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Content may be subject to copyright.
1844 • J Clin Pharmacol 2012;52:1844-1851
Human teratogenicity of oral retinoids was clearly
established by the mid-1980s. Their use in preg-
nancy both increases the risk for spontaneous
abortion and leads to the characteristic retinoid
embryopathy, comprising anomalies of the ears,
facial and palate defects, micrognathia, cardiovas-
cular defects, and developmental impairment of
the thymus and the central nervous system.1 Mental
deficiencies have also been reported in children
with no notable physical anomaly exposed in utero
to isotretinoin.2 Consequently, retinoids are consid-
ered to date the most serious teratogenic threat since
thalidomide, and pregnancy prevention programs are
implemented worldwide (eg, iPLEDGE)3 to reduce
inadvertent exposures.4
Topical retinoids are used to treat a variety of
dermatologic conditions, from acne to sun damage.
They are also ingredients commonly found in cos-
meceuticals, making women of childbearing age prime
candidates for their use. Human and animal data
argue against plausible teratogenicity because of
minimal systemic absorption (values measured from
undetectable to a small fraction of the dose, not
exceeding endogenous levels) after topical application
in the absence of significant skin damage.5-10 However,
despite such reassuring considerations, several pub-
lished case reports described infants exposed in utero
Concerns have been raised about the use of topical retinoids
since the publication of isolated cases of characteristic
retinoid embryopathy, originally described after oral use. A
collaborative study of the European Network of Teratology
Information Services was carried out to evaluate the rate of
congenital malformations following first-trimester topical
retinoid exposure. A population of 235 exposed pregnant
women was compared with 444 controls. No significant
differences were observed between groups with regard to
the rates of spontaneous abortion (odds ratio [95% confi-
dence interval], 1.5 [0.8-2.7]), minor birth defects (1.3 [0.4-
3.7]), and major birth defects (1.8 [0.6-5.4]). No child
showed features of retinoid embryopathy. The rate of elec-
tive termination in the exposed group was increased 3-fold
(3.4 [1.5-7.8]). In conclusion, these results do not suggest
an increased risk of retinoid embryopathy. However,
according to current knowledge, topical retinoids can-
not be advised for use during pregnancy because their risk/
benefit ratio remains questionable.
Keywords: Clinical pharmacology; drug information; preg-
nancy; topical retinoid; birth defect
Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2012;52:1844-1851
© 2012 The Author(s)
From the Department of Swiss Teratogen Information Service and Division
of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital, Lausanne,
Switzerland (Dr Panchaud, Dr Rousso, Dr Winterfeld, Dr Rothuizen, Dr
Buclin); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva,
Geneva, Switzerland (Dr Csajka); BELTIS, Rabin Medical Center, Petah
Tikva, Israel (Dr Merlob, Dr Stahl); Pharmakovigilanz- und Beratungszentrum
Embryonaltoxikologie, Berlin, Germany (Dr Schaefer); Drug Consultation–
TIS, Zerifin, Israel (Dr Berlin); Telefono Rosso–TIS, Roma, Italia (Dr De
Santis); Pharmacovigilance, Lyon, France (Dr Vial); TIS AOU Careggi,
Florence, Italy (Dr Ieri); Teratology Information Service, Helsinki University
Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland (Dr Malm); and Poison Control,
Bergamo, Italy (Dr Eleftheriou). Submitted for publication July 14, 2011;
revised version accepted October 18, 2011. Address for correspondence:
Alice Panchaud, Swiss Teratogen Information Service, STIS, Centre
Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Beaumont-6ème étage, 1011 Lausanne,
Switzerland; e-mail: Alice.Panchaud@chuv.ch.
