No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Biodiversity: Endangered and in demand
Abstract
With an ingredients list that includes rhino horn and tiger bone,
traditional Asian medicine is on a collision course with wildlife
preservation.
... • · � -Review in Advance first posted on plant, and synthetic ingredients and provide clear directions for future social marketing, education, and engagement efforts should be pursued (140). Although it is vital to search for sustainable and effective substitutes for tiger bone and rhino horn, for example, these products will not be as highly demanded if people ultimately do not want to use them and begin to question the validity of their effects (141). Sometimes, perceptions of a product can shift over time from functional (e.g., curative) to symbolic. ...
... Many Vietnamese males reported health benefits, such as body detoxification and hangover treatment, as the most common reasons for rhino horn usage. Some even believe the horn can treat cancer, although this has never been recorded in 2,000 years of TCM history (141). Rhino horn is used to display economic wealth, acquire social status, and initiate business and political relationships. ...
Bushmeat is not only an important source of fat, micronutrients, and macronutrients, but it also has medicinal uses. Extensive human–wildlife interactions may lead to pathogen exchange and trigger zoonotic infectious disease outbreaks such as severe acute respiratory syndrome, Ebola, and coronavirus disease 2019. In the tropics, bushmeat has become one of the most threatened resources due to widespread habitat loss and overexploitation, largely driven by increased global demand, weak governance, and lack of enforcement. Unsustainable harvesting, consumption, and production practices are common, although drivers are complex and intertwined and vary regionally, pointing to a looming rural nutrition security and wildlife conservation issue. Growing demand in fast urbanizing markets coupled with easy access fuels the illegal trade of bushmeat, medicinal products, and wildlife-based luxury goods. Although bushmeat contributes significantly to rural people's income and poverty alleviation, overharvesting impacts those who are most dependent on the forest. To balance the rural and cultural importance of bushmeat with conservation and public health priorities, strategies to safeguard tropical biodiversity, sustainable harvest of wildlife with reduced health risk for nutrition and medicine are urgently needed.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 45 is October 19, 2020. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... local ecological knowledge | niche commodities | species distribution modeling | Ophiocordyceps sinensis | Tibetan Plateau E cosystem changes and associated biodiversity losses have disproportionately negative consequences for marginalized peoples who rely on ecosystems for their livelihoods and well-being (1,2). Species that have become niche commodities (3), such as those viewed as luxury goods or used in traditional medicine, are especially threatened (4)(5)(6)(7). In particular, the rapidly expanding exploitation of resources to meet Asia's demand for biological niche commodities has been likened to a "disease epidemic" responsible for causing species declines globally (8), in part through rampant poaching of charismatic and endangered species, such as black rhino, pangolin, and jaguar (4,9,10). ...
... Species that have become niche commodities (3), such as those viewed as luxury goods or used in traditional medicine, are especially threatened (4)(5)(6)(7). In particular, the rapidly expanding exploitation of resources to meet Asia's demand for biological niche commodities has been likened to a "disease epidemic" responsible for causing species declines globally (8), in part through rampant poaching of charismatic and endangered species, such as black rhino, pangolin, and jaguar (4,9,10). Although not all wildharvested, commercially traded species are overexploited (11), other anthropogenic factors may synergistically contribute to species' population declines (12). ...
Demand for traditional medicine ingredients is causing species declines globally. Due to this trade, Himalayan caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) has become one of the world's most valuable biological commodities, providing a crucial source of income for hundreds of thousands of collectors. However, the resulting harvesting boom has generated widespread concern over the sustainability of its collection. We investigate whether caterpillar fungus production is decreasing-and if so, why-across its entire range. To overcome the limitations of sparse quantitative data, we use a multiple evidence base approach that makes use of complementarities between local knowledge and ecological modeling. We find that, according to collectors across four countries, caterpillar fungus production has decreased due to habitat degradation, climate change, and especially overexploitation. Our statistical models corroborate that climate change is contributing to this decline. They indicate that caterpillar fungus is more productive under colder conditions, growing in close proximity to areas likely to have permafrost. With significant warming already underway throughout much of its range, we conclude that caterpillar fungus populations have been negatively affected by a combination of overexploitation and climate change. Our results underscore that harvesting is not the sole threat to economically valuable species, and that a collapse of the caterpillar fungus system under ongoing warming and high collection pressure would have serious implications throughout the Himalayan region.
... Species thought to face this threat include those harvested, both legally and illegally, for trophies [e.g., large terrestrial mammals including rhinoceros, elephants, and large cats (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)], for collections [e.g., stag beetles (9)], for body parts regarded as having medicinal or aphrodisiac properties [e.g., many large mammals (4)], or for luxury foods [e.g., sturgeons, bluefin tunas, sea cucumbers (10)(11)(12)]. Many such species are considered threatened by the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (1) or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (13). ...
... We then review available empirical evidence to shed light on where these biological and economic risk factors may be most acute. Whereas many harvests are now managed (18), it is nonetheless important to the pervasiveness of illegal and unreported harvesting of endangered species (4,7,8). ...
Significance
Many threatened species including elephants, sturgeons, and bluefin tunas are harvested for high-value products. Species can be driven extinct if incentives to harvest do not diminish as populations decline; this occurs if harvest prices rise faster than costs with declining stock. Whereas recent conservation attention for these species has largely focused on market demand, we show—using a theoretical model and an empirical review—that contractions in species’ geographic ranges, which stabilize costs and may be especially common among terrestrial species, might often play a larger role in maintaining harvest incentives. Forces impacting ranges—such as patchy and declining habitats, schooling/herding behavior, and climate change—therefore merit greater attention in assessing overharvesting threats.
... This paper is specifically interested in the elements of demand that are associated with worldviews and knowledge systems. Although wildlife and wildlife products have been in demand throughout human history, growing economic prosperity around the world has given rise to a massive and lucrative industry, subsequently threatening and endangering thousands of species (Graham-Rowe 2011;Van Uhm 2016;Zhang and Yin 2014). Despite large efforts and resources aimed at changing consumer behavior (Greenfield and Veríssimo 2019;Veríssimo and Wan 2019), demand for threatened species products continues to be a major concern for biodiversity conservation (Wittig 2020;Zhang and Yin 2014). ...
... The debate over the effectiveness of the ban versus a potential commercial regulation still remains unresolved, as the ban did not achieve the desired effect of preventing wild tiger poaching (Graham-Rowe, 2011;Rasphone et al., 2019). However, the legalization of trade, even if restricted to farmed tigers, raises concerns about the potential laundering of wild tigers as captivebred ones, which could facilitate illegal hunting. ...
The tiger holds a revered position in Chinese culture, symbolizing power and strength, yet its coexistence with human populations has often been marked by tension and conflict. Understanding the historical dynamics of human‐tiger relations is essential for comprehending the current state of tiger populations and shaping future coexistence with the species. The article “An integrated historical study on human‐tiger interactions in China” examines several aspects of human attitudes toward tigers across varying dynasties, revealing striking differences, with some periods marked by intense exploitation and others characterized by greater tolerance. While the article discusses a number of interesting historical and current issues that help the reader to better understand human–tiger relations, it does not mention significant issues such as the practice of tiger farming, which appears to be a major area of human–tiger interaction as the number of captive tigers is now double that of wild populations. It is also important to consider the fundamental role of legislation in shaping human‐tiger interactions in China. This commentary aims to complement the article's vision by addressing these gaps and offering valuable guidance for policymakers and conservationists working toward long‐term human‐tiger coexistence in China.
... Fuente: elaboración propia con datos de la base de datos Scopus. en la industria del cuero (Liu et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2022), los cuales se relacionan con las estructuras propuestas por Dai et al. (2019) y Niu et al. (2017) alrededor de las mejoras en la cadena de valor del sector y sus relacionamientos con los procesos logísticos (color rojo de la figura 5), donde este clúster central se relaciona con temáticas asociadas hacia métricas como huellas de carbono e hídricas y donde predominan los trabajos de Bacardit et al. (2020) y Kiliç et al. (2014), que se enlazan también con los clústeres amarillo y verde alrededor de procesos de administración y reputación del sector del cuero y sus impactos en la estructuración de tipos empresariales sostenibles (Wu et al., 2023;Zhang et al., 2023), así como los efectos contaminantes sobre aspectos ambientales específicos como agua (He et al., 2005), suelo (Guo et al., 2021) y biodiversidad (Graham-Rowe, 2011;Jones et al., 2013), encaminando así a futuros investigadores a realizar estudios sobre aspectos no presentes como bienestar animal, calidad del aire e impactos sociales como el efecto de la gestión socioambiental. ...
