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An assessment of the efficiency of and child preference for forward and backward chaining
Abstract
Comparative studies of forward and backward chaining have led some to suggest that sensitivity to each teaching procedure may be idiosyncratic across learners and tasks. The purposes of the current study were threefold. First, we assessed differential sensitivity to each chaining procedure within children when presented with multiple learning tasks of similar content but different complexity. Second, we evaluated whether differential sensitivity to a chaining procedure during a brief task predicted differential sensitivity during the teaching of longer tasks. Third, we directly assessed children's preferences for each teaching procedure via a concurrent-chains preference assessment. Learners acquired all target skills introduced under both chaining conditions, but individual children did not consistently learn more efficiently with either procedure. Short-duration tasks were not predictive of performance in tasks of longer duration. Both chaining procedures were preferred over a baseline condition without prompting, but participants did not demonstrate a preference for either procedure.
... These initial-link stimuli can then be presented in a manner similar to those of more traditional preference assessments, in which an approach response to the initial-link stimulus results in a reinforcer-consumption period (e.g., after selecting the image of playing basketball, the individual could then play basketball for a period of time). This approach has been used to assess individuals' preferences for behavioral interventions (Fulton et al., 2020;Luczynski and Hanley, 2010;Tiger, Hanley, & Heal, 2006) and teaching strategies (Halbur et al., 2020;Heal et al., 2009;Slocum & Tiger, 2011), among other complex events (Tiger, Hanley, & Hernandez, 2006). Across the many studies using a concurrentchains preference assessment, preference hierarchies have been determined most often using response-restriction procedures described by Hanley et al. (2003). ...
... An unsystematic review of recent research suggests that concurrent-chains assessments most frequently include three (e.g, Halbur et al., 2020;Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Toussaint et al., 2016) or four (e.g., Fenerty & Tiger, 2010;Gabor et al., 2016;Heal & Hanley, 2007;Ingvarsson & Le, 2011;Reed et al., 2012) initial-link options. Thus, the array size in the current study was an appropriate approximation of that which is typical in the literature. ...
... The efficiency of the multiple-stimulus model could be improved by decreasing the stringency of the response-restriction criteria. We chose the criterion in the current study (when an initial link "led" by five selections) based upon previous studies that have used criteria ranging from leads of four (e.g., Layer et al., 2008) to six (Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Tiger, Hanley, & Heal, 2006) selections. Thus, this is representative of the manner in which such restriction criteria have been applied. ...
Concurrent-chains preference assessments have been used to assess preferences for leisure activities, teaching strategies, behavioral interventions, and other protracted events. This assessment model involves presenting an array of representative stimuli (e.g., pictures or colored cards), providing participants with an opportunity to select a representative stimulus from the array, arranging access to the associated activity, and then rank-ordering activities based upon their accumulated selection frequency across trials. The predominant model for presenting stimuli has been one in which all stimuli are presented in arrays simultaneously (i.e., a multiple-stimulus model). Activities selected repeatedly are identified as highly preferred and are then sequentially removed from the array to determine a preference hierarchy. The current study compared this approach with an alternative in which representative stimuli were presented to participants in paired arrays. Assessments conducted in the paired-array format were completed more rapidly than the multiple-stimulus format with a high degree of correspondence between preference rankings generated by both approaches.
... An established method for training sequences is to reward a series of connected responses (behavioural chains). Chaining is a method that is often used in animal training to break down complex behavioural sequences into smaller units that can be trained step-wise using forward or backward conditioning [16][17][18]. In this process, each learned behavioural unit of the entire sequence serves as the conditioned reinforcer for the preceding behaviours and as the discriminative stimulus for the next response [19,20]. ...
... Forward chaining starts with training the first behaviour in a sequence, after which the next behavioural element is added after the first has been mastered, and so on. In backward chaining, training starts with the last behaviour of the sequence, after which the penultimate response is added, and so on [16,17,21]. The available published evidence shows no consistent differences between forward and backward chaining regarding the ease of training animals [17,18,22]. ...
... In backward chaining, training starts with the last behaviour of the sequence, after which the penultimate response is added, and so on [16,17,21]. The available published evidence shows no consistent differences between forward and backward chaining regarding the ease of training animals [17,18,22]. Slocum and Tiger [17] concluded that considering the high variability between studies, forward and backward chaining show similar effectiveness in teaching new behavioural chains. ...
Untrained cattle do not defecate or urinate in defined locations. The toilet training of cattle would allow urine and faeces to be separated and stored, reducing climate-damaging emissions and improving animal health. In a proof-of-concept study, we evaluated a novel protocol for toilet training in cattle. Five heifer calves (and yoked controls) were trained in the voluntary (operant) behaviours of a toileting chain. Then, reflexive urinating responses were incorporated into the chain, with toileting signalled by a tactile (vibratory) stimulus. On 95% of occasions, the calves inhibited/interrupted urination when receiving the stimulus, and on 65% of these occasions, reinitiated urination in the latrine. Furthermore, during 63% of urinations in the latrine, the calves oriented to the reward location before any food was delivered, providing additional evidence that calves can be successfully toilet trained with food rewards. Yoked controls failed to learn most of the operant elements and all the reflexive responses of toilet training. The results show that reflexive behaviours can be incorporated into voluntary toileting sequences with cattle and extend the range of species that can be toilet trained. Future refinement of the protocol to allow training under practical farm conditions offers the potential to mitigate climate damage and improve animal health.
... One possibility to teach a dog to retrieve and deliver an object on cue is chaining. This procedure involves breaking down a task into its component parts via a task analysis, and sequentially teaching each individual component to mastery level via prompting and differential reinforcement (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). One version of this proceduredbackward chainingdinvolves teaching the final step of the task analysis firstdreleasing the itemdfollowed by progressive teaching of earlier components, such as placing the item in the owner's hand (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). ...
... This procedure involves breaking down a task into its component parts via a task analysis, and sequentially teaching each individual component to mastery level via prompting and differential reinforcement (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). One version of this proceduredbackward chainingdinvolves teaching the final step of the task analysis firstdreleasing the itemdfollowed by progressive teaching of earlier components, such as placing the item in the owner's hand (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). Backward chaining entails that reinforcement is delivered when the learner performs the final behavior in the sequence at the predetermined criterion level (Cooper et al., 2007). ...
... Backward chaining entails that reinforcement is delivered when the learner performs the final behavior in the sequence at the predetermined criterion level (Cooper et al., 2007). As more and more of the earlier steps are added to the training process, all previously taught steps and the current step need to be accurately completed to produce reinforcement (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). The sequence proceeds backward through the chain until all the steps in the task analysis have been introduced in reverse order and practiced cumulatively (Cooper et al., 2007). ...
Aggressive behaviors in companion dogs are a serious problem to owners, which often result in important physical and emotional damage on the victims. Aggressive incidents frequently happen during human-dog interactions (i.e., reaching toward the dog or petting it) while the dog is engaging with a preferred item (e.g., a toy, sock or shoe). The current study investigated whether a clicker-training approach, backward chaining, could decrease the frequency of category-II (e.g., ears flattened and/or hovering over object) and category-III (e.g., staring and/or stiffening up) behaviors by establishing an alternative target response of releasing preferred item on cue. Four dogs were exposed to the intervention using a nonconcurrent multiple-baseline single-case experimental design. Each dog experienced a total of 14 conditions, including baseline condition (i.e., rate of preferred item release on request prior to any training), treatment conditions (i.e., different steps of the backward-chaining procedure, such as release or place, sit) and probe conditions (i.e., same procedure as baseline but conducted after varying steps during treatment condition). Success rates of the target response more than doubled in all dogs after implementation of the backward-chaining procedure, ranging from 2% to 85%. Rates for category-II responses showed an important reduction in three out of the four dogs ranging from 39% to 55%. In the case of category-III aggressive responses, there was a reduction in frequency relative to baseline rates ranging from 58% to 69% across all dogs. During follow-up probes conducted 3 months after the intervention ended average rates of category-II behaviors decreased by 23% for the dog in human-dog dyad 1 and 35% for the dog in dyad 2, while rates of category-III responses reverted back to baseline levels in dogs in dyads 1 (D01) and 2 (D02). Success rates during follow-up probes more than doubled for dog D01 from 2% to 45%, and reverted to baseline levels for D02. Overall, the current study showed that backward chaining is an effective procedure to teach dogs to release a highly preferred item on cue and to importantly reduce category-II and –III behaviors, at least short-term. Considering the scarcity of studies on the effectiveness of backward chaining in aggression-related behaviors, further research could extend these promising findings, including determining whether ongoing maintenance training would extend this effect, and addressing the current study’s limitations (e.g., utilizing a refined categorization of aggressive responses).
