another's self-esteem, social status, or both, and includes behaviors such as facial expressions of disdain, cruel gossipping, and the manipulation of friendship patterns. In Study 1, 4th, 7th, and 10th graders completed the Social Behavior Questionnaire; only boys viewed physical aggression as more hurtful than social aggression, and girls rated social aggression as more hurtful than did boys. In the 1st phase of Study 2, girls participated in a laboratory task in which elements of social-aggression were elicited and reliably coded. In the 2nd phase of Study 2, another sample of participants (elementary, middle, and high school boys and girls) viewed samples of socially aggressive behaviors from these sessions. Girls rated the aggressor as more angry than boys, and middle school and high school participants viewed the socially aggressive behaviors as indicating more dislike than elementary school children.
Gender differences were explored in experiences of social and physical aggression of adolescents (39 boys and 37 girls; mean age 13.8). They reported the frequency of experiencing physical aggression and social aggression, described in detail past incidents of peer victimization, and completed the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. The most common social aggression reported was being gossiped about, and the majority of adolescents reported that the aggressor was of the same gender. Although both genders reported equal frequencies of social aggression, girls thought about it more and were more distressed by it than were boys. Frequency of social aggression was more strongly related to girls' self-concepts than to boys'. This research provides evidence that young adolescents, and especially victimized girls, are hurt by social aggression.
Although the understanding of aggression has been significantly advanced through the study of relational aggression, past research has been limited by its predominant focus on children. This study examines the associations between relational aggression and social-psychological adjustment in a sample of young adults. A peer-nomination instrument was constructed to assess relational aggression, and self-reports of adjustment were obtained from 225 college students (45% male;: mean age = 19.5). Regression analyses showed that relational aggression provided unique information, after controlling for age and gender, about peer rejection, prosocial behavior, antisocial personality features, and borderline personality features. Interactions with gender further showed that for women, relational aggression was linked with bulimic symptoms. The importance of relational aggression for understanding adjustment problems during young adulthood are discussed.
This study examined the relationships between peer, teacher and self-assessments on adolescent direct and indirect aggressive behaviour taking place at school. Subjects, a total of 2002, numbered 725 early, 575 middle and 702 late adolescent girls and boys. Measures on direct aggression included bullying, fighting and arguing, and measures on indirect aggression focused on backbiting and intriguing. The results revealed that, as a rule, the correlation between the peers and the teachers was higher than the agreement between the teachers and the self, which, in turn, was higher than that between the peers and the self. Consistency was also found to be higher with direct than with indirect aggression. Regarding age differences, the teacher-peer agreement was higher for the early and middle adolescents than for the late adolescents, while the teacher-self and the peer-self consistencies showed curvilinear relationships. Examining gender-related variance revealed that the peer-teacher correlation on direct aggression was higher for boys than for girls. No gender differences were found in assessments of indirect aggression. The results suggest, firstly, that self-ratings are not well interchangeable with peer or teacher assessments, which, in turn, are in line with each other, and, secondly, that there is a higher concordance in assessing direct than indirect aggression.
Development of research on intrafamily conflict and violence requires both conceptual clarity and measures of the concepts. The introduction to this paper therefore seeks to clarify and distinguish the concepts of "conflict," "conflict of interest," "hostility," and "violence." The main part of the paper describes the Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. The CT Scales are designed to measure the use of Reasoning, Verbal Aggression, and Violence within the family. Information is presented on the following aspects of this instrument: theoretical rational, acceptability to respondents, scoring, factor structure, reliability, validity, and norms for a nationally representative sample of 2,143 couples.
Gender differences in regard to aggressive behaviour were investigated in a series of studies of schoolchildren of different age cohorts: 8-year-olds (N = 85), 11-year-olds (N = 167), and 15-year-olds (N = 127). Different types of aggressive behaviour were measured with peer nomination techniques, supported by self-ratings. The social structure of the peer groups wene also studied. The results of the 11-year-old cohort were previously persented by Lagerspetz et al. [1988; Aggressive Behavior l4:403-414], but they are compared here with the other age groups. The principal finding was that girls of the two older cohorts overall make greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas boys tend to employ direct means. Previously, the main dilference between the genders has been thought to be that boys use physical aggressive strategies, while girls prefer verbd ones. Our studies suggest that the differentiation between direct and indirect strategies of aggression presents a more exact picture. Indlrect aggressive shategies were not yet fully developed among the 8-year-old girls, but they were already prominent among the 11-year-old girls. Aggressive behaviour was assessed overall by the children themselves to be the highest in ttris age gmup.