The purpose of this research is to analyze the literature around the leather tanning industry, based on a systematic review of literature in the SCOPUS database, whose objective was to conceptually analyze sustainability aspects from the content structure, environmental, social aspects and governance. The search equation yielded 785 articles in SCOPUS, which once filtered resulted in a total of 20 articles for in-depth analysis. To visualize the information, the VosViewer tool was used, which made it possible to represent the existing co-citation and co-authorship relationships through clusters. The results show what the background is, the topics of interest for academics, the countries with the longest history of research in the area and the collaborative work networks, as well as the most relevant authors and studies in this field and the impact trends. from the fashion and leather industry about sustainability.
... Se eligió como objeto de análisis el trabajo de David Macdonald en colaboración con otros autores como se muestra en la tabla 2, profesor de la Universidad de Oxford como referente dentro de la RSL, dado que presenta interacciones diversas desde su producción intelectual, representada en el análisis de coautoría en la figura 4, existen así investigaciones con fuertes componentes interdisciplinares, interactuando no solo con ciencias biológicas, sino relaciones con estructuras económicas (Pooley et al., 2017) y culturales (Good et al., 2017;Hodgetts et al., 2019), en donde se observa la necesidad de la comprensión de las economías locales (Shepherd et al., 2014) y las estructuras tradicionales en su relación no humana (Strandin et al., 2014), desde aspectos como la alimentación (Adi et al., 2020) y otros tantos sociodiversos como usos de medicina tradicional (D'Cruze et al., 2020;Graham-Rowe, 2011;Moorhouse et al., 2021). Estos aspectos estructurados, desde una geopolítica de la conservación, permiten la reestructuración de los conceptos de conflictos y problemas socioambientales Perry et al., 2020;Searle et al., 2021;Treves et al., 2017;Treves y Santiago-Ávila, 2020), alejando imaginarios de las representaciones como una naturaleza salvaje en contraposición de la concepción de civilización no tocada y desarrollada por Smarth et al. (2021) y alejada de la estructura natural. ...
Since the 19th century to the present (2021), awareness of the understanding of otherness in society-nature interactions and the particularities that this type of relationship demands is increasing. The objective of this research work is through the analysis of bibliographic references through a narrative and systematic resection to evaluate the interaction between these two species has been beneficial or the opposite; as well as measures that humans must take to mitigate negative impacts on wild and exotic animals. The work of monitoring the available literature is carried out with a research protocol of sequential steps. From the implementation of the latter, the evidence that expresses the variety of examples in the literature is described. Within the methodology used to obtain this information, tools such as: Science-Direct Topics, Scopus, Elsevier, and Mendeley like as bibliographic reference tool were taken into account; For this article, the history, the importance of the reference articles, the filters are taken into account, everything to make this review article as clear as possible.
... 23 24 Pangolin scales, tiger bones, seahorses, rhino horns and bear bile are among a few of the items used in TCM that have sparked international concern due to reports of animal rights violations, poaching of endangered species and the incentivisation of animal trafficking. [25][26][27][28][29] Indeed, seizure numbers of animal-derived medicinal products totalled 40 434 during 2018 in the European Union (EU) alone, with Thailand and China constituting the largest exporters. 30 Today, TCM is exported to over 160 countries, 31 generating high revenue within the USA and EU. ...
Objectives
Despite the paucity of evidence verifying its efficacy and safety, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is expanding in popularity and political support. Decisions to include TCM diagnoses in the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision and campaigns to integrate TCM into national healthcare systems have occurred while public perception and usage of TCM, especially in Europe, remains undetermined. Accordingly, this study investigates TCM’s popularity, usage and perceived scientific support, as well as its relationship to homeopathy and vaccinations.
Design/Setting
We performed a cross-sectional survey of the Austrian population. Participants were either recruited on the street (in-person) or online (web-link) via a popular Austrian newspaper.
Participants
1382 individuals completed our survey. The sample was poststratified according to data derived from Austria’s Federal Statistical Office.
Outcome measures
Associations between sociodemographic factors, opinion towards TCM and usage of complementary medicine (CAM) were investigated using a Bayesian graphical model.
Results
Within our poststratified sample, TCM was broadly known (89.9% of women, 90.6% of men), with 58.9% of women and 39.5% of men using TCM between 2016 and 2019. Moreover, 66.4% of women and 49.7% of men agreed with TCM being supported by science. We found a positive relationship between perceived scientific support for TCM and trust in TCM-certified medical doctors (ρ=0.59, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.73). Moreover, perceived scientific support for TCM was negatively correlated with proclivity to get vaccinated (ρ=−0.26, 95% CI −0.43 to –0.08). Additionally, our network model yielded associations between TCM-related, homeopathy-related and vaccination-related variables.
Conclusions
TCM is widely known within the Austrian general population and used by a substantial proportion. However, a disparity exists between the commonly held public perception that TCM is scientific and findings from evidence-based studies. Emphasis should be placed on supporting the distribution of unbiased, science-driven information.
... Due to its high value as an exotic food item and in traditional medicine, it ends up being a profitable item in the illicit wildlife trade [1]. Turtles contain active therapeutic properties and stimulating components [2,3]. The animals are captured for local use, sold as pets, utilised as foodstuffs, and in traditional Chinese remedies [4]. ...
The Southeast Asian box turtle, Cuora amboinensis , is an ecologically important endangered species which needs an onsite monitoring device to protect it from extinction. An electrochemical DNA biosensor was developed to detect the C. amboinensis mitochondrial cytochrome b gene based on an in silico designed probe using bioinformatics tools, and it was also validated in wet-lab experiments. As a detection platform, a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) enhanced with a nanocomposite containing gold nanoparticles and graphene was used. The morphology of the nanoparticles was analysed by field-emission scanning electron microscopy and structural characteristics were analysed by using energy-dispersive X-ray, UV–vis, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The electrochemical characteristics of the modified electrodes were studied by cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The thiol-modified synthetic DNA probe was immobilised on modified SPCEs to facilitate hybridisation with the reverse complementary DNA. The turtle DNA was distinguished based on hybridisation-induced electrochemical change in the presence of methylene blue compared to their mismatches, noncomplementary, and nontarget species DNA measured by DPV. The developed biosensor exhibited a selective response towards reverse complementary DNAs and was able to discriminate turtles from other species. The modified electrode displayed good linearity for reverse complementary DNAs in the range of 1 × 10 ⁻¹¹ –5 × 10 ⁻⁶ M with a limit of detection of 0.85 × 10 ⁻¹² M. This indicates that the proposed biosensor has the potential to be applied for the detection of real turtle species.
... Researchers note the impact of different factors on subsistence hunting, such as climate change (Hastrup 2009;Brinkman et al. 2016), fuel costs (Brinkman et al. 2014), road network development (Espinosa et al. 2014) and industrial activities (Leontiev 2013). Another direction is formed by discussions of the impact of human population growth on hunting-induced decreased wildlife population (Benítez-López et al. 2017;Peres 2000), the role of hunting in sustaining biodiversity (Dickman et al. 2019;Graham-Rowe 2011). However, more fruitful considerations are related to taking into account both hunters and biodiversity concerns and finding solutions for the sustainability of social-ecological systems (Lovvorn et al. 2018). ...