... Backward chaining is simply the reverse sequencing of a series of steps, which are normally taken in a chronologically, sequential, "forward chained" manner (Rouse & Hough, 2018). Forward chaining is therefore learning by teaching the series of sequential tasks starting from the initial step, then teaching the additional steps in chronological order (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). Forward chaining is how most teaching occurs, teaching from start-to-end in chronological order. ...
... Backward Chaining Outside of Aviation -Applications of backward chaining are prevalent outside of aviation and include: machine learning (Al-Ajlan, 2015), teaching of basic skills to children, non-adults and adults physical and mental tasks (Jerome & Sturmey, 2007;Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Kobylarz et al., 2020), weight lifting to adults (Moore & Quintero, 2018), vocational tasks to adults with disabilities/children with eating disorders (Rubio et al., 2017), creating launch rules for NASA (Rajkumar & Bardina, 2003), improving decision making for local flood forecasting (Zhang et al., 2018), and expert systems for early detection and diagnosis of central nervous diseases (Paryati & Krit, 2022). ...
... All participants mastered the movements when some BC lifts were changed to FC. Conversely, some studies reported no significant difference between the two strategies [15]. Slocum and Tiger [15] assessed the children's FC and BC strategy preferences on various learning tasks. ...
... Conversely, some studies reported no significant difference between the two strategies [15]. Slocum and Tiger [15] assessed the children's FC and BC strategy preferences on various learning tasks. They found that children were equally efficient on both strategies and had similar mixed strategy preferences. ...
Metacognitive skills have been commonly associated with preparation for future learning in deductive domains. Many researchers have regarded strategy- and time-awareness as two metacognitive skills that address how and when to use a problem-solving strategy, respectively. It was shown that students who are both strategy-and time-aware (StrTime) outperformed their nonStrTime peers across deductive domains. In this work, students were trained on a logic tutor that supports a default forward-chaining (FC) and a backward-chaining (BC) strategy. We investigated the impact of mixing BC with FC on teaching strategy- and time-awareness for nonStrTime students. During the logic instruction, the experimental students (Exp) were provided with two BC worked examples and some problems in BC to practice how and when to use BC. Meanwhile, their control (Ctrl) and StrTime peers received no such intervention. Six weeks later, all students went through a probability tutor that only supports BC to evaluate whether the acquired metacognitive skills are transferred from logic. Our results show that on both tutors, Exp outperformed Ctrl and caught up with StrTime.
... All participants mastered the movements when some BC lifts were changed to FC. Conversely, some studies reported no significant difference between the two strategies [14]. Slocum and Tiger [14] assessed the children's FC and BC strategy preferences on various learning tasks. ...
... Conversely, some studies reported no significant difference between the two strategies [14]. Slocum and Tiger [14] assessed the children's FC and BC strategy preferences on various learning tasks. They found that children were equally efficient on both strategies and had similar mixed strategy preferences. ...
Metacognitive skills have been commonly associated with preparation for future learning in deductive domains. Many researchers have regarded strategy- and time-awareness as two metacognitive skills that address how and when to use a problem-solving strategy, respectively. It was shown that students who are both strategy-and time-aware (StrTime) outperformed their nonStrTime peers across deductive domains. In this work, students were trained on a logic tutor that supports a default forward-chaining (FC) and a backward-chaining (BC) strategy. We investigated the impact of mixing BC with FC on teaching strategy- and time-awareness for nonStrTime students. During the logic instruction, the experimental students (Exp) were provided with two BC worked examples and some problems in BC to practice how and when to use BC. Meanwhile, their control (Ctrl) and StrTime peers received no such intervention. Six weeks later, all students went through a probability tutor that only supports BC to evaluate whether the acquired metacognitive skills are transferred from logic. Our results show that on both tutors, Exp outperformed Ctrl and caught up with StrTime.
... When teaching a behavior chain, the literature suggests that both forward and backward chaining procedures are efficacious (Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Walls, Zane, & Ellis, 1981;Weiss, 1978), and there are no differences in the number of trials to mastery or child preference for either procedure (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). However, the instructor prompting the child through the remaining steps of the chain (i.e., guided completion of the nontraining steps) after teaching the training step with a forward chaining procedure can reduce the number of teaching trials to mastery (Bancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011). ...
... When teaching a behavior chain, the literature suggests that both forward and backward chaining procedures are efficacious (Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Walls, Zane, & Ellis, 1981;Weiss, 1978), and there are no differences in the number of trials to mastery or child preference for either procedure (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). However, the instructor prompting the child through the remaining steps of the chain (i.e., guided completion of the nontraining steps) after teaching the training step with a forward chaining procedure can reduce the number of teaching trials to mastery (Bancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011). ...
Caregivers of children with an autism spectrum disorder are often responsible for assisting their children to complete activities of daily living skills. Effective and efficient caregiver training methods are needed to train caregivers. The present study used two concurrent multiple-baseline across-participants designs to evaluate the effects of real-time feedback and behavioral skills training on training eight caregivers to implement teaching procedures for activities of daily living skills with their child. We assessed caregivers' accuracy and correct implementation of the six-component teaching procedure after they received either real-time feedback or behavioral skills training. Caregivers from both groups mastered and maintained correct implementation of the teaching procedures with their child. The overall results suggest that real-time feedback and behavioral skills training are efficacious to train caregivers to implement activities of daily living skills procedures with their children, and that real-time feedback may be an efficient alternative method to train caregivers.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-020-00513-z.
... Walls, Zane, and Ellis (1981) found similar outcomes between chaining methods in teaching individuals with mild to moderate intellectual delays to assemble a bicycle brake, a meat grinder, and a carburetor. Slocum and Tiger (2011) found similar efficacy with forward and backward chaining in teaching motor sequences to children. However, these authors have suggested that unique tasks may lend themselves to either forward or backward chaining; Olympic-style weightlifting may be one such task. ...
... Our results also contribute to the literature comparing forward and backward chaining (e.g., Hur & Osborne, 1993;McDonnell & McFarland, 1988;Rayner, 2011;Simek & O'Brien, 1988), which have yielded inconsistent results when comparing the efficacy of forward and backward chaining. Some response chains may, however, more readily lend themselves to either forward or backward chaining (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). In Slocum and Tiger, both forward and backward chaining resulted in participants mastering motor sequences that consisted of discrete movements in which, perhaps importantly, it was possible for a participant to engage in a correct movement later in the chain following an incorrect movement earlier in the chain. ...
The popularity of Olympic‐style weightlifting in fitness routines is growing, but participating in these exercises with improper technique places lifters at increased risk for injury. Fitness training professionals have developed multiple teaching strategies, but have not subjected these strategies to systematic evaluation, particularly with novice lifters. Two strategies recommended by professional training organizations are akin to forward and backward chaining, which have been shown effective at teaching other novel, complex behaviors. The present study compared these forward‐ and backward‐chaining‐like strategies to teach novice lifters “the clean” and “the snatch,” two Olympic weightlifting movements frequently incorporated into high‐intensity training programs. Participants performed lifts taught with forward chaining more accurately than lifts taught with backward chaining.