Conducted a meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in aggression, based on the sample of studies in the E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin (1974) review and a recent sample of studies from 1978 to 1981, for a total of 143 studies. Meta-analysis techniques were also extended to applications of interest to developmental psychologists. The median value of ω–2 for gender differences in aggression was .05, and the median value of
d was .50, indicating that, although the differences appear fairly reliably, they are not large. There was a trend for gender differences to be smaller in recent studies. Gender differences tended to be larger in naturalistic, correlational studies than in experimental studies. Gender differences also tended to be larger when the method of measurement was direct observation, a projective test, or peer report, and smaller when self-reports or parent or teacher reports were used. Finally, there was a modest negative association between magnitude of gender differences and age. For studies in which mean Ss' age was 6 yrs or less, the median ω–2 was .07 and
d was .58; in contrast, for studies of college students the median ω–2 was .01 and
d was .27. Overall results indicate that approximately 5% of the variance in aggression is due to gender differences. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
20 all-girl and 22 all-boy 2 person groups were initially established. For 1/2 these groups a same-sex and, for the other 1/2, an opposite-sex newcomer was subsequently introduced. Although the boys made many more aggressive responses to a Bobo Doll, there were no significant differences between the sexes in the expression of direct aggression toward the new child. However, the girls obtained significantly higher indirect aggression scores than did the boys. In addition, both boys and girls made significantly more positive approach responses toward the same-sex than toward opposite-sex newcomers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
To satisfy the need in personality research for factorially univocal measures of each of the 5 domains that subsume most English-language terms for personality traits, new sets of Big-Five factor markers were investigated. In studies of adjective-anchored bipolar rating scales, a transparent format was found to produce factor markers that were more univocal than the same scales administered in the traditional format. Nonetheless, even the transparent bipolar scales proved less robust as factor markers than did parallel sets of adjectives administered in unipolar format. A set of 100 unipolar terms proved to be highly robust across quite diverse samples of self and peer descriptions. These new markers were compared with previously developed ones based on far larger sets of trait adjectives, as well as with the scales from the NEO and Hogan personality inventories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In recent research a relationally oriented form of aggression has been identified that, in contrast to overt aggression that harms others through physical means (e.g., hitting), harms others through damage to their peer relationships (e.g., angrily retaliating against a peer by excluding her from one's play group). The goal this research was to assess the role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type (relational vs. instrumental) in children's relationally aggressive behavior. A total of 252 third- through sixth-grade children participated as subjects. A hypothetical provocation instrument was used to assess children's intent attributions and feelings of distress for ambiguous relational and instrumental provocation situations. Results showed that, as hypothesized, relationally aggressive children exhibited a hostile attributional bias and reported significantly higher levels of distress than did their nonaggressive peers for relational provocation situations. In addition, girls reported significantly higher levels of distress than did boys for relational provocation situations. Further, a comorbid group of relationally plus overtly aggressive children also exhibited a hostile attributional bias; however, their bias was evident for instrumental provocation situations only.
In previous studies [Aggressive Behavior 14: 403–414, 1988; Aggressive Behavior 18: 117–127, 1992] it was found that adolescent girls used indirect means of aggression more than adolescent boys, whereas physical aggression was used more by boys, and direct verbal aggression was used equally by both sexes. The present study investigated whether males, as adults, start to employ indirect aggression to the same extent as females. Three hundred thirty-three university employees (162 males, 176 females) filled in the Work Harassment Scale by Björkqvist et al. [1994]. Special attention was drawn to two subscales: rational-appearing aggression and social manipulation. It was found that males used the former type of aggression significantly more often than females, while females used the latter more than males. Both are variants of covert aggression, in which the perpetrator tries to disguise his/her aggressive intentions, in order to avoid retaliation and/or social condemnation. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
Aggressive behavior was studied in workplaces having (1) predominantly male, (2) predominantly female, or (3) both male and female employees in equal or near equal frequencies. In addition to examining the occurrence of different types of aggression in these workplaces, the question of whether being a target of aggression is related to employees’ subjective well-being was addressed. One hundred sixty-nine participants (mainly 30–50 years of age) employed in a wide range of organizations in the public sector completed a questionnaire measuring four types of observed and experienced aggression: direct overt, indirect manipulative, covert insinuative, and rational-appearing aggression. Indirect manipulative and rational-appearing aggression were perceived to be the most widely used aggression styles in the work context. In the predominantly male workplaces, the men were perceived to use more of all types of aggression than in the predominantly female workplaces. The women’s aggression was not related to the relative number of females and males with whom they worked. Participants were divided into two groups on the basis of the extent to which they estimated themselves to be targets of workplace aggression. Those who considered themselves to be victims of workplace aggression suffered significantly more from psychosocial problems and physical symptoms than those who had been victimized to a lesser extent or not at all. The victimized group also considered the aggression they had suffered to be the reason for their psychosocial and health problems. Aggr. Behav. 27:360–371, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third- through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).