DOI: 10.1177/0091270011429566
Pregnancy Outcome Following Exposure
to Topical Retinoids: A Multicenter
Prospective Study
Alice Panchaud, PhD, Chantal Csajka, PhD, Paul Merlob, MD,
Christof Schaefer, MD, PhD, Maya Berlin, MMedSc,
Marco De Santis, MD, Thierry Vial, MD, Alessandra Ieri, MD,
Heli Malm, MD, PhD, Georgios Eleftheriou, MD, PhD, MSc,
Bracha Stahl, MPharm, Philippe Rousso, MD, Ursula Winterfeld, PhD,
Laura E. Rothuizen, MD, and Thierry Buclin, MD
Pharmacodynamics
PREGNANCY OUTCOME FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO TOPICAL RETINOIDS
PHARMACODYNAMICS 1845
to topical tretinoin who exhibited structural abnor-
malities consistent with retinoic acid embryopathy.11-15
In contrast, 3 small epidemiological studies16-18 did
not identify a significantly increased risk associ-
ated with topical tretinoin, for either retinoic acid
embryopathy or major structural defects overall. One
case report on adapalene and 1 epidemiological study
involving tretinoin did not indicate an increased risk
of developmental disorders.19,20 Data on the safety of
several topical retinoids (motretinide, tazarotene,
adapalene) in pregnancy are still missing.
According to current knowledge, health care
practitioners remain reluctant to rule out a potential
for low-level teratogenicity of topical retinoids.21
This might consequently foster maternal fear and
lead to termination of healthy and otherwise wanted
pregnancies even though the risk of malformations
from topical retinoid exposure is not considered
significantly increased by many teratology informa-
tion specialists.22
The purpose of this study was to assess the fre-
quency of a spectrum of adverse birth outcomes
associated with first-trimester exposure to topical
retinoids, to enrich rather scarce human data avail-
able to date. We compared the overall prevalence of
major or minor birth defects at birth, the rate of spon-
taneous abortion, and the rate of elective termination
of pregnancy after first-trimester exposure to topical
retinoids with the baseline prevalence in pregnan-
cies exposed to no known teratogen.
METHOD
Our prospective, controlled, multicenter, observa-
tional study involved 11 teratology information ser-
vices (TIS). It enrolled pregnant women exposed
during the first trimester to topical retinoids, and
these women or their doctors contacted a TIS to seek
advice between 1992 and 2006. Patients were asked
for consent to further gather follow-up information.
The 11 TIS centers are members of the European
Network of Teratology Information Services (ENTIS),
an organization of services providing evidence-based
information on the safety and risks associated with
exposure to drugs during pregnancy and breastfeed-
ing, using similar methodology. Furthermore, ENTIS
members document prospectively the course of
exposed pregnancies to study drug safety with respect
to developmental toxicity.23 The study was approved
by the ENTIS investigational committee.
Women were exposed to adapalene, tretinoin,
isotretinoin, motretinide, retinol, or tazarotene; if
more than 1 topical retinoid was used, exposure was
classified as a combination. The exposed group was
compared with an ENTIS control group of women
who had used drugs known to be nonteratogenic
during pregnancy (eg, paracetamol, labetalol,
meclozine, loratadine, salbutamol, ranitidine, amox-
icillin, omeprazol, budesonide inhalation). Controls
were enrolled in the same TIS/country, in a similar
timeframe. Similar documentation and follow-up
methodology were used in both the exposed preg-
nancies and the controls. To strengthen the power of
our study, a 1:2 ratio was used between the size of
the cohort exposed to topical retinoids and of the
control group. Each case of topical retinoid exposure
was to be matched with 2 controls of the same center
for maternal age and gestational age at the time of
the call.
Using structured questionnaires or phone inter-
views, exposure details (drug, time of exposure,
dose), concomitant medication, maternal demograph-
ics, and medical and obstetric histories were col-
lected prospectively for each pregnant woman (ie,
topical retinoid use or control group).24
After the predicted date of birth, follow-up infor-
mation was requested through structured telephone
interviews and/or mailed questionnaires sent to the
mothers or physicians. Details on pregnancy out-
come, gestational age at delivery, birth weight, con-
genital anomalies, and neonatal complications were
obtained. In most cases, gathering of follow-up data
was performed during the neonatal period. Pregnant
women considered lost to follow-up were not included
in the analysis (overall rate of loss to follow-up in
the ENTIS group is known to range from 10% to 40%
and is expected to be similar in both groups). A
variable was not considered for analysis if more than
30% of the data were missing.
The primary outcome of interest was the rate of
major birth defects, defined as having serious medi-
cal, surgical, or cosmetic consequences,25 and minor
birth defects with special attention to anomalies
indicative of retinoid embryopathy. All reported
birth defects in exposed and control newborns were
sent to an ENTIS birth defect specialist, who blindly
classified them between major and minor. Secondary
end points were the rates of live births, spontaneous
abortions, pregnancy terminations (elective or ther-
apeutic), stillbirths, premature births (<37 weeks),
gestational age at term, and birth weight. Gestational
age in the present study is defined as the number of
weeks after the last menstrual period.