... Using the modified AbleNet® switch, we implemented backward-chaining (e.g., Hagopian et al., 1996;Slocum et al., 2011) to teach Ava how to use the switch by completing a three-step chain: (1) orient towards the cube, (2) find the Velcro, and (3) press the button (see Table 1 for a description of each step). Sessions began with music already playing, then the therapist began a trial by providing a verbal prompt to, "Change the music." ...
Self-injurious behavior is thought to be the product of interactions between deficits related to a primary disability (e.g., limited communication repertoires and adaptive skills) and learning experiences that reinforce problem behavior (e.g., consoling the child, terminating non-preferred activities, etc.). For these cases, functional communication training (FCT) may be prescribed to decrease challenging behavior and increase the client’s communicative repertoire. However, FCT procedures for individuals with multiple physical impairments may require considerable individualization and modifications. Unfortunately, the existing body of research related to the assessment and treatment of behavior of individuals with motor, visual, or other impairments is relatively limited. The purpose of this report is to demonstrate how practitioners can modify assessment and treatment procedures to decrease challenging behavior and promote independence when working with individuals with multiple impairments. We provide an example of effective skill acquisition and behavior reduction interventions for a young girl, Ava, presenting with multiple disabilities—including visual, hearing, and motor impairments. Consistent with the habilitative aims of applied behavior analysis, the intervention was effective at decreasing Ava’s challenging behavior and increasing her independent communication and adaptive behavior.
... As with the procedures to establish tokens as reinforcers, direct comparisons of the methods in a token reinforcement context unfortunately are lacking. Moreover, the evidence with non-token reinforcers is equivocal, with neither procedure clearly superior to the other (Lattal & Fernandez, 2022;Slocum & Tiger, 2011). ...
Token economies are among the oldest and most successful teaching programs in applied behavior analysis. Despite a rich history of basic and applied research on token systems, there remains a research‐to‐practice gap. Our aim in this paper is to bridge this gap between research and application, by providing evidence‐based recommendations and practical guidelines for application of token reinforcement methods. The recommendations in Part 1 are for building a token economy from the ground up, in learners without a history of token reinforcement, whereas those in Part 2 are concerned with existing token economies without regard to how they were established. Although token economies have proven generally effective across a range of settings and populations, they could be even more effective when based on the latest research and theory. Thus, apart from specific recommendations, we hope to show the benefits of an integrated evidence‐based approach to the application of token reinforcement principles in educational and clinical settings.
... More research on preference and efficacy outcomes with the same individuals will also allow researchers to directly examine how well preference predicts efficacy. This is an important avenue for research as studies have not always demonstrated correspondence between preference and efficacy outcomes (e.g., Leaf et al., 2010;Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Winborn et al., 2002), and research on response-reinforcer arrangements is no exception (e.g., Frank-Crawford et al., 2019;Joachim & Carroll, 2018;Kocher et al., 2015). These are but a few examples of more direct lines of systematic research; others certainly exist and should also be explored. ...
Discrete‐trial teaching (DTT) is an arrangement used in skill acquisition. The components that comprise DTT vary widely across applications, and previous reviews evaluating its efficacy have largely reported on DTT as part of a comprehensive intervention package. The purpose of this scoping review was twofold: to describe the component variations of DTT (descriptive analysis) and to evaluate the general efficacy of DTT in teaching new skills to individuals with disabilities (efficacy analysis). One hundred and thirty‐four studies were included in the descriptive analysis of DTT and 82 were included in the efficacy analysis. Results indicated that many of the components of DTT align well with best practice recommendations, including that reinforcers be delivered continuously and immediately following correct responses. Overall, DTT was efficacious in teaching new skills; however, there were limited evaluations of the maintenance, generality, and social validity of the findings. The outcomes are discussed in light of best practice recommendations and as a guide for future practice and research.
... Careful observation of someone engaging in the chain of behaviors is used to develop the task analysis. Three procedures are used to teach a chain of behaviors: forward chaining, backward chaining, and total task presentation (Hur & Osborne, 1993;Jameson, Walker, Utley, & Maughan, 2012;Noell et al., 2011;Slocum & Tiger, 2011;Spooner, Weber, & Spooner, 1983). ...
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the applied science and professional practice devoted to understanding and
changing human behavior. The characteristics of applied behavior analysis include (a) a focus on socially
important behavior; (b) demonstration of functional relationships between environmental events and behavior; (c)
clear description of procedures; (d) connection to basic behavioral principles; and (e) production of meaningful,
generalizable, and long-lasting changes in behavior. This chapter provides an overview of the field of ABA starting
with issues in assessment and research design, followed by a review of basic behavioral principles that form the
foundation of ABA procedures. Next, procedures to establish new behaviors are reviewed and the functional
approach to assessing and changing problem behavior is described.
... Forward chaining procedures involve teaching one stimulus-response component at a time, beginning with the first component and then chaining (combining) the next component once the previous component has been mastered (e.g., Shrestha et al., 2013;Slocum & Tiger, 2011). In the example of drinking from the water bottle, forward chaining would involve the use of prompting and fading to teach the first component (reaching for the water bottle in response to the water bottle on the table). ...
The term applied behavior analysis (ABA) was introduced by Baer et al. (1968) to describe the application of basic behavioral principles to understand and improve behavior. In their article, Baer et al. outlined a set of characteristics of ABA, which include (a) a focus on behavior that is socially significant, (b) clear demonstration of a functional relationship between behavior and its environment, (c) procedures that are clearly identified and described, (d) direct relation to the basic principles of behavior, (e) focus on socially meaningful behavior, and (f) enduring behavior change. Although ABA comprises a set of assessment and intervention procedures focusing on manipulation of environmental events to change behavior, ABA procedures are based on a set of basic behavioral principles that are also the foundation for the behavioral components of most of the other cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) procedures. ABA focuses on observable, measurable, and objectively defined behavior that may occur in excess or not frequently enough (behavioral deficit). Behavioral assessment is used to identify functional relationships between these behaviors and relevant stimuli to design interventions that help people modify their behavior. One important feature of ABA is the reliance on frequent data analysis to accurately assess changes in behavior and modify interventions as needed. Finally, ABA emphasizes a thorough understanding of recent environmental events to understand the causes of behavior. ABA has been used successfully to help individuals in all walks of life, including children and adults Handbook of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Overview and Approaches, edited by A. Wenzel
... For example, until you have gathered all relevant information about how the decision will affect all relevant parties, your ranking and weighing of information seems less likely to lead to the best outcome. That said, the temporally delayed nature of behaviors and consequences involved in ethical decision making is different than how behavior chains have been studied in laboratory settings (e.g., Baum, 2017;Cox, 2021;Slocum & Tiger, 2011). Future research will likely be needed to better understand the effects of temporal relations on behavior chains and thus determine what approach best provides a behavioral description of ethical decision making. ...
Human service practitioners from varying fields make ethical decisions daily. At some point during their careers, many behavior analysts may face ethical decisions outside the range of their previous education, training, and professional experiences. To help practitioners make better decisions, researchers have published ethical decision-making models; however, it is unknown the extent to which published models recommend similar behaviors. Thus, we systematically reviewed and analyzed ethical decision-making models from published peer-reviewed articles in behavior analysis and related allied health professions. We identified 55 ethical decision-making models across 60 peer-reviewed articles, seven primary professions (e.g., medicine, psychology), and 22 subfields (e.g., dentistry, family medicine). Through consensus-based analysis, we identified nine behaviors commonly recommended across the set of reviewed ethical decision-making models with almost all (n = 52) models arranging the recommended behaviors sequentially and less than half (n = 23) including a problem-solving approach. All nine ethical decision-making steps clustered around the ethical decision-making steps in the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts published by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (2020) suggesting broad professional consensus for the behaviors likely involved in ethical decision making.
... All three methods establish response chains, but there is little evidence in the basic EAB or ABA literature to categorically support one method over the others. Rather, the method used depends on both the nature of the responses involved and the complexity of the chain itself (for examples with human participants in applied settings, see McDonnell & McFarland, 1988;Moore & Quintero, 2019;Slocum & Tiger, 2011). ...