The chapter focuses on an interdisciplinary understanding of the role of hunting for different actors: the state, hunting enterprises, local communities and indigenous peoples. It provides a short overview of studies of hunting and their specifics in Siberia, examines the history of the state management of hunting in Siberia. Based on example of Tofalaria, it illustrates how during the XX–XXI centuries the hunting industry experienced growth and decline as a result of increasing and decreasing amount of investments in hunting as an industry. Another example, mobility of Evenkis, is used to show the extraction of resources as a wide diversity of movements and human existence in continually changing environment. The wide variety of contexts and perspectives allows to conclude that hunting is far more than merely subsistence practice or an industry. The studies of hunting are instrumental for understanding of human–environment relations that are currently undergoing rapid change due to climate, infrastructure, technology and societal transformations.KeywordsHuntingInformal land useLocal and indigenous knowledgeResourcesInfrastructure
... Researchers note the impact of different factors on subsistence hunting, such as climate change (Hastrup 2009;Brinkman et al. 2016), fuel costs (Brinkman et al. 2014), road network development (Espinosa et al. 2014) and industrial activities (Leontiev 2013). Another direction is formed by discussions of the impact of human population growth on hunting-induced decreased wildlife population (Benítez-López et al. 2017;Peres 2000), the role of hunting in sustaining biodiversity (Dickman et al. 2019;Graham-Rowe 2011). However, more fruitful considerations are related to taking into account both hunters and biodiversity concerns and finding solutions for the sustainability of social-ecological systems (Lovvorn et al. 2018). ...
Scientific and popular science notes of the first researchers of Siberia contain descriptions of not only natural processes and phenomena, but also the material and spiritual aspects of human activity. After a long break in Russian geography, which for a long time showed a tendency to oppose the artificial (cultural) and the natural, attempts are being made to integrate the geographical representations of natural science and humanitarian disciplines. The territory of Siberia is an excellent proving ground for retrospective and prospective reflection and application of geographical thought. The first aim of this chapter is the submission of the current state of knowledge concerning the conceptualization of Siberian space within the landscape paradigm. The second aim is to consider the main highlights of the Siberian environment in the context of perception by local and external people. So, when dividing Siberia into regions that differ in peculiarities of human interaction with the original natural landscape, it was concluded that, along with the physiographic regionalization, it is advisable to take into account the basin organization of the territory. River valleys often play a crucial role in the development of the territory, and basin boundaries, especially in the mountains, are often difficult-to-overcome barriers. Cryosophy, a system of ideas about the cold world and its role in the genesis and evolution of material–energy interactions in the origin and maintenance of life, about the development based on the created system of knowledge about the universe and the formation of the guidelines for multidisciplinary research of living and inert matter of the universe, was formed on the material of Siberia, the main part of which is located in the cryolithozone. In contrast to traditional judgments about Siberia as a periphery (a remote, hard-to-reach, wild, rich in resources, but impoverished region), ideas about the centricity of Siberia are being developed, where this region is regarded as a zone of common interests, a significant part of the Ecumene. Thanks to Siberia, Russia is a great Eurasian power.KeywordsSiberiaNorth AsiaLandscapeCryosophyAdaptationGeographical picture of the worldGeocultural spaceGeocultural borderGeoconceptFrontierPeripheryMoscow-centricityTheoretical geographyPhysiographic regionalization
... Researchers note the impact of different factors on subsistence hunting, such as climate change (Hastrup 2009;Brinkman et al. 2016), fuel costs (Brinkman et al. 2014), road network development (Espinosa et al. 2014) and industrial activities (Leontiev 2013). Another direction is formed by discussions of the impact of human population growth on hunting-induced decreased wildlife population (Benítez-López et al. 2017;Peres 2000), the role of hunting in sustaining biodiversity (Dickman et al. 2019;Graham-Rowe 2011). However, more fruitful considerations are related to taking into account both hunters and biodiversity concerns and finding solutions for the sustainability of social-ecological systems (Lovvorn et al. 2018). ...
Pacific Russia is the eastern part of Russia, washed by the Pacific Ocean, occupying a third of its space. Region`s specificity includes allocating several historical and demographic waves of resettlement from the middle of the nineteenth to the beginning of the twenty-first centuries, the periodic implementation of the state resettlement policy for the colonization of the country's outskirts. The remoteness of the territory contributed to the predominance in the Russian Far East’s development, the need to solve primarily geopolitical problems (border protection) and using natural resources (soil, agro-climatic, mineral, forest, fish, etc.). The Amur Region joined Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century was not a territory with unchanged landscapes by human economic activity. With the new population, the human pressure on natural landscapes intensified. Ecological problems such as wildfires, reduction of native forest vegetation with loss of biodiversity, long-term transformation of local geosystems in the areas of loose gold mining are inherited and are manifested in the region at all stages of its development. At all stages of the Pacific Russia development, the development of resource-extracting industries was based on maximum using of natural resources with lower prices, simple production technologies, and ignoring environmental requirements. Abandoning it in favor of the “green growth” model is complicated by the predominance of regional exports of raw materials and the resource interest of the Asia-Pacific region countries. Nowadays, the region is characterized by a “raw resource” model of development. Modern development strategies of Pacific Russia do not transform radically strategic goals towards reducing environmental pressures and threats. Hence, the practical implementation of spatial planning, based on the territory’s adaptive-landscape organization, is relevant.KeywordsPacific RussiaThe Russian Far EastSettlementRegionPopulation dynamicsRegional developmentLand useNature managementLandscapeAdaptive-landscape organizationLandscape planningGreen economy
... To control poaching, it is critical to understand the trade flow from suppliers to consumers and identify weak points within. Based on such information, conservation strategies could be better formulated to target and disrupt the market and then reduce poaching in the long-term (Sutton 1995;Graham-Rowe 2011 Evidence has suggested that poaching of pangolins is mostly driven and sustained by large and long-lasting market demand Challender & Hywood 2012;Soewu & Sodeinde 2015;Heinrich et al. 2016;Ingram et al. 2018;. ...
The demand for wildlife products around the world is growing rapidly according to various researches. As a result, trade in, and consumption of, wildlife products has become a major threat to global biodiversity. Pangolins are currently recognised as one of the most trafficked mammalian taxa globally, due to the high international and local demand for their products. Many recognize China as one of the biggest markets for pangolin products. Thus, its role in tackling illegal pangolin trade is a crucial responsibility for China globally. However, pangolin trade and markets in China have been little investigated in any holistic and in-depth way. My study uses social science approaches and aims to provide insights on pangolin trade and markets in China to help suggesting more effective conservation interventions. Literature, regulations, and seven online trade platforms related to pangolin trade and conservation were searched and relevant data were collected to provide background knowledge of current pangolin trade and markets in China. Fieldwork was conducted in the two Chinese provinces of Henan and Hainan from Sept 2016 to Apr 2017. Questionnaire surveys, semi-structured interviews, in-depth discussions with stakeholders along the pangolin trading chain were the main social science methods used in this research. Market Reduction Approaches (Schneider 2008) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen 1991) were used as theoretical frameworks to design the research questions. One pangolin hunter, 131 individual villagers, four villager groups (four to ten people per group), 34 reserve workers, two pangolin meat dealers, four pangolin meat consumers, five restaurant owners, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practitioners in 41 hospitals, sellers in 134 pharmaceutical shops, two TCM wholesalers, and 2168 members of the general public were interviewed or surveyed in this study. Results show that illegal pangolin trade is widespread in the two study provinces of mainland China, especially in TCM markets, which were active both online and offline. The wild pangolin populations on Hainan Island still face threats from poaching and local demand for wildmeat. The main contributors to the widespread illegal trade were the lack of adequate law enforcement; poor awareness of trade related regulations among public and some key stakeholders; and the absence of certain key stakeholders in pangolin conservation process, such as the TCM community. Through this study, I suggest enforcement could be strengthened through increasing public participation in the process, in ways of reporting illicit trade and products. This requires enhancing public knowledge and awareness on pangolin trade and related regulations. On the other hand, to deal with the lack of representation of TCM community in pangolin conservation, their unique function and role in the overall conservation blueprint needs to be highlighted and targeted interventions are needed. In summary, achieving effective pangolin conservation in China needs close collaboration between all key stakeholders to correspondingly address the multiple types of demand on pangolin products. Methodology and insights from this study can also contribute to helping conservation in China or globally, and not only for pangolins, but for other threatened species as well.
... Pangolin scales, tiger bones, seahorses, rhino horns and bear bile are among a few of the items that have sparked international outcry due to reports of animal rights violations, poaching of endangered species, and the incentivisation of animal trafficking. [28][29][30][31][32] Indeed, seizure numbers of animal-derived medicinal products totalled 40,434 during 2018, in the EU alone, with Thailand and China constituting the largest exporters. 33 Today, TCM is exported to over 160 countries 34 with the US and the EU spending billions of dollars on products. ...