The proportion of major or minor birth defects,
spontaneous abortions, elective or therapeutic abor-
tions, and live births reported in the exposed group
1846 • J Clin Pharmacol 2012;52:1844-1851
PANCHAUD ET AL
was compared with the control group using a χ2 test
or Fisher exact test when assumptions for χ2 were
not met. In addition, a 95% confidence interval (CI)
was defined using odds ratio (OR) calculation for
major and minor birth defect rates. All continuous
variables of interest, such as gestational age at birth
and birth weight, were compared between the
exposed and the control groups using the Student t
test or Wilcoxon test when assumptions for paramet-
ric tests were not met. The level of statistical signifi-
cance was set at P < .05 for the primary outcome. For
all other outcomes, P values were presented only for
exploratory comparisons. To assess the impact of
heterogeneity among retinoids, we applied an anal-
ysis of deviance in the framework of logistic regres-
sion analysis for categorical data and an analysis of
variance (ANOVA; with error sum of squares) for
continuous data.
We used a retrospective power calculation to esti-
mate the minimal detectable difference with the
available sample size (ie, estimation of the statistical
power of the study to detect an increase in birth
defects after topical retinoid exposure). This estima-
tion was performed assuming a significant level (α =
0.05) and a type II error rate (β = 0.2), as well as a
baseline incidence as the rate found in the control
group (1-tailed test).
The χ2 test, Student test, Wilcoxon test, logistic
regression, ANOVA, and power calculation were per-
formed using STATA version 9.2 (StataCorp, College
Station, Texas).
RESULTS
Eleven TIS of the European Network participated in
the study. Three centers could not provide controls
as requested. The Berlin TIS provided the missing
controls for Europe and Zerifin for Israel (Table I). A
total of 235 pregnancy outcomes were recorded fol-
lowing exposure to various topical retinoids (treti-
noin, n = 143; isotretinoin, n = 52; adapalene, n = 24;
retinoic acid, n = 10; motretinide, n = 1; combina-
tion, n = 5; Table II), and 444 matched outcomes in
controls exposed to drugs considered nonteratogens
were collected. Several descriptive variables were
not considered for analysis as they comprised more
than 30% of missing values (eg, street drug use,
detailed concomitant medication, gestity, parity,
social status).
Almost all patients treated with topical retinoids
were exposed from the beginning of pregnancy, with
the treatment having been started before conception.
The mean start time of exposure was 1.8 ± 3.2 gesta-
tional weeks. Most pregnant women stopped topi-
cal retinoids when pregnancy was confirmed, thus
yielding a mean time of exposure of 8.1 ± 5.8 gesta-
tional weeks. The most frequent treatment indica-
tion was acne (n = 174). Psoriasis, alopecia, bleaching,
dermatitis, and cellulitis were less often reported.
Maternal characteristics of patients in the topical
retinoids group and the control group are presented
in Table III. Except for a slight difference in maternal
age, there were no significant differences in any of
the maternal characteristics in both groups. Women
Table I Teratogen Information Services
Retinoids
(n = 235)
Controls
(n = 444)
Servicio de Información Telefónica
sobre Teratógenos Español
(Madrid, Spain)
19 0
Servizio di Tossicologica Perinatale
(Firenze, Italy)
19 21
Beilinson Teratology Information
Service (Tel Aviv, Israel)
13 28
Israel Teratogen Information service
(Jerusalem, Israel)
27 0
TIS-Helsinki (Finland) 8 16
Centre de Pharmacovigilance
(Lyon, France)
26 52
Poison Control Centre (Bergamo,
Italy)
6 16
TelefonoRosso (Rome, Italy) 27 56
Drug Consultation Information
Center (Zerifin, Israel)
4 64
Swiss Teratogen Information
Service (Lausanne, Switzerland)
13 0
Pharmakovigilanz- und
Beratungszentrum
Embryonaltoxikologie (Berlin,
Germany)
73 191
Table II Retinoids Identified
Retinoids (n = 235)
Tretinoin 143
Isotretinoin 52
Adapalene 24
Retinoic acid 10
Motretinide 1
Combination 5
PREGNANCY OUTCOME FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO TOPICAL RETINOIDS
PHARMACODYNAMICS 1847
Table III Maternal Data
Retinoids Controls P Valuea
Maternal age 222 435
Median, y [range] 30 [21-42] 32 [17-48] .0024
<24, No. (%) 25 (11) 36 (8)
25-30, No. (%) 90 (40) 130 (30)
31-35, No. (%) 70 (32) 168 (39)
≥35, No. (%) 37 (17) 101 (23)
Gestational weeks at call
Median, wk [range] 7 [3-35] 8 [2-39] .23
Tobacco use, No. (%) 23 (12) 32 (7) .14
Alcohol use, No. (%) 10 (5) 13 (3) .38
a. χ2/Fisher exact or Student/Wilcoxon tests.