Some of the earliest applications outside the laboratory of principles derived from the experimental analysis of behavior (EAB), such as the pioneering work of Keller and Marian Breland, involved animals. This translational tradition continues to the present as EAB‐related behavior principles are applied with increasing frequency to behavior management and training practices with animals in nonlaboratory settings. Such translations, and those populations to which they are applied, benefit from a rigorous experimental analysis of practices that are promulgated in popular outlets. These translations both affirm the generality of those principles and serve as goads for laboratory and field research that can further articulate extant principles, develop new ones, and refine methods of application and assessment. This review considered several areas of basic EAB research and contemporary applied animal behavior (AAB) practices in relation to one another: (1) response establishment and maintenance, (2) response reduction and elimination, (3) chaining and conditioned reinforcement, and (4) discriminative stimulus control. Within each topic, a selection of processes and procedures in both EAB and AAB work were reviewed in relation to one another.
... Response chaining refers to teaching appropriate behavior and skills by breaking down the tasks into small discrete steps and training in a systematic and precise way (Medavarapu, Marella, Sangem & Kairam, 2019). A task is broken down into its component parts by using task analysis and then teaching each component individually (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). There are three ways to teach a skill by using this procedure and they are total task chaining, forward chaining and backward chaining (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). ...
The main goal of this paper is to determine the level of independence in performing daily activities in children and youth with cerebral palsy who are included in the regular education and rehabilitation program and to see their progress in relation to children and youth with cerebral palsy who are occasionally included or not included in the education and rehabilitation program. The research was conducted in the Center for Children with Multiple Disabilities "Koraci Nade (eng. Steps of Hope)" in Tuzla as well as in practice with the mobile team of the Centre. Total of 40 respondents were included. Respondents were divided into two groups: respondents who were included in the program and respondents who were occasionally or not at all included in the program. The results of the research indicate that the respondents who were included in the regular program of education and rehabilitation achieve better results in performing activities of everyday life in relation to the respondents who are occasionally or not at all included in the program. Key words: cerebral palsy, motor functioning, daily life activities, treatment
... Response chaining refers to teaching appropriate behavior and skills by breaking down the tasks into small discrete steps and training in a systematic and precise way (Medavarapu, Marella, Sangem & Kairam, 2019). A task is broken down into its component parts by using task analysis and then teaching each component individually (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). There are three ways to teach a skill by using this procedure and they are total task chaining, forward chaining and backward chaining (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). ...
Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have difficulties in independent performance of everyday tasks, therefore the aim of this study was to teach a child with ASD to tie shoelaces by using a total task chaining procedure.
The participant was a ten year old boy diagnosed with ASD and the procedure used was total task chaining. The task analysis was divided into 13 steps and the teaching procedure was divided into two phases. Independent performance and generalization probes were also conducted.
Total task chaining procedure was proven to be successful as a independence skills teaching tool, as the child mastered this skill in only 15 sessions with 100% success. These results are particularly significant in light of the demonstration of generalization by the participant, as he will be able to use the skill in present and future.
... Response chaining refers to teaching appropriate behavior and skills by breaking down the tasks into small discrete steps and training in a systematic and precise way (Medavarapu, Marella, Sangem & Kairam, 2019). A task is broken down into its component parts by using task analysis and then teaching each component individually (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). There are three ways to teach a skill by using this procedure and they are total task chaining, forward chaining and backward chaining (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). ...
Parents of children with disabilities are eligible to apply for additional services to aid their
child in the education process. Parents frequently use the service of shadow teachers, but they often end up unsatisfied with the service and change shadow teachers repeatedly. The aim of this research is to a) examine shadow teachers' beliefs about their obligations; b) determine what are their obligations; c) determine what they believe is their level of proficiency in different areas of shadow teaching position and d) determine the discrepancy between what shadow teachers believe their job should be and what job obligations they were expected to do while shadowing a child. The instrument used was the survey distributed by Manansala & Dizon (2008), it was translated into Serbian language and modified. The sample consisted of 36 students of Faculty for Special education who currently work or have worked in the past as a shadow teacher.
Since the sample consisted of shadow teachers who are also students of special education, it is expected that most of the sample believe that they are very proficient in all job areas. There was a huge discrepancy between what they believe is their job obligation and what their job responsibilities are in all five areas. Future research implications and study limitations were discussed.
... Operants are functionally defined in part by consequences (Davison & Nevin, 1999;Herrnstein, 1970;Rachlin, 2017;Shimp, 2020;Skinner, 1945Skinner, , 1951Skinner, , 1969. Some consequences can be produced by a single environmental alteration, but some consequences require multiple environmental alterations produced by what can be analyzed in terms of multiple responses (e.g., Doughty & Lattal, 2001;Slocum & Tiger, 2011). Consequences amount to particular environmental alterations that can be mechanical or stimulatory in nature (Kantor, 1953;Skinner, 1957). ...
Behavior scientists working within the metacontingency enterprise
have constructed a robust line of investigatory procedures, methods,
and analyses primarily built on theoretical perspectives promoted by
Sigrid Glenn and B. F. Skinner. The unit of analysis in metacontingency
studies is the “culturant”, a term referring to interlocking behavioral
contingencies and aggregate products seen as an inseparable unit
selected by selecting events or conditions. We argue that the metacontingency may be considered a class of molar contingencies insofar as selecting events may be considered to have reinforcing properties (i.e., they constitute a pattern of events that organizes correlated patterns of operant events through a contingency). The purpose of this paper is to present a molar reconceptualization of the metacontingency model in terms of coordinated operant contingencies and, in doing so, provide a constructive appreciation of how a molar framework is a potentially important addition to understanding cultural events for the metacontingency enterprise. Using chess games as an ongoing example, affordances of a molar framework will be identified and ways of advancing cultural research in behavior analysis will be described.
Resumen Los científicos de la conducta que trabajan en la empresa de la metacon-tingencia han construido una sólida línea de procedimientos, métodos y análisis de investigación basados principalmente en las perspectivas teóricas promovidas por Sigrid Glenn y B. F. Skinner. La unidad de análisis en los estudios de metacontingencia es el "culturant", un tér-mino que se refiere a las contingencias conductuales entrelazadas y a los productos agregados, vistos como una unidad inseparable selec-cionada por eventos o condiciones selectoras. Argumentamos que la metacontingencia puede ser considerada como una clase de contin-gencias molares en la medida en que se puede considerar que los even-tos selectores tienen propiedades reforzantes (es decir, constituyen un 1.
http://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/rmac/article/view/81164
... ). Moreover, the recent bibliographic production has explored other relevant variables to this theme (see, for example,Slocum, & Tiger, 2011; Grauben AssisBancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011;Batra, & Batra, 2006;Valentino, Conine, Delfs, & Furlow, 2015;Albert, Carbone, Murray, Hagerty, & Sweeney-Kerwin, ...
... Forward-and backward-chaining are techniques often applied to the teaching of multistep tasks. Both methods have been found to be effective, and choice is governed by the context, activity and preference of the adult and child (Slocum and Tiger, 2011). Such commentary can be conversational in nature with a back-and-forth element as the adult leaves pauses for the child to respond; however, there should be no requirement or prompts for children to copy words or make any sort of response. ...
... Maintenance is necessary to assess durability of skills acquired using procedural variations of behavior chains. Opportunities to indicate preference has the potential to enhance social validity and client choice of instructional methodology (e.g., Slocum & Tiger, 2011). Lastly, assessing social significance with those who work with adults with developmental disabilities is important for practitioner adoption of procedures. ...
