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A psychotechnological review on eye-tracking systems: Towards user experience
Abstract and Figures
The aim of the present work is to show a critical review of the international literature on eye-tracking technologies by focusing on those features that characterize them as 'psychotechnologies'.
A critical literature review was conducted through the main psychology, engineering, and computer sciences databases by following specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. A total of 46 matches from 1998 to 2010 were selected for content analysis. Results have been divided into four broad thematic areas.
We found that, although there is a growing attention to end-users, most of the studies reviewed in this work are far from being considered as adopting holistic human-computer interaction models that include both individual differences and needs of users. User is often considered only as a measurement object of the functioning of the technological system and not as a real alter-ego of the intrasystemic interaction.
In order to fully benefit from the communicative functions of gaze, the research on eye-tracking must emphasize user experience. Eye-tracking systems would become an effective assistive technology for integration, adaptation and neutralization of the environmental barrier only when a holistic model can be applied for both design processes and assessment of the functional components of the interaction.
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... Eye-tracking devices have been used as complementary evaluation tools in usability and user experience studies since the 1970s (Mele and Federici 2012). However, their widespread utilization has been traditionally difficult due to challenges in data analysis and some limitations of the technology itself. ...
Eye-tracking techniques are widely used to analyze user behavior. While eye-trackers collect valuable quantitative data, the results are often described in a qualitative manner due to the lack of a model that interprets the gaze trajectories generated by routine tasks, such as reading or comparing two products. The aim of this work is to propose a new quantitative way to analyze gaze trajectories (scanpaths) using machine learning. We conducted a within-subjects study ( N = 30) testing six different tasks that simulated specific user behaviors in web sites (attentional, comparing two images, reading in different contexts, and free surfing). We evaluated the scanpath results with three different classifiers (long short-term memory recurrent neural network—LSTM, random forest, and multilayer perceptron neural network—MLP) to discriminate between tasks. The results revealed that it is possible to classify and distinguish between the 6 different web behaviors proposed in this study based on the user’s scanpath. The classifier that achieved the best results was the LSTM, with a 95.7% accuracy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to provide insight about MLP and LSTM classifiers to discriminate between tasks. In the discussion, we propose practical implications of the study results.
... The minimal physical movement requirement for eye-tracking makes it a reliable method of communication, especially to people with severe disabilities (Karlsson et al. 2018). Large amounts of research have demonstrated the effectiveness, usefulness and usability of this technology (Mele and Federici 2012). For people who, due to nystagmus or other conditions cannot control their eye movements, BCI with direct brain access may be an alternative access method (Allison et al. 2007). ...
Communication is a vital skill of a human’s life. People with different types of disabilities may have Complex Communication Needs and may need a wearable device to help them to communicate. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is a term which refers to the methods of facilitating or replacing people’s communication abilities. Brain–computer interfaces (BCI) and Eye-Gaze Technology (EGT) are two widely used access technologies in AAC devices. However, there are only a few studies that have investigated the utilisation of these technologies in a Virtual Reality (VR) or Augmented Reality (AR) environment. VR and AR are both modern technologies which provide immersive environments. In addition, the Mixed Reality (MR) environment combines virtual reality with real life and may offer extra benefits such as better immersion, better interaction, and more information. This paper proposed an MR-based wearable AAC device and compared the usability and acceptability between its Eye-Gaze (EG) and BCI interaction options. Eight neurotypical participants and two participants with cerebral palsy participated. The result showed high usability (accuracy = 93.30%, the information transfer rate was 8.55 selections per minutes) and acceptability (QUEST 2.0 = 4.30, NASA-TLX = 2.14) in the EG session. In contrast, the usability of the BCI system in the current design was questionable. This novel interaction method using Electroencephalogram signals is not sufficiently exploited at the moment, and more research is suggested in the future.
... It also offers an opportunity for people with disabilities to maintain their interaction with the digital world (Hemmingsson & Borgestig, 2020;Sesin et al., 2008). Furthermore, eye-tracking technology can effectively be deployed in assessing individuals with disabilities (Mele & Federici, 2012) or validating the assessment tools (Miller & O'Donnell, 2013). To sum up, eye-tracking technology seems to be an indispensable part of contemporary special education. ...
The present study aimed to present how eye-tracking is employed in special education. While presenting the use of eye-tracking technology, the research considered some eye-tracking-related aspects, such as its potential to facilitate the education of children with special needs, investigation of disabilities through eye-tracking technology, and the relationship between learning outcomes and eye-tracking measurements in studies including children with special needs. Within specified criteria, this systematic review was carried out using famous electronic databases, such as Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Education Source, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and EBSCOhost. Accordingly, 48 papers reviewed demonstrated an increasing trend in the use of eye-tracking technology in special education research. The age range of the target group recruited in previous research was often between 6 and 11 years, and reading and word learning were the most studied learning outcomes. Moreover, dyslexia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were commonly investigated by children’s eye movements, particularly fixation duration and fixation count. This study also revealed that eye-tracking technology is helpful in exploring reading, word learning, mathematics skills, social communication, language development, motor learning, eyesight improvement, and route learning in special education. Furthermore, it is pretty suitable and effective to utilize eye-tracking technology as assistive technology (AT) to improve the learning environments of children with special needs.