Table IV Pregnancy Outcomes and Newborn Data
Retinoids Controls P Valuea
Live born, No. (%) 200 (85) 410 (92)
Spontaneous abortion, No. (%) 19 (8) 26 (6) .19
Elective termination, No. (%) 15 (6) 7 (2) <.001
Therapeutic termination, No. (%) 1 (<1) 0 (0) .16
Fetal death, No. (%) 0 (0) 1 (<1) .65
Gestational age at term
Mean ± SD, wk 39.4 ± 1.9 39.4 ± 2.1 .43
<37 wk, No. (%) 9 (5) 29 (7) .32
Birth weight (n = 192) (n = 362)
Mean ± SD, g 3301 ± 495 3324 ± 567 .32
Sex (n = 193) (n = 349)
Male, No. (%) 94 (49) 178 (51) .55
a. χ2/Fisher exact or Student/Wilcoxon tests.
in both groups were enrolled in the study at a simi-
lar gestational timing, on average at the end of their
second month of pregnancy.
Pregnancy and newborn outcomes are detailed in
Table IV. A total of 200 live births, 19 spontaneous
abortions, 15 elective terminations, 1 therapeutic
termination, and no stillbirths were observed in
the group exposed to topical retinoids. None of the
children showed features of retinoid embryopathy.
The mean (SD) gestational age at delivery was 39.4
(1.9) weeks, and mean (SD) birth weight was 3301
(495) g. Pregnancy outcomes in the control group
included 410 live births, 26 spontaneous abortions,
7 elective terminations, 0 therapeutic terminations,
and 1 stillbirth. The mean (SD) gestational age at
delivery was 39.4 (2.1) weeks, and mean (SD) birth
weight was 3324 (567) g.
The proportion of mothers who spontaneously
aborted or had a therapeutic termination of preg-
nancy was not significantly different in the topical
retinoids group compared with the control group
(8% vs 6% for spontaneous abortion: P = .19; less
than 1% vs 0% for therapeutic termination: P = .16).
However, women in the exposed group were more
likely to undergo elective termination of their preg-
nancy (6% in the exposed group vs 2% in the control
group; P < .001). Gestational age at term, as calcu-
lated from the first day of the last menstrual period
1848 • J Clin Pharmacol 2012;52:1844-1851
PANCHAUD ET AL
Table V Birth Defects in Retinoid and Control Group
Retinoids (n = 235) Controls (n = 444) Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval)
Major birth defects, No. (%) 8 (3.4) 9 (2.0) 1.8 (0.6-5.4)
Major birth defects in the retinoids group:
n = 1, congenital cerebral cysts (newborn with autism)
n = 1, bilateral polycystic kidneys (early termination of pregnancy at 21 weeks)
n = 1, hemangiomas (all body)
n = 1, angiomas (feet and back)
n = 1, congenital cataract (right eye)
n = 1, microphthalmia (right eye)
n = 1, cleft soft palate
n = 1, ventricular septal defect + congenital pulmonary valve stenosis + coarctation of
aorta + undescended testicle
Minor birth defects, No. (%) 7 (3.0) 11 (2.5) 1.3 (0.4-3.7)
Minor birth defects in the retinoids group:
n = 2, ankyloglossia
n = 1, ear lobe undeveloped
n = 1, blurred vision (hypermetropia)
n = 1, congenital nonneoplastic nevus
n = 1, metatarsus varus
n = 1, other misshapen ear (similar to mother’s ears)
or according to standard algorithms for uncertain
dates or discrepant ultrasound dating, was similar in
both groups (mean [SD], 39.4 [1.9] vs 39.4 [2.1] weeks;
P = .43). The proportion of preterm infants (<37 com-
pleted weeks’ gestation) did not significantly differ
between study groups (5% for the retinoids group vs
7% for the control group; P = .32). No statistical dif-
ference in birth weight was detected (P = .32).