Backward chains are widely used to teach complex skills to individuals with developmental disabilities. Implementation of chaining procedures may vary regarding untaught steps and there is little to guide practitioners in the selection of chaining procedures. Moreover, there is a dearth of research evaluating effectiveness and efficiency of procedural variations of behavior chains. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research by evaluating the effectiveness, efficiency, and preference for four procedural variations (i.e., teacher‐completion, participant‐completion, no‐completion, and a control condition) of backward chains across vocational tasks with adults with developmental disabilities. Although procedural variations effectively established vocational skills, the participant‐completion procedure (in which the instructor implemented a least‐to‐most prompt hierarchy during all untrained steps in the chain) was the most efficacious backward chaining procedural variation and efficient in terms of sessions to mastery. The no‐completion procedure (in which the instructor completed all untrained steps in the chain out of view of the participant) was least efficient across trials, sessions, errors, and total duration to mastery. One participant preferred the no‐completion condition while the other two participants showed an initial preference for the teacher‐completion condition that changed to preference for the no‐completion condition. Vocational skills maintained 1‐ and 4‐weeks postmastery. Stakeholders rated goals, procedures, and outcomes as socially valid.
... prompt type) that they would prefer to be taught with. Concurrent-chains preference assessments have been employed to assess preference across a range of skill acquisition procedures, including picture activity schedules (Giles & Markham, 2017), chaining procedures (Slocum & Tiger, 2013), video versus invivo modelling (Geiger, LeBlanc, Dillon, & Bates, 2013), and preferred prompt type during DTI (Markham et al., 2018). ...
Prompt fading methods are widely used to teach conditional discriminations to learners with developmental disabilities. To date, very little research has investigated the relative effectiveness of the various prompt fading methods described in the literature. Furthermore, learner preference for these instructional tactics has rarely been evaluated. The present study compared the relative effectiveness of three prompt fading methods (most-to-least with an embedded constant time delay, least-to-most, and progressive time-delay) to a control condition. Three boys with autism participated in the study. Two met mastery during the prompt fading assessment (one in progressive time-delay, and one in least-to-most prompting). In a subsequent concurrent chains preference assessment, both participants indicated a preference for the fading method that had been most effective. Considerations for practitioners when selecting prompt fading methods as well as procedural parameters warranting further investigation are discussed.
... The parent's high-preference (HP) prompting procedure was identified once the parent selected one procedure six more times than any other procedure (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). Sessions continued until we identified the HP procedure, or the parent completed 20 choice sessions with no preference (Luczynski & Hanley, 2009). ...
Parent participation in intervention can enhance intervention efficacy and promote generalization of skills across settings. Thus, parents should be trained to implement behavioral interventions. The purpose of the current investigation was to evaluate parent preference for and acceptability of 3 commonly used prompting procedures. We trained parents of children with disabilities to use 3 empirically validated prompting strategies (i.e., least‐to‐most, most‐to‐least, and a progressive‐prompt delay). Once the parent reached the mastery criteria with each prompting procedure, we evaluated his/her preference for each of the procedures using a concurrent‐chains arrangement. We also measured treatment acceptability of all procedures throughout the study. All participants met the mastery criteria for each of the prompting procedures and showed a preference for least‐to‐most prompting. Results suggest parents' acceptability of procedures prior to training were different than posttraining/post‐child practice. In addition, acceptability rating scores obtained at the end of the investigation corresponded to preference of intervention during the concurrent‐chains arrangement. The results demonstrate the benefits of objective measures for studying preference for behavioral, skill‐acquisition procedures.
... Bancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011;Chazin, Bartelmay, Lambert, & Houchins-Juarez, 2017;Kuhn, Lerman, Vorndran, & Addison, 2006;Schuster, Gast, Wolery, & Guiltinan, 1988), backward chaining (e.g., Hagopian, Farrell, & Amari, 1996;Jerome, Frantino, & Sturmey, 2007), or totaltask chaining (e.g., Kayser, Billingsley, & Neel, 1986;McDonnell & McFarland, 1988). Slocum and Tiger (2011) found little difference in the speed of acquisition using forward and backward chaining, and some investigators have found superior effects of total-task chaining over forward and backward chaining (Griffen, Wolery, & Schuster, 1992;Kayser et al., 1986;McDonnell & McFarland, 1988). ...
We compared the effects of the effects of self‐instructions in the form of prose or song lyrics in the acquisition of gross motor tasks in 4 third‐grade children. We taught participants 4 pairs of gross motor tasks, with one task in each pair taught with prose self‐instructions and the other taught with song lyric self‐instructions. Both self‐instruction procedures were effective for teaching tasks; however, acquisition was quicker with song lyric self‐instruction for 4 task pairs, acquisition was quicker with prose self‐instruction for 3 task pairs; and similar for 1 task pair. Participants were then able to select their preferred method of self‐instruction for a novel, applied skill. Two participants selected song‐lyric self‐instructions and 2 participants selected prose self‐instructions.
... No encadeamento para trás, a ordem é inversa, começando então da última resposta da cadeia, indo "para trás" até a primeira resposta. Não há diferenças quanto a eficiência ou facilidade de aquisição com relação ao treino para trás ou para frente (Slocum & Tiger, 2011). ...
Livro completo para download.
Sumário da obra:
1 Criatividade: definições e medidas;
2 Abordagens psicológicas da criatividade; 3 Análise do comportamento e criatividade
; 4 A criatividade presente nos processos básicos
; 5 A construção gradual de novos comportamentos
; 6 Comportamentos emergentes
; 7 Inovação, cultura, ética e educação
... In a behavioral chain, each discrete response produces a stimulus change which then serves as a reinforcer for the response that produced it and serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next response in the chain (Cooper et al., 2007). Chaining procedures have been used to teach shoe tying for individuals with ASD (Rayner, 2011), a sequence of dance moves (Slocum & Tiger, 2011), janitorial skills for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Cuvo, Leaf, & Barakove, 1978), adding with a calculator and accessing a computer program (Werts, Caldwell, & Wolery, 1996), and swallowing liquids (Hagopian, Farrell, & Amari, 1996), among many others. ...
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) refers to a systematic approach of understanding behavior. Deeply rooted in the early work of Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner on respondent and operant conditioning, ABA uses scientific observations and principles of behavior to improve and change behaviors of social interest. As a practice, ABA refers to the application of behavior analytic principles to improve socially important behaviors and is especially important in the field of developmental disabilities. Each year, more individuals with developmental disabilities, especially autism spectrum disorder, have some form of ABA therapy implemented into their treatment plans. This chapter provides an overview of the history, principles, and applications of applied behavior analysis in the developmental disabilities population.
... ). Moreover, the recent bibliographic production has explored other relevant variables to this theme (see, for example,Slocum, & Tiger, 2011; Grauben AssisBancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011;Batra, & Batra, 2006;Valentino, Conine, Delfs, & Furlow, 2015;Albert, Carbone, Murray, Hagerty, & Sweeney-Kerwin, ...
... ). Moreover, the recent bibliographic production has explored other relevant variables to this theme (see, for example,Slocum, & Tiger, 2011; Grauben AssisBancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011;Batra, & Batra, 2006;Valentino, Conine, Delfs, & Furlow, 2015;Albert, Carbone, Murray, Hagerty, & Sweeney-Kerwin, ...
Brazil has the largest number of undergraduate professional courses in Psychology in the world, so far more than 220. Of those, most offer Behavior Analysis courses, some only introductory disciplines, others a full training including practical work in the field. About 30 universities offer graduate courses, both basic and applied, with 15 of them leading to the PhD. This volume of activity, production and spreading of knowledge, has been going on for 55 years, since Professor Fred S. Keller went to the University of São Paulo as a Fulbright Scholar in 1961. Everything considered, Brazil is second only to the United States of America in both number of researchers and of publications on Behavior Analysis.
All that notwithstanding, Brazilians are underrepresented in citations. That is understandable when we publish in Portuguese. Only people in Portugal (Europe), Angola, Mozambique, Cabo Verde (Africa), Timor East, Goa and Macau (Asia) can read what we publish in our common language (for the Asians, usually their second language). But Brazilians are also underrepresented even when publishing in English in major Behavior Analysis periodicals and books published in the US. Even Brazilian authors publishing there undercite Brazilian researchers.