Analysis of Ordinal Categorical Data Alan Agresti Statistical Science Now has its first coordinated manual of methods for analyzing ordered categorical data. This book discusses specialized models that, unlike standard methods underlying nominal categorical data, efficiently use the information on ordering. It begins with an introduction to basic descriptive and inferential methods for categorical data, and then gives thorough coverage of the most current developments, such as loglinear and logit models for ordinal data. Special emphasis is placed on interpretation and application of methods and contains an integrated comparison of the available strategies for analyzing ordinal data. This is a case study work with illuminating examples taken from across the wide spectrum of ordinal categorical applications. 1984 (0 471-89055-3) 287 pp. Regression Diagnostics Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity David A. Belsley, Edwin Kuh and Roy E. Welsch This book provides the practicing statistician and econometrician with new tools for assessing the quality and reliability of regression estimates. Diagnostic techniques are developed that aid in the systematic location of data points that are either unusual or inordinately influential; measure the presence and intensity of collinear relations among the regression data and help to identify the variables involved in each; and pinpoint the estimated coefficients that are potentially most adversely affected. The primary emphasis of these contributions is on diagnostics, but suggestions for remedial action are given and illustrated. 1980 (0 471-05856-4) 292 pp. Applied Regression Analysis Second Edition Norman Draper and Harry Smith Featuring a significant expansion of material reflecting recent advances, here is a complete and up-to-date introduction to the fundamentals of regression analysis, focusing on understanding the latest concepts and applications of these methods. The authors thoroughly explore the fitting and checking of both linear and nonlinear regression models, using small or large data sets and pocket or high-speed computing equipment. Features added to this Second Edition include the practical implications of linear regression; the Durbin-Watson test for serial correlation; families of transformations; inverse, ridge, latent root and robust regression; and nonlinear growth models. Includes many new exercises and worked examples.
The purpose of the current study was to elaborate the nomological net surrounding the constructs of reactive (RA) and proactive aggression (PA). Typically examined in the context of children, the current study utilized a sample of 211 young adults to examine the relations between reactive and proactive aggression and measures of general personality and social information processing, as well as maladaptive behavioral correlates such as crime, substance use, and riskier sex. Both raw and residualized scores were examined. Using raw scores, the primary differences between RA and PA were related to Neuroticism (i.e., RA more strongly related) and externalizing behaviors (i.e., PA more strongly). The authors comment on the similarity of findings when using raw scores and the divergence of findings using residualized scores and argue for a cautious interpretation of differences based on residualized scores. The authors conclude that the role of Neuroticism warrants further exploration as a means for understanding the heterogeneity of aggressive behavior.
Although the understanding of aggression has been significantly advanced through the study of relational aggression, past research has been limited by its predominant focus on children. This study examines the associations between relational aggression and social-psychological adjustment in a sample of young adults. A peer-nomination instrument was constructed to assess relational aggression, and self-reports of adjustment were obtained from 225 college students (45% male; mean age = 19.5). Regression analyses showed that relational aggression provided unique information, after controlling for age and gender, about peer rejection, prosocial behavior, antisocial personality features, and borderline personality features. Interactions with gender further showed that, for women, relational aggression was linked with bulimic symptoms. The importance of relational aggression for understanding adjustment problems during young adulthood are discussed.
We extend to score, Wald and difference test statistics the scaled and adjusted corrections to goodness-of-fit test statistics developed in Satorra and Bentler (1988a,b). The theory is framed in the general context of multisample analysis of moment structures, under general conditions on the distribution of observable variables. Computational issues, as well as the relation of the scaled and corrected statistics to the asymptotic robust ones, is discussed. A Monte Carlo study illustrates the comparative performance in finite samples of corrected score test statistics.