Eight major and 7 minor birth defects among live-
born infants were observed in the retinoids group
compared with 9 and 11, respectively, in the control
group (Table V). One of the major birth defects (ie,
bilateral polycystic kidneys) was diagnosed at week
21 of pregnancy and led to therapeutic termination.
Other than this case, no elective termination or
spontaneous abortion is known to have been moti-
vated or shown by a major malformation. However,
no systematic histopathologic investigation was con-
ducted. There were no significant differences between
the exposed and control groups in the occurrence of
major birth defects (OR [CI], 1.8 [0.6-5.4]) and minor
birth defects (1.3 [0.4-3.7]). Furthermore, none of the
children showed features of retinoid embryopathy in
the retinoids group.
Based on 235 topical retinoid exposures and 444
controls, our study had sufficient power (80%) to
detect a 2.4 increase in the risk for major birth defects
and a 2.5 increase for minor birth defects (α = 0.05
and β = 0.2).
DISCUSSION
To our knowledge, this is the largest prospective
cohort study on reproductive safety of topical reti-
noids during pregnancy. Consistent with previously
published epidemiologic observations, we found no
significant differences in infants exposed to topi-
cal retinoids compared with controls on any out-
come measured, except for elective pregnancy
termination. Furthermore, we found no evidence
of an increase in anomalies consistent with reti-
noic acid embryopathy.
Our findings are also consistent with the lack of
biological plausibility for a teratogenic effect due to
limited systemic bioavailability of retinoids applied
by the transdermal route.6,26 Although appropriate
levels of retinol must be maintained for normal embry-
ogenesis, both deficiencies and excess levels may
be teratogenic. The exogenous application of topical
retinoids is not expected to significantly increase
endogenous levels. A physiologically based pharma-
cokinetic evaluation of topical retinoids predicted that
PREGNANCY OUTCOME FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO TOPICAL RETINOIDS
PHARMACODYNAMICS 1849
systemic exposure to tretinoin through the skin results
in a 4 to 5 order of magnitude lower exposure than a
minimally teratogenic dose.5 Furthermore, the results
of various studies on the systemic absorption of
retinoids after topical use suggest very low plasmatic
levels. Neither single-dose nor long-term treatment
with topical 0.05% tretinoin cream affected endoge-
nous levels of tretinoin or its metabolites.7 After 42
days of an excessive application of 0.1% isotretinoin
cream, plasma concentrations indicated systemic
absorption but to a lesser extent than reported after
oral intake of 5000 IU of vitamin A supplementa-
tion.27 After topical treatment of the entire facial area
with adapalene 0.1% gel once daily for 12 weeks, no
adapalene could be detected in the plasma of exposed
patients.28 The systematic bioavailability of tazarotene
nears 1% of the dose after single or multiple applica-
tions to healthy skin but might increase up to 5%
under steady-state conditions in patients with psoria-
sis.8 In summary, under usual therapeutic use condi-
tions, an increase in plasma concentration resulting
from topical retinoid application is expected to be far
less than naturally occurring (endogenous) retinoid
plasma levels.
Several case reports of malformations compatible
with retinoid embryopathy after maternal use of topi-
cal tretinoin during the first trimester of pregnancy
nevertheless have been published.11-15 Although it is
certainly possible that these associations were coin-
cidental, a specific individual susceptibility to the
risk of embryopathy from topical retinoids use can-
not be completely ruled out.