Citing is behavior, under the influence of all variables that influence choice. Having no way of directly control the environment of authors, we can at least enrich that environment. Trends in Behavior Analysis, Volume 1.01 is here offered online, for download, as an opportunity to make the Brazilian production available internationally.
... ). Moreover, the recent bibliographic production has explored other relevant variables to this theme (see, for example,Slocum, & Tiger, 2011; Grauben AssisBancroft, Weiss, Libby, & Ahearn, 2011;Batra, & Batra, 2006;Valentino, Conine, Delfs, & Furlow, 2015;Albert, Carbone, Murray, Hagerty, & Sweeney-Kerwin, ...
The opinions and values of patients and clients are critical data for healthcare practitioners to evaluate the quality of services provided. In behaviour analysis, social validity is one of, if not the most important element in evaluating treatment efficacy and effectiveness. Montrose Wolf's seminal paper offered that the work of a behaviour analyst should be validated on three criteria: (1) social significance of the goals, (2) social appropriateness of the procedures, and (3) the social importance of the effects (Wolf in J Appl Behav Anal 11:203–214, 1978). This chapter discusses the value of social validity and the effects of systemic ableism that limit a practitioner’s ability to provide quality care that is both meaningful and individualized for the client.
This entry defines the principle of reinforcement and provides an overview of the process by which it strengthens behavior. The various types of reinforcement, including positive and negative reinforcement, automatic and social reinforcement, and unconditioned and conditioned reinforcement, are discussed. Various factors that influence the efficacy of reinforcement—motivating operations, as well as the immediacy, quality, magnitude, and schedule of reinforcement—are explored. Several procedures that involve reinforcement for creating new behavior (i.e., shaping and chaining) are explored. Finally, the entry provides a brief overview of the role of reinforcement in increasing both appropriate and inappropriate behavior in children.
Children with moderate intellectual disabilities experiencing obstacles in academics, reading, and arithmetic, but can be educated to take care of themselves. One of the important adaptive behaviors for individuals to master is dressing skills and these skills can be improved by modifying behavior. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of the application of the chaining technique in improving dressing skills in children with moderate mental retardation. The sampling technique in this study used purposive sampling with the criteria of children aged 6-11 years, experiencing problems in intellectual function in the IQ range of 35-55 (Binet's scale), inhibited in adaptive function, and unable to dress independently. Data collection techniques in this study used observation and interviews. The results indicate that there is a change in the level of dress skills in children with intellectual disabilities in the moderate category before and after applying the chaining technique.
Although behavior-analytic procedures are an empirically supported treatment that has the potential to mitigate core and associated features of autism spectrum disorder, it is important to note that the principles underlying this therapeutic approach are similarly effective when applied to other populations, settings, and behaviors. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the (a) origins and conceptual basis of applied behavior analysis, (b) defining characteristics of a behavior-analytic approach, and (c) fundamental behavior-change elements used by applied behavior analysts. Our overview includes demonstrations of how the science of behavior analysis has been applied to address various behavioral concerns.
Skill acquisition programs commonly utilize errorless learning procedures. Despite the popularity of these procedures, errors may still be emitted during early stages of acquisition and methods to remediate errors may facilitate the successful transfer of stimulus control. As a result, error-correction procedures are ubiquitous in discrimination training programs in applied settings and numerous strategies have been described in the extant literature. These strategies commonly include components intended to (a) reduce the probability that errors are emitted in the future and (b) prompt the target response. This chapter categorizes error-correction procedures described in the extant literature into four main groupings. These procedures are then evaluated based on effectiveness, efficiency, intrusiveness, and learners’ preference. In addition, methods to identify individualized error-correction procedures and future areas of research are described. Finally, limitations of this literature and consideration of idiosyncratic findings across studies are offered so that they may inform research and practice in behavior analysis.KeywordsDiscrimination trainingError-correction proceduresSkill acquisitionStimulus control
Behavior chains describe a situation in which the completion of several responses linked together results in a terminal reinforcer. The stimulus change following each response serves as a conditioned reinforcer for completion of that response and as a discriminative stimulus to engage in the next response in the chain. In this chapter, you will introduce your supervisees to behavior chains, task analyses, and strategies for establishing behavior chains. During the group supervision meeting, you will review the strategies for creating a task analysis and the different chaining methods. In addition, your supervisees will practice creating a task analysis and graphing chaining data. During the individual supervision meeting, you and your supervisee will review the task analysis they developed and determine an appropriate chaining method and procedures for their client. During the final supervision meeting, you will instruct your supervisee to use the agreed upon chaining procedures with their client. During a second individual meeting without a client, you will review your supervisee’s graphed data and discuss next steps for chaining.KeywordsBehavior chainsTask analysisBackward chainingForward chainingTotal task presentation
Metacognitive skills have been commonly associated with preparation for future learning in deductive domains. Many researchers have regarded strategy- and time-awareness as two metacognitive skills that address how and when to use a problem-solving strategy, respectively. It was shown that students who are both strategy-and time-aware (StrTime) outperformed their nonStrTime peers across deductive domains. In this work, students were trained on a logic tutor that supports a default forward-chaining (FC) and a backward-chaining (BC) strategy. We investigated the impact of mixing BC with FC on teaching strategy- and time-awareness for nonStrTime students. During the logic instruction, the experimental students (Exp) were provided with two BC worked examples and some problems in BC to practice how and when to use BC. Meanwhile, their control (Ctrl) and StrTime peers received no such intervention. Six weeks later, all students went through a probability tutor that only supports BC to evaluate whether the acquired metacognitive skills are transferred from logic. Our results show that on both tutors, Exp outperformed Ctrl and caught up with StrTime.
Many of the other chapters in this book covered specific strategies rooted in applied behavior analysis (e.g., self-management, antecedent strategies) that have been used to address social skills deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This chapter covers three additional strategies that have been used for this purpose but did not warrant an entire chapter by themselves. Differential reinforcement, chaining, and group contingencies are powerful behavior change strategies on their own but historically are not used frequently to modify social behavior, instead focusing on adaptive behavior, challenging behavior, or academic behavior. What follows is a description of those strategies (i.e., differential reinforcement, chaining, and group contingencies) and a review of their evidence base to target social skills. Additionally, we have included a practical case example of each to illustrate how these strategies have been used to address performance and acquisition deficits related to learners’ social behaviors.
One of the most widely known applications of behavior analysis is through early intervention services for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this chapter, we begin with a brief history of early intervention services over the past 30 years and how early behavior analysts changed the trajectory for children with ASD. Following the success of these early and intensive treatments, applied behavior analysis therapy became one of the most well-researched and supported interventions for children with ASD. This chapter provides an overview of the typical process of early intervention service provision from initial referral and intake to transition and termination of services. Differences in teaching methodologies, such as discrete trial training versus natural environment teaching, as well as factors to consider when selecting treatment strategies are also discussed. In addition, this chapter describes the best practices in clinical supervision and training for professionals in the field and alerts the reader to specific ethical codes throughout the chapter referencing the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s Professional and Ethical Compliance Code. While early intervention is one of the more established practices in the field of behavior analysis, we still have a lot to learn in order to make our treatments the most meaningful for our clients and society.
A continuum of supports which have emerged following deinstitutionalization have created opportunities for behavior analysts to provide clinical services and design environments for staff and those served by them. Relatively recent advocacy efforts have created a climate which is deeply concerned with serving individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, and those who support them, in ways which earnestly approach the question of the intended outcome of services. Answering this question requires the navigation of a complex network of risks and values-based considerations. One way to make these decisions more effective may be through careful direct assessment of behavior, both verbal and nonverbal. While behavior reduction is still an area which may create inroads for behavior analysts, learning targets may also provide opportunities for individuals versed in functional assessment, foundational learning principles, and idiographic data analysis to impact the lives of unique and diverse individuals.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide executive orders closing schools, many trainees completing their supervised independent fieldwork in educational settings lost the ability to accrue hours linked to restricted activities of a therapeutic and instructional nature with students (i.e., clients). Given the impact on trainees of the pandemic restrictions, we present 50 suggestions for trainees in school settings to continue to accrue hours for both restricted and unrestricted activities throughout the course of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Video-Based Interventions (VBIs) are those that make use of pre-recorded video footage to assist in the acquisition of a variety of skills and behaviours. This study examined one type of VBI, video prompting, and its effectiveness when combined with backward chaining. Prior research suggests that both VBIs and backward chaining are effective intervention methods for skill acquisition. Using a single-subject multiple baseline design, this experiment expands the current literature by thoroughlyexamining backward chaining and a VBI for the acquisition of the shoe-tying behavior in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The results obtained from this study support prior research that VBIs are effective and their effectiveness is influenced by a number of factors. We also found that majority of the participants were able to retain their newly acquired behaviors one week after achieving mastery.