A new questionnaire on aggression was constructed. Replicated factor analyses yielded 4 scales: Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility. Correlational analysis revealed that anger is the bridge between both physical and verbal aggression and hostility. The scales showed internal consistency and stability over time. Men scored slightly higher on Verbal Aggression and Hostility and much higher on Physical Aggression. There was no sex difference for Anger. The various scales correlated differently with various personality traits. Scale scores correlated with peer nominations of the various kinds of aggression. These findings suggest the need to assess not only overall aggression but also its individual components.
Noting that a wide variety of unpleasant feelings, including sadness and depression, apparently can give rise to anger and aggression, I propose a cognitive-neoassociationistic model to account for the effects of negative affect on the development of angry feelings and the display of emotional aggression. Negative affect tends to activate ideas, memories, and expressive-motor reactions associated with anger and aggression as well as rudimentary angry feelings. Subsequent thought involving attributions, appraisals, and schematic conceptions can then intensify, suppress, enrich, or differentiate the initial reactions. Bodily reactions as well as emotion-relevant thoughts can activate the other components of the particular emotion network to which they are linked. Research findings consistent with the model are summarized. Experimental findings are also reported indicating that attention to one's negative feelings can lead to a regulation of the overt effects of the negative affect, I argue that the model can integrate the core aspect of the James-Lange theory with the newer cognitive theories of emotion.
A confirmatory factor analysis of the factor structure of The Aggression Questionnaire created by Buss and Perry (1992) [Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459] was conducted to assess whether the scale's purported 4 factors emerged. The results generally supported the 4-factor model. However, the hostility factor may be improved if 2 items pertaining to suspicion are removed from the scale. These items had relatively low loadings on that factor and decreased the hostility scale's internal reliability.
To test developmental paths from adolescent syndromes and other candidate predictors to young adult syndromes.
A national sample assessed at ages 13 through 16 and 16 through 19 years was reassessed at 19 through 22 years in terms of six syndromes derived empirically from parent and self-reports, two syndromes derived only from parent reports, and one derived from self-reports.
Several young adult syndromes were similar to adolescent syndromes and were strongly predicted by these syndromes. A new syndrome designated as Shows Off and an adult Aggressive Behavior syndrome were both predicted by the adolescent Aggressive Behavior syndrome. This indicates a developmental transition away from overt aggression among some aggressive youths but not others. A syndrome designated as Irresponsible was predicted by the adolescent Attention Problems syndrome and may be an adult phenotype of attention deficit disorder. Surprisingly, attention problems were associated with more diverse problems among females than males.
There are strong predictive relations from adolescent to adult syndromes. Sex differences in predictive paths argue against basing assumptions about both sexes on findings for one sex.
Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third-through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).
Although many important advances have been made in our understanding of childhood aggression in recent years, a significant limitation of prior studies has been the lack of attention to the possible moderating role of gender in the links between aggression and social-psychological adjustment. To address this issue, the author evaluated the adjustment status associated with engagement in gender normative versus gender nonnormative forms of aggression for both boys and girls. Indexes of social-psychological adjustment assessed included teacher and self-reports of internalizing and externalizing difficulties (N = 1.166 children 9-12 years old). Results showed that children who engaged in gender nonnormative forms of aggression (i.e., overtly aggressive girls and relationally aggressive boys) were significantly more maladjusted than children who engaged in gender normative forms of aggression and children who were nonaggressive.
This report presents the results of confirmatory factor analyses of patterns of comorbidity among 10 common mental disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey, a national probability sample of US civilians who completed structured diagnostic interviews.
Patterns of comorbidity among DSM-III-R mental disorders were analyzed via confirmatory factor analyses for the entire National Comorbidity Survey sample (N = 8098; age range, 15-54 years), for random halves of the sample, for men and women separately, and for a subsample of participants who were seeing a professional about their mental health problems. Four models were compared: a 1-factor model, a 2-factor model in which some disorders represented internalizing problems and others represented externalizing problems, a 3-factor variant of the 2-factor model in which internalizing was modeled as having 2 subfactors (anxious-misery and fear), and a 4-factor model in which the disorders represented separate affective, anxiety, substance dependence, and antisocial factors.
The 3-factor model provided the best fit in the entire sample. This result was replicated across random halves of the sample as well as across women and men. The substantial empirical intercorrelation between anxious-misery and fear (0.73) suggested that these factors were most appropriately conceived as subfactors of a higher-order internalizing factor. In the treatment sample, the 2-factor model fit best.
The results offer a novel perspective on comorbidity, suggesting that comorbidity results from common, underlying core psychopathological processes. The results thereby argue for focusing research on these core processes themselves, rather than on their varied manifestations as separate disorders.