... From a fixed point to another point of gaze movement called saccades, saccade count in AOI reflects the situation of information extraction. Fixation duration in AOI, regression count in AOI, and saccade count in AOI are negatively related to sense experience (Riege et al., 2020;Konstantakis and Caridakis, 2020;Andrychowicz-Trojanowska, 2018;Mele and Federici, 2012). The eye-tracking system could record the above three metrics. ...
... However, eye movement visual experiments mostly focus on landscapes (e.g., roads, greening landscapes, and their users) in cities. Several studies have focused on security, planning, mapping, participation, and visitor experience (Burian, Popelka & Beitlova, 2018;Lisińska & Krupa, 2020;Maurage, Masson, Bollen & D'Hondt, 2019;Mele & Federici, 2011), whereas others have examined the role of natural landscape elements (e.g., green vegetation, buildings, and human performance activities) in improving visitor's emotions Ren, Kang, Zhu & Wang, 2018;Van, 2018). However, only a few have examined the use of visual media in promoting visual engagement. ...
Understanding the complex interaction between human needs and physical facilities in public spaces remains a challenge given the knowledge gap in sustainable cities design and research. This study selected six typical urban business walkways to compare the physiological and psychological effects of a visual-audio environment dominated by visual media on visitors. A total of 180 visitors were randomly selected on 6 walkways to collect physiological and psychological data, and visual-audio environment data were collected in the matching location. Results show that visual media are the most attractive content type in the multi-media system of business walkways, and their attractiveness is evenly distributed among all visitors. This type of media also continuously extends the engagement of visitors during their visiting time. Specifically, visitors spend 71% of their time gazing at visual media that occupy only 31.4% of the walkway facade area. Visitors also stare at videos for a longer time compared with text and images. The different visual-audio interactions in the walkway have different effects on visitors’ eye movements. These visitors also have different evaluations between indoor and outdoor walkways. Specifically, visitors feel 64.4% more comfortable with the visual-audio environment in indoor walkways than in outdoor walkways. Visual-audio interaction has varying effects on visitors’ comfort. Combining images with sound elements generates positive feedback, and visitors feel comfortable when the video content matches the music. The types of music played in indoor and outdoor walkways lead to differences in the temporal variability of acoustic environments. The results of this work contribute to an optimized design of multi-media installed on different functional business district walkways, which in turn can enhance the attractiveness of urban business district areas and bring a comfortable experience to visitors.
... To aid in the understanding of UX, researchers have relied greatly on a neuromarketing technique, such as eye tracking. It is especially relevant in evaluating the UX of websites and interfaces because it grants researchers the visual perspective of a user and allows to establish the findability of specific calls to action (Mele and Federici, 2012;Fu et al., 2017). Two primary reasons researchers use eye tracking are that it is non-invasive and can help determine how a consumer reacts during his or her interactions with a web product or service. ...
This research project has the goal to verify whether the application of neuromarketing techniques, such as implicit association test (IAT) techniques and emotional facial expressions analyses may contribute to the assessment of user experience (UX) during and after website navigation. These techniques have been widely and positively applied in assessing customer experience (CX); however, little is known about their simultaneous application in the field of UX. As a specific context, the experience raised by different websites from two well-known automotive brands was compared. About 160 Italian university students were enrolled in an online experimental study. Participants performed a Brand Association Reaction Time Test (BARTT) version of the IAT where the two brands were compared according to different semantic dimensions already used in the automotive field. After completing the BARTT test, the participants navigated the target website: 80 participants navigated the first brand website, while the other half navigated the second brand website (between-subject design). During the first 3 min of website navigation, emotional facial expressions were recorded. The participants were asked to freely navigate the website home page, look for a car model and its characteristics and price, use the customising tool, and in the end, look for assistance. After the website navigation, all the participants performed, a second time, the BARTT version of the IAT, where the two brands were compared again, this time to assess whether the website navigation may impact the Implicit Associations previously detected. A traditional evaluation of the two websites was carried on by means of the classic heuristic evaluation. Findings from this study show, first of all, the significant results provided by neuromarketing techniques in the field of UX, as IAT can provide a positive application for assessing UX played by brand websites, thanks to the comparison of eventual changes in time reaction between the test performed before and after website navigation exposure. Secondly, results from emotional facial expression analyses during the navigation of both brand websites showed significant differences between the two Mauri et al. Measuring Emotions Is User Experience brands, allowing the researchers to predict the emotional impact raised by each website. Finally, the positive correlation with heuristic evaluation shows that neuromarketing can be successfully applied in UX.
Proper calibration of human reliance on AI is fundamental to achieving complementary performance in AI-assisted human decision-making. Most previous works focused on assessing user reliance, and more broadly trust, retrospectively, through user perceptions and task-based measures. In this work, we explore the relationship between eye gaze and reliance under varying task difficulties and AI performance levels in a spatial reasoning task. Our results show a strong positive correlation between percent gaze duration on the AI suggestion and user AI task agreement, as well as user perceived reliance. Moreover, user agency is preserved particularly when the task is easy and when AI performance is low or inconsistent. Our results also reveal nuanced differences between reliance and trust. We discuss the potential of using eye gaze to gauge human reliance on AI in real-time, enabling adaptive AI assistance for optimal human-AI team performance.