The development of effective training programs for persons with profound mental retardation remains one of the greatest challenges for behavior analysts working in the field of developmental disabilities. One significant advancement for this population has been the reinforcer assessment procedure developed by Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, and Page (1985), which involves repeatedly presenting a variety of stimuli to the client and then measuring approach behaviors to differentiate preferred from nonpreferred stimuli. One potential limitation of this procedure is that some clients consistently approach most or all of the stimuli on each presentation, making it difficult to differentiate among these stimuli. In this study, we used a concurrent operants paradigm to compare the Pace et al. (1985) procedure with a modified procedure wherein clients were presented with two stimuli simultaneously and were given access only to the first stimulus approached. The results revealed that this forced-choice stimulus preference assessment resulted in greater differentiation among stimuli and better predicted which stimuli would result in higher levels of responding when presented contingently in a concurrent operants paradigm.
To evaluate the effects of environmental enrichment on stereotypic self-injurious behavior (SIB), we conducted an assessment of preference for manipulating alternative stimuli rather than engaging in SIB. First, for each of 3 participants, a functional analysis of SIB was conducted in Phase 1. Participants were selected for Phase 2 if the functional analysis showed that SIB persisted in the absence of social consequences. In Phase 2, a preference assessment was conducted in which participants were observed manipulating preferred stimuli in a free-operant format. A measure was taken of time spent manipulating each stimulus and time spent engaging in SIB. In Phase 3, environmental enrichment was evaluated using stimuli that were preferred over the target response, and alternative treatments were evaluated in the event of environmental enrichment failure. Results suggested that the free-operant preference assessment (a) predicted the efficacy or inefficacy of an environmental enrichment procedure and (b) suggested possible treatment alternatives when environmental enrichment was ineffective. Collectively, the results may provide a basis for interpreting the idiosyncratic effects of environmental enrichment and a rationale for treatment selection when behavioral function is unknown.
There is a need for practical methods of reinforcer assessment that systematically track ongoing changes in clients' preferences. In this study, the effects of a time-efficient reinforcer assessment package were evaluated in a multiple baseline across 3 preschoolers with autism, comparing individualized item selections by experienced teachers with children's presession preferences for items of various sensory qualities. Systematic assessment of children's reinforcers for correct responding virtually eliminated nontargeted maladaptive behaviors, as well as yielding expected improvements in accuracy. The powerful side-effects of potent reinforcers underline the importance of increased attention to reinforcer assessment in research and practice.
The effectiveness of a 5-s constant time-delay procedure to teach three chained food preparation behaviors to four moderately retarded adolescent students was evaluated within a multiple probe design across behaviors. Results indicate that the procedure was effective in teaching all four students to make a sandwich, boil a boil-in-bag item, and bake canned biscuits. The skills maintained with at least 85% accuracy over a 3-month period. Training generalized from the school to the home setting for the 2 subjects that completed generalization probe sessions. The percentage of errors across all skills and students was less than 9%.
This study demonstrates the acquisition and generalization of dart skills by three severely multihandicapped adults. The program took place in a community adult development center. By identifying the motor responses required to play darts, a 7-step task analysis was generated to facilitate instruction. Systematic training procedures using applied behavior analysis were implemented. A combination multiple baseline across subjects and changing criterion design was used. The results indicated that not only could this supposedly difficult skill be acquired by severely multihandicapped individuals, but that they could also generalize to other appropriate environments. Acquisition of this skill could help optimize their use of free time for leisure pursuits in a variety of settings.
In this study, we report on a 12-year-old boy with autism, mental retardation, and a history of severe gastrointestinal problems who presented with total liquid and food refusal. Backward chaining was used to shape drinking from a cup, and a fading procedure was used to increase the quantity of water he was required to drink.
Functional communication training (FCT) and noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) are commonly prescribed treatments that are based on the results of a functional analysis. Both treatments involve delivery of the reinforcer that is responsible for the maintenance of destructive behavior. One major difference between the two treatment procedures is that client responding determines reinforcement delivery with FCT (e.g., reinforcement of communication is delivered on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule) but not with NCR (e.g., reinforcement is delivered on a fixed-time 30-s schedule). In the current investigation, FCT and NCR were equally effective in reducing 2 participants' destructive behavior that was sensitive to attention as reinforcement. After the treatment analysis, the participants' relative preference for each treatment was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chains procedure. Both participants demonstrated a preference for the FCT procedure. The results are discussed in terms of treatment efficacy and preference for control over when reinforcement is delivered. In addition, a method is demonstrated in which clients with developmental disabilities can participate in selecting treatments that are designed to reduce their destructive behavior.
Whole task training, forward chaining, and backward chaining techniques were compared in teaching two different 120-step sequences of behavior to college students. In Exp. 1 participants learned a sequence that began with easy movements, progressed through more difficult movements, and ended with easy movements. Whole task training resulted in more errors than either forward or backward chaining. Differences were found in the location of errors. Both whole task training and forward chaining resulted in fewer errors at the beginning of the sequence and backward chaining resulted in fewer errors at the end of the sequence. Because the results of Exp. 1 may have been affected by the increased difficulty of the middle of the sequence, Exp. 2 was undertaken using a sequence of behavior where all segments were of equal difficulty. Whole task training and forward chaining resulted in fewer errors than backward chaining. The location of errors was similar to that found in Exp. 1.
The effects of two instructional strategies were compared in a combined, multiple baseline-crossover design. Total task, single trial instruction and backward chaining, multiple trials instruction were used in a program designed to teach eight children with severe handicaps how to make a snack. Students' behaviors were assessed in both training and generalization settings. Total task, single trial instruction resulted in clearly superior acquisition of independent steps in the training setting for three of the eight students and less substantial effects for two students. For three students, differences between the two methods were negligible or nonexistent in terms of independent steps. In all cases, instructional time was substantially less for total task, single trial instruction than for backward chaining, multiple trials instruction. Findings related to generalization were mixed. Implications and limitations are discussed and issues for future research are delineated.
Although backward chaining has been found superior to whole-task training, the effect might depend on the ordering of difficult and easy segments of the task, and forward chaining requires investigation. The experiment uses a musical keyboard task to test these possibilities, counterbalancing difficulty order with direction of chaining in a comparison with whole training. Performance was scored for melodic errors and for rhythmic accuracy and consistency. Both of the part-task methods proved superior to the whole method during training trials, in criterion trials on the whole task, and during retention after one week. However, forward chaining conferred a greater advantage than backward chaining on most measures. The results weaken several explanations for the superiority of backward chaining but confirm the advantages of segmentation methods in part-task training.
The effects of training by whole task, forward chaining, and backward chaining methods were examined in teaching vocational rehabilitation clients the construction of three assembly tasks. Clients learned to assemble a bicycle brake, a meat grinder, and a carburetor on three successive days by the three training methods in a counterbalanced design. The percentage of responses that were errors was, on the average, more than twice as great for subjects in the whole task method as for subjects in either chaining method (which did not differ). Total time to criterion did not differ among chaining and whole methods. Slower learning subjects benefited substantially from the systematic chaining procedures.