Introduction
Despite the paucity of evidence verifying its efficacy and safety, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)is expanding in popularity and political support. Decisions to include TCM diagnoses in theInternational Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) by the World Health Organization(WHO) and campaigns to integrate TCM into national healthcare systems have occurred whilst thepublic perception and usage of TCM, especially in Europe, remains undetermined. Accordingly, thiss tudy investigates the popularity, usage patterns, perception of scientific support for TCM, and itsrelationship to homeopathy.
Methods
A cross-sectional survey was performed in Austria and data from 1382 participants were analysed. ABayesian network model retrieved partial correlations indicating distinct associations betweensociodemographic determinants, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) usage patterns,readiness to vaccinate, and TCM related variables.
Results
TCM was broadly known by the Austrian population (89.9% of women, 90.6% of men), with 58.9% ofwomen and 39.5% of men using TCM between 2016 and 2019. 66.4% of women and 49.7% of menagreed with TCM being supported by science. We found a strong positive relationship between theperceived scientific support for TCM and trust in TCM-certified medical doctors. Moreover,perceived scientific support for TCM was negatively correlated with the proclivity to get vaccinated.Additionally, our Bayesian network model yielded distinct associations between TCM-, homeopathy-,and vaccination-related variables.
Conclusion
TCM is widely known within the Austrian general population and actively used by a substantialproportion. However, a crucial disparity exists between the commonly held public perception thatTCM is scientific and findings from evidence-based studies. As public opinion towards TCM, and theproclivity to use it, are promoted through institutionalisation and official acknowledgement, it wouldbe critical to sustain and support the distribution of unbiased, science-driven information bygovernmental institutions and policymakers to encourage informed patient-driven decision-making.
... Yet, the global tiger population declined by about 50% from the 1990s to 2014 due to multiple factors (Goodrich et al., 2015). It is clear that the trade ban has failed to prevent tigers from being poached (Rasphone et al., 2019;Graham-Rowe, 2011), and the illegal tiger trade shows no sign of abating (McCoy, 2019;Indenbaum, 2018;Goodrich et al., 2015). Poaching for illegal trade is the primary threat to wild tiger populations, while habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation are considered the driving force that facilitates poaching (EIA [Environmental Investigation Agency], 2017; Goodrich et al., 2015;Dinerstein et al., 2007;Lapointe et al., 2007;Nowell and Xu, 2007). ...
Demand for tiger parts and products has fuelled the poaching of wild tigers. As the supply of wild tigers has become scarce, tiger farming has emerged as an alternative source and proliferated in several Asian countries with unclear implications of a legalized trade in farmed tigers on wild tiger demand. We conducted a choice experiment with 228 Vietnamese tiger bone glue consumers investigating their preferences and trade-offs for different attributes of their purchase choice, including legality, source, purity, and price. We calculated consumers' willingness to pay for each attribute level under the current trade ban and in a hypothetical legal trade. Consumers preferred and were willing to pay more for wild than farmed tiger glue and a higher proportion of tiger bone in the glue. Consumers also preferred legal over illegal sufficiently for most to switch from illegal wild to legal farmed tiger. Hence, a legal trade will shift preferences significantly towards farmed tiger glue from legal sources but will not eradicate demand for wild tigers, likely leading to the parallel operation of legal and illegal markets. We discuss the implications of the results for conserving wild tigers through efforts to manage demand in Vietnam.
... International demand over the last decade for mobulid gill plates-the cartilaginous structures that filter plankton from the water column-has directly led to an increase in fishing effort and retention of these species in bycatch fisheries (Croll et al., 2016;O'Malley et al., 2017). This demand for dried mobulid gill plates, which are marketed as a form of Traditional Chinese Medicine in east Asia, was fuelled by a rapidly expanding middle class alongside the depletion of more desirable fish stocks (Graham-Rowe, 2011;Fabinyi, 2012;O'Malley et al., 2017). Mobulid rays are highly susceptible to incidental capture in a wide range of fisheries and gear types including gillnets, purse seines, trawl nets, and on occasion even long lines (Croll et al., 2016). ...
Background
Expanding fisheries in developing nations like Sri Lanka have a significant impact on threatened marine species such as elasmobranchs. Manta and devil (mobulid) rays have some of the most conservative life history strategies of any elasmobranch, and even low to moderate levels of bycatch from gillnet fisheries may lead to significant population declines. A lack of information on life history, demographics, population trends, and fisheries impacts hinders effective management measures for these species.
Method
We report on mobulid fishery landings over nine years between 2011 and 2020 across 38 landing sites in Sri Lanka. We collected data on catch numbers, body sizes, sex, and maturity status for five mobulid species. We used a Bayesian state-space model to estimate monthly country-wide catch rates and total annual landings of mobulid rays. We used catch curve analyses to estimate total mortality for Mobula mobular , and evaluated trends in recorded body sizes across the study period for M. mobular, M. birostris, M. tarapacana and M. thurstoni .
Results
We find that catch rates have declined an order of magnitude for all species across the study period, and that total annual captures of mobulid rays by the Sri Lankan artisanal fishing fleet exceed the estimated annual captures of mobulids in all global, industrial purse seine fisheries combined. Catch curve analyses suggest that M. mobular is being fished at rates far above the species’ intrinsic population growth rate, and the average sizes of all mobulids in the fishery except for M. birostris are declining. Collectively, these findings suggest overfishing of mobulid ray populations in the northern Indian Ocean by Sri Lankan artisanal fisheries. We recommend strengthening the management of these species through improved implementation of CITES, CMS, and regional fisheries management actions. In addition, we report on the demographic characteristics of mobulids landed in Sri Lanka and provide the first record of M. eregoodoo in the country.
... Several characteristics of globalization are linked to incidences of EIDs: (i) a highly integrated global economy leading to unprecedented movement of people, animals, and goods-and, thereby, pathogens-between regions, (ii) ecological disruption and habitat fragmentation that increase contact between people, wildlife, and domestic species, and (iii) general characteristics of development such as biotic homogenization that reduces ecosystem resilience, and pesticide and antibiotic use, which can compromise immune responses and promote the emergence of resistant pathogens (Jones et al. 2008;Karesh et al. 2012;Kilpatrick and Randolph 2012). Additional factors that further increase the risk of disease transmission between animals and people include poaching, trade in wildlife (Rosen and Smith 2010;Li and Lu 2014), consumption of wildlife, and the use of wildlife in traditional medicine (Mainka and Mills 1995;Graham-Rowe 2011). ...
The cold and arid mountains and plateaus of High Asia, inhabited by a relatively sparse human population, a high density of livestock, and wildlife such as the iconic snow leopard Panthera uncia, are usually considered low risk for disease outbreaks. However, based on current knowledge about drivers of disease emergence, we show that High Asia is rapidly developing conditions that favor increased emergence of infectious diseases and zoonoses. This is because of the existing prevalence of potentially serious pathogens in the system; intensifying environmental degradation; rapid changes in local ecological, socio-ecological, and socio-economic factors; and global risk intensifiers such as climate change and globalization. To better understand and manage the risks posed by diseases to humans, livestock, and wildlife, there is an urgent need for establishing a disease surveillance system and improving human and animal health care. Public health must be integrated with conservation programs, more ecologically sustainable development efforts and long-term disease surveillance.
... Although Biggs et al., 2013 assumed that with a legal rhino horn trade "the demand does not escalate to dangerous levels as the stigma associated with the illegality of the product is removed", plenty of other studies argued that the demand will likely increase significantly because of the removal of the stigma (Collins et al., 2013;Fischer, 2004;Prins & Okita-Ouma, 2013), at least for law-abiding consumers (Fischer, 2004;USAID Vietnam, 2018;USAID Wildlife Asia, 2018). Another market force that could result in an increased demand after legalization is the reawakening of old markets, particularly markets that were active in the 1970s and 1980s in Taiwan, Japan, Singapore and Yemen (Prins & Okita-Ouma, 2013), which could thus reverse the decreased demand in these old markets (Graham-Rowe, 2011). In addition to traditional consumer countries, there are also new (e.g., African) countries that sell Traditional Chinese Medicines in their drug stores and where people start to believe that wildlife products (including rhino horn) can cure diseases (Cyranoski, 2018). ...