The increased number of elective terminations of
pregnancy after inadvertent exposure to topical reti-
noids could not be attributed directly as a cause for
elective termination of pregnancy, as information on
factors influencing the patient’s decision to termi-
nate pregnancy was not reported. However, it is pos-
sible that patients’ or providers’ perceptions of fetal
risk might have contributed to this eventuality. Since
the thalidomide disaster, a high level of anxiety
among patients and physicians has been observed
regarding the use of drugs in general during preg-
nancy. For drugs associated with negative outcomes,
this anxiety can even become deleterious. Thus,
doubts on the safety of a drug can lead to potential
harmful effects such as psychological distress,
abrupt discontinuation of needed medication, and
even termination of healthy and otherwise wanted
pregnancies.29,30
In our study, different retinoids were pooled
together for the statistical analysis. Different com-
pounds, however, may have a different teratogenic
potential, depending on their pharmacotoxicological
activity or susceptibility to absorption in the sys-
temic circulation. The impact of this heterogeneity
on primary end points was explored by logistic
regression analysis, and no effect was observed.
It is well known that the prevalence of congenital
malformations is linked to maternal age. Yet, the dif-
ference observed (32 vs 30 years) is not expected to
significantly change the prevalence of overall con-
genital birth defects according to previous findings.31
This was confirmed by a regression analysis that
indicated that the slight age difference reported in
our study had no impact on the major and minor
birth defect rates (results not shown).
The limitations of this study involve in particular
the relatively small sample size, despite data col-
lected over 10 years and the contribution of 11 TIS
centers. Based on 235 topical retinoid exposure
cases, our study had the power to detect a 2 to 3
times increase in the risk of birth defects. Loureiro
et al17 calculated that their sample size (N = 106) was
sufficient to rule out a 4-fold risk for all major struc-
tural defects combined. Even if the absence of fea-
tures compatible with retinoid embryopathy is
clearly reassuring, smaller effects may not have been
detected. Thus, it is important that more research
is conducted to increase sample size and allow for
detection of infrequent outcomes. Although the
response rate was not 100%, it is important to note
that the rate of loss to follow-up is expected to be the
same in the exposed group and control group as the
cases lost to follow-up are mostly due to technical
reasons (eg, change of address), which should ran-
domly occur, and not because of a refusal to fill in the
questionnaire. We therefore believe that this does not
introduce a significant selection bias. Another limita-
tion was that some factors considered potential con-
founders were not fully documented (ie, street drug
use, concomitant medication, gestity, parity, social
status) for analysis. The effects of potent teratogens
are likely to outweigh concerns surrounding adjust-
ment for confounders. Additional data on potential
confounders, however, would contribute to quantify
moderate increases in risk. Teratogen information
services are likely to provide the most accurate infor-
mation because most cases are reviewed by an expert
in teratology, and the reporter is usually the obstetri-
cian attending the birth. Such centers encourage
follow-up by minimizing the effort for the physician
in terms of paperwork and time, though, thus leading
to a lack of completeness of outcome data. Finally,
other limitations of the study are as follows: recruit-
ment not early enough to assess risk for early first-
trimester miscarriage; reliance on maternal interview
as a source for outcome data in a large proportion of
1850 • J Clin Pharmacol 2012;52:1844-1851
PANCHAUD ET AL
cases; variation in timing of follow-up; combining
data from 11 TIS, including 3 centers without control
data (a subanalysis showed no significant difference
on primary end points); and a nonrandomized design
with no blindness to exposure. However, applying
the same procedure to both groups and the prospec-
tive nature of data collected minimize potential biases
(eg, no significant difference on primary end points
observed between recruitment centers; P = .8 for
major birth defects and P = .1 for minor birth defects).
Although not ideal compared with prospective, ran-
domized control trials, such epidemiological sur-
veys have the advantage of easier feasibility and the
merit of providing rapidly useful information.
In summary, women exposed to topical retinoids
during the first trimester of pregnancy do not seem at
higher risk for major birth defects in neonates, above
the baseline rate of 1% to 3%. Furthermore, this study
found no evidence of an increase in anomalies consist-
ent with retinoic acid embryopathy. This evidence-
based information can be helpful to women and health
care professionals who are facing a pregnancy diagno-
sis after maternal exposure to topical retinoids. These
results, together with the previous epidemiologic
observations, allow for reassurance in cases of inad-
vertent exposure during pregnancy. However, accord-
ing to the current knowledge, topical retinoids certainly
cannot be advised for use during pregnancy, as their
risk/benefit ratio remains uncertain.
The authors thank the members of the TIS Madrid (Spain) and
TIS Jerusalem (Israel) who have completed the first part of the
study providing 46 exposed cases.
Financial disclosure: None declared.
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