Compared the efficiency between 2 pairs of training methods for the retarded: (a) backward chaining preguidance (working in a backward order and using prompts) vs backward chaining postguidance (working in a backward order and using feedback only) and (b) whole-preguidance (working in a forward order from start to finish and using prompts) vs whole-postguidance (working in a forward order from start to finish and using feedback only). Twelve moderately and severely retarded adults (19–45 yrs old) were taught to assemble 4 9-part assemblies—a carburetor, bicycle brake, dishwasher pump, and lawn mower engine. Results indicate that preguidance procedures were superior to postguidance in terms of total training time and total errors. The trend favoring preguidance was evident for both backward chaining and whole task and for the moderately and severely retarded Ss. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The adoption of effective behavioral interventions and teaching strategies for young children is largely influenced by the extent to which stakeholders find the procedures appropriate and the effects important. Stakeholder values have been described by measures of social validity in applied behavior analysis, and these measures have been a part of behavior-analytic research and practice since their important characteristics were described in the late 1970s. The typically subjective nature of the social validation process appears, however, to have marginalized children and other usual recipients of behavior-change procedures (i.e., individuals with autism or intellectual disabilities) from social validation processes. Therefore, the importance of including recipients of behavior-change procedures in the social validation process and methods for doing so are described in this paper.
"Department of Special Education." Thesis (Ph. D.)--Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1985. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [49]-52).
The manner in which teachers mediate children's learning varies across early childhood classrooms. In this study, we used a multielement design to evaluate the efficacy of three commonly implemented strategies that varied in teacher directedness for teaching color- and object-name relations. Strategy 1 consisted of brief exposure to the target relations followed by an exclusively child-led play period in which correct responses were praised. Strategy 2 was similar except that teachers prompted the children to vocalize relations and corrected errors via model prompts. Strategy 3 incorporated the same procedures as Strategy 2 except that a brief period of teacher-initiated trials was arranged; these trials involved the use of prompt delay between questions and prompts, and correct responses resulted in tokens and back-up activity reinforcers. Children's preferences for the different teaching strategies were also directly assessed. Strategy 3 was most effective in promoting the acquisition and generalization of the color- and object-name relations and was also most preferred by the majority of children, Strategy 1 was the least effective, and Strategy 2 was typically the least preferred. Implications for the design of early educational environments based on evidence-based values are discussed.
This study compared the relative efficiency of forward and concurrent chaining strategies in teaching the use of a commercial washing machine and laundry soap dispenser to four high school students with severe handicaps. Acquisition and maintenance of the laundromat skills were assessed through a multielement, alternating treatment within subject design. Results indicated that the concurrent chaining strategy was more efficient than forward chaining in facilitating acquisition of the activities. Four week and eight week follow-up probes indicated that concurrent chaining resulted in better maintenance of the activities. The implications of these results for teaching community activities and future research in building complex chains are discussed.
Benefits have been reported for certain institutionalized populations when mealtimes are arranged under normal, family-style conditions. In this study, we evaluated a program for teaching family-style mealtime skills to institutionalized persons with skill deficits greater than those targeted in previous research--the profoundly retarded. Results showed that the program, involving forward chaining with a less-to-more intrusive prompting sequence and contingent reinforcement, successfully taught four profoundly retarded persons several family-style skills. Also, systematic measures supported the durability of the skills, social validity of the behavior changes, acceptance of the program by staff trainers, and no detrimental changes in health-related variables associated with food consumption. However, results also indicated that beneficial corollary changes (e.g., increased peer communication) previously reported with higher skilled populations did not occur. These results suggest that with more seriously handicapped populations, multiple changes should not be assumed when normalizing institutional conditions; rather, specific skill training will probably be necessary.
The effects of choosing academic assignments on the undesirable behaviors manifested by a second-grade student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were analyzed. This study extended Dunlap et al.'s (1994) research on choice making as a form of antecedent control. A reversal design showed that undesirable behaviors decreased when the student was given a choice of academic assignments.
Whole task training, forward chaining, and backward chaining techniques were compared in teaching two different 120-step sequences of behavior to college students. In Exp. 1 participants learned a sequence that began with easy movements, progressed through more difficult movements, and ended with easy movements. Whole task training resulted in more errors than either forward or backward chaining. Differences were found in the location of errors. Both whole task training and forward chaining resulted in fewer errors at the beginning of the sequence and backward chaining resulted in fewer errors at the end of the sequence. Because the results of Exp. 1 may have been affected by the increased difficulty of the middle of the sequence, Exp. 2 was undertaken using a sequence of behavior where all segments were of equal difficulty. Whole task training and forward chaining resulted in fewer errors than backward chaining. The location of errors was similar to that found in Exp. 1.
We compared the effects of direct and indirect reinforcement contingencies on the performance of 6 individuals with profound developmental disabilities. Under both contingencies, completion of identical tasks (opening one of several types of containers) produced access to identical reinforcers. Under the direct contingency, the reinforcer was placed inside the container to be opened; under the indirect contingency, the therapist held the reinforcer and delivered it to the participant upon task completion. One participant immediately performed the task at 100% accuracy under both contingencies. Three participants showed either more immediate or larger improvements in performance under the direct contingency. The remaining 2 participants showed improved performance only under the direct reinforcement contingency. Data taken on the occurrence of "irrelevant" behaviors under the indirect contingency (e.g., reaching for the reinforcer instead of performing the task) provided some evidence that these behaviors may have interfered with task performance and that their occurrence was a function of differential stimulus control.
Ten university students each learned four separate six-link response chains, two forward and two backward. All 10 subjects made fewer errors in the forward procedure. It was concluded that the forward procedure is superior because each link of the response chain is acquired by direct reinforcement.
Multiple schedules of reinforcement have been used to teach children to recruit attention only when it is available, thereby minimizing disruptive requesting during instructional activities. This procedure involves alternating periods of continuous reinforcement (CRF) with periods of extinction and correlating each period with a distinct and continuous discriminative stimulus. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of and children's preferences for multiple schedules in which (a) two different stimuli, one correlated with reinforcement (S+) and another correlated with extinction (S-), were presented; (b) only an S+ was presented (i.e., no stimulus was correlated with extinction), and (c) neither an S+ nor an S- was presented (i.e., a mixed schedule). S+/S- and S+ arrangements were similarly effective for 7 children, but 3 preferred the S+/S- condition and 4 preferred the S+ condition. Correlational analyses suggested that children who responded more effectively given the S- (discrimination indexes were relatively high) preferred the S+/S- condition, whereas children who responded less effectively given the S- preferred the S+ condition. The implications of these findings for arranging multiple schedules for social responses are discussed.
An important area in the learning and development of individuals with disabilities is the acquisition of independent, age-appropriate leisure skills. Three adults with autism and mental retardation were taught to access specific Internet sites using backward chaining and most-to-least intrusive prompting. The number of independent steps completed in the task analysis increased following training.
Preschool teachers rely on several strategies for motivating children to participate in learning activities. In the current study, we evaluated the effectiveness of and preference for three teaching contexts in which embedded, sequential, or no programmed reinforcement was arranged. The embedded context included highly preferred teaching materials, the sequential context included highly preferred edible items for correct responding, and a control context included neither. In addition, an exclusively play-oriented activity was included as a fourth option to determine if one of the direct teaching contexts could compete with a relatively unstructured and exclusively child-led activity. All participants preferred the sequential context (use of high-quality consequences) over the embedded context (use of high-quality teaching materials), 2 of the 4 participants preferred some motivational system to none at all, and the play area was selected over all variants of the instructional contexts during the majority of trials. We found either no or small differences in correct responding in the different instructional contexts; however, rates of undesirable behavior were highest in the least preferred interaction area for 3 of the 4 participants. Implications for the design of effective and preferred teaching environments for young children are discussed.
A review of chaining techniques: Implications for future research and practice
- Spooner
Spooner, F., & Spooner, D. (1984). A review of chaining
techniques: Implications for future research and
practice. Education and Training of the Mentally
Retarded, 19, 114-124.
Applied behavior analysis
- J O Cooper
- T E Heron
- W L Heward
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Forward and backward chaining and whole task methods
- Walls