... That said, investment to re-route the railway line passing through prime rhinoceros habitat is necessary, and is being considered by the Bihar Government (Valmiki Park Director 2018, Personal Communication). An increase in law enforcement and reduction of human activities are also required, although Valmiki has clearly improved its protection regime in recent years as evidenced by an increasing tiger population 27 , a species vulnerable to poaching 28 . ...
Reintroduction of endangered species is an effective and increasingly important conservation strategy once threats have been addressed. The greater one-horned rhinoceros and swamp buffalo have declined through historic hunting and habitat loss. We identify and evaluate available habitat across their historic range (India, Nepal, and Bhutan) for reintroducing viable populations. We used Species Distribution Models in Maxent to identify potential habitats and evaluated model-identified sites through field visits, interviews of wildlife managers, literature, and population-habitat viability analysis. We prioritize sites based on size, quality, protection, management effectiveness, biotic pressures, and potential of conflict with communities. Our results suggest that populations greater than 50 for rhinoceros and 100 for buffalo were less susceptible to extinction, and could withstand some poaching, especially if supplemented or managed as a metapopulation. We note some reluctance by managers to reintroduce rhinoceros due to high costs associated with subsequent protection. Our analysis subsequently prioritised Corbett and Valmiki, for rhino reintroduction and transboundary complexes of Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki and Dudhwa-Pilibhit-Shuklaphanta-Bardia for buffalo reintroductions. Establishing new safety-nets and supplementing existing populations of these megaherbivores would ensure their continued survival and harness their beneficial effect on ecosystems and conspecifics like pygmy hog, hispid hare, swamp deer, hog deer, and Bengal florican.
... Demand for luxury goods and food is a major driver of global wildlife trade (cited in 35% of 374 reports), followed by traditional medicine (25% of reports) and pets (22%) [72]. As prosperity increases in China, animal products (ivory, rhino horn, big cat products, etc) [73], exotic pets [41] and even animal ingredients in CTM, are perceived as conferring cachet upon their owners [2,43]. The judgement documents we examined did not provide enough information to formally analyze for any relationship between offender socio-demographics and propensity to trade in luxury goods, but, interestingly, women were more highly represented in offences involving rhino horn and elephants/ ivory than in any other type of wildlife crime-often involving artisan or retail work rather than other more physically demanding/ violent wildlife crimes. ...
Wildlife crime presents a growing threat to the integrity of ecological communities. While campaigns have raised consumer awareness, little is known about the socio-demographic profile of wildlife offenders, or how to intervene. Using data from China Judgements Online (2014–2018), we documented 4,735 cases, involving 7,244 offenders who smuggled, hunted, transported, sold and/or purchased protected species in contravention of China’s Criminal Law. Offenders were predominantly men (93.0% of 7,143 offenders), aged 30–44 (43.9% of 4,699), agricultural workers (48.4% of 3,960), with less schooling (78.6% of 4,699 < senior secondary school). Socio-economic profiles related to crime seriousness, the type of illegal activity, motivation and taxon involved. These generalizations reveal scope to tailor specific intervention and mitigation approaches to offender profiles, through public information campaigns, proactive incentives opposed by punitive disincentives, and provision of alternative incomes.
... The nuances of TCM often get lost in translation when discussed in conservation. For example, rhino horn is sometimes characterized as a treatment for high fever(Graham-Rowe, 2011;Kennaugh, 2016), but likening it to aspirin or paracetamol reflects a fundamental misunderstanding of TCM: rhino horn's cold properties are appropriate for disharmonies characterized by severe heat, whether or not the patient is feverish (rhino horn is also not a commonly used material, as are the aforementioned over-the-counter painkillers; Bensky ...
Numerous treatments in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) involve the use of wildlife products, including some that utilize ingredients derived from endangered flora and fauna. Demand for such endangered wildlife products in TCM can threaten the survival of species and pose serious challenges for conservation.
Chinese medical practice is embedded in the cultural fabric of many societies in East and Southeast Asia, and remains an integral part of everyday life and knowledge. It is grounded in principles and theories that have grown over hundreds of years and differ substantially from those of mainstream allopathic biomedicine.
In order to address the threats posed by the medicinal consumption of endangered wildlife, conservation scientists and practitioners will benefit from a basic understanding of TCM. Such knowledge will enable conservationists to craft culturally nuanced solutions and to engage constructively with TCM stakeholders. However, conservationists typically lack familiarity with TCM as the incompatibility of many TCM concepts with those of the biomedical sciences poses a barrier to understanding.
In this paper, we examine the core theories and practices of TCM in order to make TCM more accessible to conservation scientists and practitioners. A better understanding of TCM will enable conservationists to deliver more effective and lasting conservation outcomes.
A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.
... However, in the control of rocky desertification, China government has invested the massive manpower, financial and material capabilities, but the total tendency of rocky desertification do not keep down absolutely and the control results are unsatisfactory with some serious problems, such as, the ecosystem structure of rocky desertification rehabilitation is very simple, the stabilization very bad, and the resistibility extreme feeble, and so on [2,11,12]. All these can be attributed to that the controls of rocky desertification seriously lack the scientific support of the biodiversity reconstruction [13][14][15]. But so far, there are very short of exhaustive studies on restoration ecology of rocky desertification [16,17,18]. ...
... The current sustainability of wild harvesting for most TCM ingredients, whether for official formal medicines or for the trade in illegal or unofficial treatments, is unknown. However, illegal and unsustainable harvesting to supply these markets has been reported for orchids (Orchidaceae spp.) and other medicinal plants 22,23 and animals ranging from rhinos (Rhinocerotidae spp.) to sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea spp.) 24,25 , both within and outside of China. The BRI is likely to increase connectivity along existing IWT routes, including the routes for species used in TCM such as pangolins (Manidae spp.), which run along the BRI's Maritime Silk Road between Southeast Asia and Southern China 26 , and saigas (Saiga tartarica), which run from Central Asia to Singapore 27 . ...
A little-known aim of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is ‘people-to-people cultural exchange’, including active promotion of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in BRI countries. On a global scale, this is likely to increase both TCM demand and the sourcing of wildlife-based TCM ingredients from new areas. Any rapid increase in wildlife demand risks exacerbating illegal and unsustainable trade but, with careful management, BRI–TCM could also present opportunities for well-governed supply chains, creating sustainable livelihoods for rural harvesters. With China reaching out to BRI countries to cooperate on the marketing, registration and promotion of TCM products, there is now a critical short-term window for the identification of these risks and opportunities, and to ensure that sustainability is built into these markets from the start.
See here for a read-only open-access version of the paper: https://rdcu.be/bZZYo
See here for a Chinese translation of the full article: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/XyMW_juh6fVLeWut3nwPDA
... Similarly, intelligence-led approaches have been suggested as an important step for IWT following their success in other illicit trades, but one evaluation of their application in Uganda noted that a lack of trained intelligence analysts was a major limitation to their use on the ground (67). Similarly, measures used to address the illegal drugs trade, such as controlled deliveries, may have application to IWT (155), but no studies of their implementation have been carried out. ...
This is the final version of the previously uploaded draft entitled 'IWT: Patterns, Processes and Governance' (which contains errors). Please contact me if you would like access to a pre-print copy of this final version.
... Similarly, intelligence-led approaches have been suggested as an important step for IWT following their success in other illicit trades, but one evaluation of their application in Uganda noted that a lack of trained intelligence analysts was a major limitation to their use on the ground (77). Similarly, measures used to address the illegal drugs trade, such as controlled deliveries, may have application to IWT (173), but no studies of their implementation have been carried out. ...
Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) has increased in profile in recent years as a global policy issue, largely because of its association with declines in prominent internationally trafficked species. In this review, we explore the scale of IWT, associated threats to biodiversity, and appropriate responses to these threats. We discuss the historical development of IWT research and highlight the uncertainties that plague the evidence base, emphasizing the need for more systematic approaches to addressing evidence gaps in a way that minimizes the risk of unethical or counterproductive outcomes for wildlife and people. We highlight the need for evaluating interventions in order to learn, and the importance of sharing datasets and lessons learned. A more collaborative approach to linking IWT research, practice, and policy would better align public policy discourse and action with research evidence. This in turn would enable more effective policy making that contributes to reducing the threat to biodiversity that IWT represents.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 44 is October 17, 2019. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Although it is unclear how these keratinous structures that are of the same material as human nails (Spearman, 1967) would provide the purported medical benefits, demand and their use continues, highlighting the difficulties involved in changing behaviors with deep cultural relevance (e.g., Veríssimo et al., 2012). However, the illegal wildlife trade is also a dynamic industry; new trends, including new motivations for product use, can emerge that may not be steeped in cultural and societal history (Graham-Rowe, 2011;Milliken & Shaw, 2012;Sampson et al., 2018). Thus, efforts to reduce demand related to new trends might be more effective, underscoring the need to better understand claims behind apparent emerging wildlife trade trends. ...
Conservation plans aiming to reduce the threat of illegal wildlife trade increasingly recognize the need for multifaceted approaches that include both enhanced enforcement and demand reduction initiatives. Both are complex issues that involve understanding consumer motives. Pangolins represent some of the most heavily trafficked species, largely due to high consumer demand for their scales for use in traditional medicines. Recent media reports also suggest that demand is related to the purported presence of the analgesic tramadol in scales. We examined chemotypes of scales from 104 individual pangolins representing all extant species. None of the specimens demonstrated the presence of tramadol. Given that demand for pangolins and their parts is decimating wild populations, it is imperative that such false claims be rectified. These results could be incorporated into demand reduction campaigns in areas where this misinformation is perpetuated.
... Exploitation of animals for medicines and other activities (such as food and pets) are commonly cited as threats to fauna (Barbosa et al. 2011;Alves 2012). Studies conducted in other countries suggest that exploitation for medicinal use causes pressure on wild populations (Zhang et al. 2008;Graham-Rowe 2011;Kikuchi 2012). Different measures have been proposed to minimize the pressure of such use. ...
In Brazil, although a large number of animals are used in traditional medicine (at least 354 species), information about their biological activities is scarce. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal potential of zootherapeutic by-products from animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine and discuss the ecological and cultural consequences of such practices. The species analyzed were: Tupinambis merianae (skin), Iguana iguana (skin and body fat), Crotalus durissus (skin and body fat), Boa constrictor (skin), Euphractus sexcinctus (body fat) and Coendou prehensilis (quills). Experiments were performed with standard clinical strains of Escherichia coli (EC-ATCC10536) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA-ATCC 25923). For the microbiological assay, the zootherapeutics were evaluated using serial microdilutions. The results indicate that none of the samples possess inhibitory activity against standard bacterial strains. The in vitro ineffectiveness of the analyzed products demonstrate a necessity for new pharmacological research that encompass a large number of species of medicinal animals as well as highlight the importance of zootherapy in the context of plans for animal conservation.
... 2014). For instance, the demand for animal parts such as rhino horn and tiger bone for traditional Chinese medicine is fueled by an increasingly affluent Chinese society (Graham-Rowe 2011). These particular preferences generate strong telecoupled legal and illegal wildlife trade flows that pose a challenge to the viability of wild populations. ...
The environmental and socioeconomic interactions between distant regions of the world ("telecoupling") are dramatically increasing. Telecoupling brings about new challenges and opportunities to biodiversity conservation that are of a larger magnitude and of a faster pace than ever observed before. Our understanding of the dynamics and leverage points of this telecoupled world is however limited. It is thus important to take stock of what we know and what we still need to know to formulate effective biodiversity conservation policies with telecoupling increasing.
We identify the challenges and opportunities for biodiversity conservation brought about by the world's telecoupling in international trade and information by new technologies. Challenges are presented by the high demands for agricultural and wildlife products by high-income and emerging economies, putting pressure on land protection, management and incentive-based conservation interventions. Opportunities are brought about by the strength of telecoupled information flows that can generate strong pressure on multinationals and governments to adopt sustainable practices. Examples of these opportunities are zero-deforestation pledges and the increase in the number of certification schemes in key agricultural commodities.
Conservation practitioners need to adopt a global perspective on telecoupling and focus on the new conservation opportunities represented by shaping the social norms of affluent consumers in emerging and high-income economies.
... Although o cial price data are unavailable because of the clandestine nature of the market, undercover surveys by organizations such as the wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC reveal that rhino horn prices have risen substantially over the last 36 years. At the time of writing, the retail value of rhino horn by weight in some Asian markets is reputed to be higher than that of gold (Graham-Rowe, 2011;Gwin, 2012). Circumstantial evidence indicates that persisting demand for rhino horn may be price inelastic and that continued e↵orts at enforcement simply drive up the black market price (Brown and Layton, 1997). ...
The world's five rhinoceros species remain threatened with extinction in the wild despite a 36 year international trade ban on rhino products. Poachers kill rhinos for their horns, which are sought for medicinal and ornamental purposes in Asia and command remarkably high prices on black markets. Recent attempts to restrict markets for trophy hunts and rhino horn in South Africa were followed by unprecedented increases in poaching levels. This has prompted suggestions to investigate a legal trade alternative. We develop a model of rhino conservation that takes full account of contemporary conditions (markets, institutions, technology, and relevant biological parameters) and establish conditions under which an appropriately structured legal trading regime may prevent the extinction of the white rhino in South Africa. Taking advantage of existing data on rhino populations for calibration, we simulate the bioeconomic model to assess the effects of a legal trade regime. The results indicate that intensive management of rhinos, coupled with a legal outlet for verified horn, would increase rhino numbers while lowering the effective price for horn. Substantial expenditures for protecting live rhinos are required, despite which poaching persists at greatly reduced levels. These results are then brought to bear on the broader debate over rhino policy.
... China is a major importer of an immense variety of wildlife, particularly from Southeast Asia, but details of trade markets within the country are limited (Nijman 2010). TCM, in particular, has driven the demand and consequent population declines experienced by several iconic species including rhinoceroses and tigers (Graham-Rowe 2011). Particularly worrying are recent and massive African elephant declines driven by ivory demand in China (Wittemyer et al. 2014 ). ...
All pangolin species globally are now listed under Appendix I of CITES due to escalating demand for their meat and scales, often for use in traditional medicine. While China has introduced pangolin trade restrictions, the country continues to represent the largest market and destination for pangolin products. We summarize pangolin seizure data reported in public media from 2008 to 2016, incorporating often neglected small seizures reported in Chinese. During that period, the equivalent of 65,849 pangolin individuals (23,109 individuals and 21,377 kg of scales) were recorded in 206 seizures in China. Using social network analysis, Guangzhou, Fangchenggang and Kunming were identified as key nodes of the illegal pangolin market. Our work highlights the scale and scope of pangolin trade in China, applies novel methods for analyzing trade patterns, and offers guidance for future law enforcement and policy interventions for combatting wildlife trade internationally. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Poaching and the international trade in wildlife are escalating problems driven by poverty and greed and coordinated by increasingly sophisticated criminal networks. Biodiversity loss, caused by habitat change, is exacerbated by poaching, and species globally are facing extinction. Forensic evidence underpins human and animal criminal investigations and is critical in criminal prosecution and conviction. The application of forensic tools, particularly forensic genetics, to animal case work continues to advance, providing the systems to confront the challenges of wildlife investigations. This article discusses some of these tools, their development, and implementations, as well as recent advances. Examples of cases are provided in which forensic evidence played a key role in obtaining convictions, thus laying the foundation for the future application of techniques to disrupt the criminal networks and safeguard biodiversity through species protection.
Conservationists have long sought to reduce consumer demand for products from overexploited wildlife species. Health practitioners have also begun calling for reductions in the wildlife trade to reduce pandemic risk. Most wildlife‐focused demand reduction campaigns have lacked rigorous evaluations and thus their impacts remain unknown. There is thus an urgent need to review the evidence from beyond conservation science to inform future demand‐reduction efforts. We searched for systematic reviews of interventions that aimed to reduce consumer demand for products that are harmful (e.g., cigarettes and illicit drugs). In total, 41 systematic reviews were assessed, and their data extracted. Mass‐media campaigns and incentive programs were, on average, ineffective. While advertising bans, social marketing, and location bans were promising, there was insufficient robust evidence to draw firm conclusions. In contrast, the evidence for the effectiveness of norm appeals and risk warnings was stronger, with some caveats.
Persistent poaching fuelled by demand for elephant ivory and rhino horn continues to threaten these species. Despite international trade restrictions operating since the 1970s, limiting poaching has remained a substantial challenge over the last decade. The poaching economy of such storable goods is driven by a combination of persistent consumer demand and market speculation, and enabled by weak governance, lack of adequate resources for species protection, and alienation of local people who pay the costs of living alongside these species. We argue that restricting the legal supply of such wildlife products has created ideal conditions for the poaching economy — ‘poachernomics’ — to thrive. Strategies that move toward empowering local communities with stronger property rights over wildlife and delivering more benefits to them, including via carefully regulated legal trade, are underused elements in the current fight against the onslaught of the international illegal wildlife trade.
Conservation news from Africa generally seems to exude crisis. Over the last decade,especially, we have witnessed the increasingly visible decline of charismatic species such as the rhino, elephant, cheetah, lion, giraffe and others, coupled with an ongoing defaunation of many forested areas. What is much less visible is that in certain areas an important countertrend is also occurring: the growth of wildlife species, most notably through the stocking of private lands and initiatives to develop broader wildlife economies. This article explores these two trends and shows that they are key in understanding conservation in sub-Sahara Africa and its rapidly changing political economy more generally.Focusing on South Africa, especially the booming wildlife economy in the Greater Kruger area, the article argues that the private possession or commodified management of conservation spaces and its (over)stocking of species actually benefits from an overall decline of charismatic species. As the number of charismatic species declines across the continent, it increases the value of well-stocked, privately conserved lands, providing their owners with unique sources of profit and revenue. The result is an intensification of uneven wildlife geographies across Africa.
Conservationists have long sought to reduce consumer demand for overexploited wildlife products. More recently, health practitioners and others have begun calling for reductions in the wildlife trade to reduce the risk of pandemics. Despite this broadening interest, most wildlife-focused demand reduction campaigns have lacked rigorous evaluations and thus their impacts remain unknown. There is thus an urgent need to review the evidence from beyond conservation science to inform future demand-reduction efforts. We searched for systematic reviews of interventions that aimed to reduce consumer demand for harmful products (e.g., cigarettes and illicit drugs). In total, 41 systematic reviews were assessed, and their data extracted. Mass-media campaigns and incentive programs were, on average, ineffective. While advertising bans, social marketing and location bans were promising, there was insufficient robust evidence to draw firm conclusions. In contrast, the evidence for the effectiveness of risk warnings and appeals to norms was stronger, with some caveats.
Wild vertebrate populations all over the globe are in decline, with poaching being the second-most-important cause. The high poaching rate of rhinoceros may drive these species into extinction within the coming decades. Some stakeholders argue to lift the ban on international rhino horn trade to potentially benefit rhino conservation, as current interventions appear to be insufficient. We reviewed scientific and grey literature to scrutinize the validity of reasoning behind the potential benefit of legal horn trade for wild rhino populations. We identified four mechanisms through which legal trade would impact wild rhino populations, of which only the increased revenue for rhino farmers could potentially benefit rhino conservation. Conversely, the global demand for rhino horn is likely to increase to a level that cannot be met solely by legal supply. Moreover, corruption is omnipresent in countries along the trade routes, which has the potential to negatively affect rhino conservation. Finally, programmes aimed at reducing rhino horn demand will be counteracted through trade legalization by removing the stigma on consuming rhino horn. Combining these insights and comparing them with criteria for sustainable wildlife farming, we conclude that legalizing rhino horn trade will likely negatively impact the remaining wild rhino populations. To preserve rhino species, we suggest to prioritize reducing corruption within rhino horn trade, increasing the rhino population within well-protected 'safe havens' and implementing educational programmes and law enforcement targeted at rhino horn consumers.
In a recent article, Corey Wrenn argues that in order to adequately address injustices done to animals, we ought to think systemically. Her argument stems from a critique of the individualist approach I employ to resolve a moral dilemma faced by animal sanctuaries, who sometimes must harm some animals to help others. But must systemic critiques of injustice be at odds with individualist approaches? In this paper, I respond to Wrenn by showing how individualist approaches that take seriously the notion of group responsibility can be deployed to solve complicated dilemmas that are products of injustice. Contra Wrenn, I argue that to adequately address injustice, acting individually, often within groups, is significantly more important than thinking systemically.
Traditional Asian Medicines (TAM) contain plant and animal compounds that may be derived from endangered species
(Cheng et al. 2014; Coghlan et al. 2015). This is a cause for concern as the use of wild animal parts in TAM can put added
pressure on populations of many threatened species. The use of wildlife products in TAM has spread beyond Asia, via the
Asian diaspora, to other continents including North America (Petrossian et al. 2016), Australia (Coghlan et al. 2012), and Africa
(Nguyen and Robert 2020). Coghlan et al. (2012) found DNA from Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) in TAM products in
Australia, and trade of Asian species, for TAM purposes was also recorded recently in South Africa (Nguyen and Robert 2020).
The aim of the current pilot study was to investigate the animal species composition of TAM products seized in the United
Kingdom (UK).
Fourteen TAM products suspected to contain illegal wildlife that had been seized over the last 20 years from shops in
London, were provided by the Wildlife Crime Unit of the London Metropolitan Police and subjected to DNA nucleotide
sequence analysis for species identification. DNA from all samples was recovered using the QIAGEN DNeasy blood and tissue
DNA extraction kit, following the manufacturer’s instructions. The mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b gene was targeted for
sequence analysis, as it is known to enable diagnostic identification of multiple mammalian species. PCR amplification was
first attempted using universal mcb primers (Verma and Singh 2003) and subsequently, for products advertised as containing
bear bile, using bear-specific primers, ut172f and ut367r (Peppin et al. 2008). Positive and negative controls were used
throughout.
What is an animal? In addition to biological and ecological answers, the animal needs to be explored in its psychological and social dimensions. The animal has long been a symbol of human psyche and culture, from fairy tales to horror films, Oedipal pets to animal phobias, scapegoating and large-group symbols, philosophy to ideology and myth. This article explores animal symbols, totems and taboos, and their interaction with non-human nature, through the perspective of ecopsychoanalysis (Dodds 2011), combining, psychoanalytic, eco(psycho)logical and Deleuze-Guattarian modes of thought. Three animal-types are identified, and these are placed within Guattari’s ‘three ecologies’ of mind, society, and nature, seen as in constant, complex nonlinear interaction with one another. Expanding Bion’s ‘binocular vision’, we need to include along with individual psychology and social dynamics interactions with non-human nature. How does an idea or a phantasy impact on an ecosystem or social system? How do our own minds shudder upon collision with the hyperobject of climate change? These are some of the core concerns that ecopsychoanalysis seeks to address.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) consists of a plethora of therapeutic approaches aiming to both characterize and treat diseases. Its utilization has gained significant popularity in the western world and is even backed by the World Health Organization’s decision to include TCM diagnostic patterns into the new revision of the International Classification of Diseases code, the global standard for diagnostic health information. As these developments and potentially far-reaching decisions can affect modern healthcare systems and daily clinical work as well as wildlife conservation, its underlying factual basis must be critically examined. This article therefore provides an overview of the evidence underlying the basic TCM concepts, such as Qi, meridians, acupuncture, pulse and tongue diagnostics as well as traditional herbal treatments. Moreover, it discusses whether scientific literature on TCM reflects the current standard for evidence-based research, as described in good scientific practice and good clinical practice guidelines. Importantly, misinformation regarding the therapeutic efficacy of animal-derived substances has lead and currently leads to problems with wildlife preservation and animal ethics. Nevertheless, the (re-)discovery of artemisinin more than 50 years ago introduced a novel development in TCM: the commingling of Eastern and Western medicine, the appreciation of both systems. The need for more rigorous approaches, fulfilment of and agreement to current guidelines to achieve high-quality research are of utmost relevance. Thereby, ancient knowledge of herbal species and concoctions may serve as a possible treasure box rather than Pandora’s box.
Objective:
Fraudulent health claims-false or misleading claims used to promote health remedies that are untested, ineffective, and often harmful-cause extensive and persistent harm to consumers. To address this problem, novel interventions are needed that address the underlying cognitive mechanisms that render consumers susceptible to fraudulent health claims. However, there is currently no single framework of relevant psychological insights to design interventions for this purpose. The current review aims to address this gap.
Method:
An integrative theoretical review was conducted across several relevant disciplines including criminology; behavioural economics; and cognitive, health, and social psychology.
Results:
The current review presents a novel taxonomy that aims to serve as an agenda for future research to systematically design and compare interventions based on empirical evidence. Specifically, this taxonomy identifies (i) the psychological drivers that make consumers susceptible to fraudulent health claims, (ii) the psychological barriers that may prevent successful application of interventions, and (iii) proposes evidence-informed treatments to overcome those barriers.
Conclusions:
The resulting framework integrates behavioural insights from several hitherto distinct disciplines and structures promising interventions according to five underlying psychological drivers: Visceral influence, Affect, Nescience, Misinformation, and Norms (VANMaN). The taxonomy presents an integrative and accessible theoretical framework for designing evidence-informed interventions to protect consumers from fraudulent health claims. This review has broad implications for numerous topical issues including the design and evaluation of anti-fraud campaigns, efforts to address the growing problem of health-related misinformation, and for countering the polarisation of politically sensitive health issues.
This case study describes the dynamics of rhino horn trafficking in Nhi Khe, Viet Nam, and the fluctuations of the value of raw rhino horn presented to the Wildlife Justice Commission's undercover operatives during the course of their field investigations. The paper hopes to inform the wider debate on what drives the demand for rhino horn.
The variety of wildlife products used in Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) is extensive and includes many species that have been designated as threatened according to the IUCN Red List criteria. However, the role of TAM in global health care has been recognised by the World Health Organisation and TAM practices is predicted to increase globally. In 2013, China announced its ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to increase China’s involvement in international development, cover 65 countries. The expansion of BRI, with promotion of TAM as a key tenant, increases trade connectivity between Africa and China may create an opportunity for wildlife trafficking, particularly for high value wildlife products such as those used in TAM. This research aims to explore TAM practitioners and consumers’ knowledge and preference in South Africa towards the use of wildlife parts; determine how it might contribute to the illegal trade and consumption at national and international levels; and determine which factors influence choice of treatment. Market surveys were conducted to evaluate the scale of the markets, social surveys undertaken to examine the trade and demand between South Africa and Vietnam, and a specialised questioning technique used to estimate the use of endangered wild animal species in TAM. Three main groups of TAM consumers were identified in South Africa: the new Asian migrants, the Chinese African and the local African. There is a strong belief ingrained in TAM users in the power of consuming wild animal parts as medicine across all consumer groups. Our findings suggest that the practice of TAM, including the use of wild animal parts is established among the local African peoples, beyond the Asian diaspora. There were a considerable number of wild animal parts being sold for TAM purposes in South Africa, including raw parts from Asian species such as bear bile and gallbladder, and processed products that have been manufactured within Asia and potentially smuggled into South Africa for domestic consumption. Together, these findings enhance our knowledge regarding the illegal trade and consumption of wild animal parts for TAM in South Africa, and highlighted the need for collaboration efforts between organisations and relevant stakeholders to tackle these issues.
The conservation and utilization of wild animals in China often raises public concerns. Thus, the Chinese government is increasingly exploring sustainable development of wildlife resources, and has implemented a series of measures, such as the modification of the Wildlife Protection Law (WPL), implementation of captive breeding licenses, an animal marking system, forest certification, and other actions to regulate captive breeding and utilization of wildlife. At the same time, the government tries to meet the Chinese traditional demand for wildlife products. We first introduce wildlife utilization as an internationally accepted conservation tool, and describe market-based wildlife farming as a legal substitute for wild-hunted animals. Second, we highlight the importance of wildlife products in Chinese culture and economy and review some successful examples of wildlife utilization in China, showing that the supply-side approach is a viable alternative to classical conservation. Subsequently, we outline benefits of, and drawbacks to, China's 'conservation through utilization' approach, resulting in the implementation of China's new, revised WPL. We discuss merits and shortcomings of China's revised WPL and respond to recent national and international criticism on China's supply-side approach to conservation. We strongly propose that captive breeding is a feasible approach to China's wildlife conservation-utilization dilemma, and much work is needed to promote the progress, such as legislation restructure, government attention, duties clarification, and so on. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.
Descriptions of the use of natural products in traditional medicine have served as starting points for new therapeutics. The details of the traditional use of these organisms can provide important information for future drug discovery and development efforts. Recent technologic advances provide the framework to leverage ethnopharmacologic data in the drug discovery process. Information on the traditional harvest, preparation, storage, and administration of the organisms, and the natural products they contain, provides valuable details regarding characteristics of the active compounds. Importantly, researchers can now rapidly analyze and identify the multiple, and often synergistic, compounds contained in these natural products. Although we are entering the acme of ethnopharmacology, where information regarding the traditional use of organisms can provide valuable natural product leads and accelerate the identification of new therapeutics, this ethnopharmacologic resource is threatened by the loss of traditional medicine knowledge and extinction of organisms. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Volume 58 is January 6, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The Australian Rhino Project (www.theaustralianrhinoproject.org) proposes importing 80 rhinos from South Africa to Australia by 2019 at a cost of over $US4 million, and the first six due to have been moved in 2016. This project has high profile supporters in the private sector, zoos and both governments, and is gaining major publicity through association with sporting teams and TedEx talks (http://www.theaustralianrhinoproject.org/index.php/news/blogs/11-news-and-blogs/242-ray-tedx). However, establishing extralimital populations of African rhinos is a very low priority conservation action, particularly given over 800 are already in captivity, and we argue this project diverts funds and expertise away from more important activities; the proposed captive conditions will lead to selection for domestic traits; the most likely species involved is the white rhino, which is the lowest priority rhino species for conservation; it removes a driver of in situ conservation; it does not focus on the critically endangered Asian rhino species; and it extends the historical exploitation of Africa's resources by colonial powers. There are also insufficient details in the public domain about the project for objective decision-making. We believe this is misdirected neo-colonial conservation and the policy support from both governments for this project should be reconsidered.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12354/full
After the five mass extinctions on Earth that were caused by meteorite impacts, volcanism and large-scale climate change, several scientists predict that we are currently at the beginning of a sixth mass extinction. In this scenario, it is humankind that is causing the mass extinction with the illegal trade in wildlife as one of the most important hazards to wildlife species. This chapter presents an analysis of the causes and consequences of the global defaunation in the context of technological innovation and industrialisation of the wildlife trade. The complexity of the current decline of biodiversity and the effect of defaunation will be demonstrated by the sensibility of ecological interaction between animals and plants. The exploitation of natural resources has become a part of the social, political and economic dynamics.
The trade in wildlife is not a new phenomenon. The earliest civilizations were linked to the trade in live animals and parts thereof, from the Egyptian pharaohs to aristocrats in the modern era. In this chapter, the focus is on the global history of the wildlife trade in order to understand the social context of the trade. In dynamic social and cultural contexts the meaning of wildlife changes. It turns out that a wide variety of live animals and products thereof have been traded for functional, symbolic or entertainment purposes. From ostrich eggs for the treatment of fractured skulls, live monkeys as ladies’ pets to caviar as a delicacy for the upper classes. However, the impact of the diverse trade in wildlife soon posed a threat to certain species; it was already noticed in early antiquity that species had disappeared due to the extensive trade.
Traffic Southeast Asia
- B. Venkataraman
Traffic East Asia Report
- R. Wasser
- P. B. Jiao
Congressional Research Service
- L. S. Wyler
- P. A. Sheikh
CITES Communication SC61 Doc
- S Chunyu
Chunyu, S. CITES Communication SC61 Doc. 41,
Annex 2 (2011).
- L S Wyler
- P A Sheikh
Wyler, L. S. & Sheikh, P. A. Congressional Research
Service (2009).
- R Wasser
- P B Jiao
Wasser, R. M & Jiao, P. B. Traffic East Asia Report
(2010).
- B Venkataraman
Venkataraman, B. (Comps) Traffic Southeast Asia
(2007)