Intelligent everyday environments are expected to empower their inhabitants, assisting them in carrying out their everyday tasks, but also ensuring their well-being and prosperity. In this regard, the accessibility of an intelligent environment is of utmost importance to ensure that it fulfills user needs, but also that it is usable and useful for everyone, without imposing barriers or excluding individuals with disabilities or older adults. This chapter carries out a review of the state of the art in the field of interaction techniques in intelligent environments, analyzing their accessibility challenges and benefits for different user categories. Furthermore, toward the direction of universally accessible intelligent environments, the issue of multimodal interaction is discussed, summarizing the modalities that can be employed for each user group.KeywordsAccessibilityIntelligent environmentsAmbient intelligenceDesign for allInteraction techniques
An experiment is reported that investigated the application of eye movement analysis in the evaluation of webpage usability. Participants completed two tasks on each of four website homepages. Eye movements and performance data (Response Scores and Task Completion Times) were recorded. Analyses of performance data provided reliable evidence for a variety of Page and Task effects, including a Page by Task interaction. Four eye movement measures (Average Fixation Duration, Number of Fixations, Spatial Density of Fixations, and Total Fixation Duration) were also analysed statistically, and were found to be sensitive to similar patterns of difference between Pages and Tasks that were evident in the performance data, including the Page by Task interaction. However, this interaction failed to emerge as a significant effect (although the main effects of Page and Task did). We discuss possible reasons for the nonsignificance of the interaction, and propose that for eye movement analysis to be maximally useful in interface-evaluation studies, the method needs to be refined to accommodate the temporal and dynamic aspects of interface use, such as the stage of task processing that is being engaged in.
This chapter provides a practical guide for either the software usability engineer who considers the benefits of eye tracking or the eye tracking specialist who considers software usability evaluation as an application. Usability evaluation is defined rather loosely by industry as any of several applied techniques where users interact with a product, system, or service and some behavioral data are collected. Usability goals are often stipulated as criteria, and an attempt is made to use test participants similar to the target-market users. The chapter discusses methodological issues first in usability evaluation and then in the eye-tracking realm. An integrated knowledge of both of these areas is beneficial for the experimenter who conducts eye tracking as part of a usability evaluation. Within each of these areas, major issues are presented in the chapter by a rhetorical questioning style. By presenting the usability evaluation, the practical use of an eye-tracking methodology is placed into a proper and realistic perspective.
This technical report was developed by the National Joint Committee for the Communication Needs of Persons With Severe Disabilities. National Joint Committee member organizations and their respective representatives who prepared this statement include the American Association of Mental Retardation, Mary Ann Romski; the American Occupational Therapy Association, Jane Rourk; the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Beth Mineo Mollica, Rose Sevcik, Diane Paul-Brown (ex officio), and Alex F. Johnson (monitoring vice president); the Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Communicative Disabilities and Deafness, Lee McLean (chair); RESNA, Kevin Caves; The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Pat Mirenda and Martha Snell; and the United States Society for Augmentative Alternative Communication, David Yoder.
This experiment involved the question of where human observers look in a picture. The results indicated that observers fixate earlier, more often, and with longer durations on objects that have a low probability of appearing in a scene (e.g., an octopus in a farm scene) than on objects that have a high probability of appearing (e.g., a tractor in a farm scene). These findings (a) imply a role of cognitive factors in peripheral visual processing and (b) suggest a possible relationship between the nature of information initially acquired from a picture and subsequent recognition memory for that picture. Language: en
Eye tracking is a technique whereby an individual’s eye movements are measured so that the researcher knows both where a person is looking at any given time and the sequence in which the person’s eyes are shifting from one location to another. Tracking people’s eye movements can help HCI researchers to understand visual and display-based information processing and the factors that may impact the usability of system interfaces. In this way, eye-movement recordings can provide an objective source of interface-evaluation data that can inform the design of improved interfaces. Eye movements also can be captured and used as control signals to enable people to interact with interfaces directly without the need for mouse or keyboard input, which can be a major advantage for certain populations of users, such as disabled individuals. We begin this article with an overview of eye-tracking technology and progress toward a detailed discussion of the use of eye tracking in HCI and usability research. A key element of this discussion is to provide a practical guide to inform researchers of the various eye-movement measures that can be taken and the way in which these metrics can address questions about system usability. We conclude by considering the future prospects for eye-tracking research in HCI and usability testing. Purchase this chapter to continue reading all 9 pages >
This chapter reveals that for understanding the prospects and problems of text entry by gaze, it is instrumental to know how eye-tracking devices work and to understand their limitations. Text entry by gaze is intended for users with disabilities. There are also other gaze controlled applications intended for the same user group. In one sense, text entry by eye gaze is quite similar to any screen-based text entry technique, such as the on-screen keyboards used with tablet PCs. The interface is more or less the same, only the interaction technique for pointing and selecting changes. Instead of a stylus or other pointing device, eye gaze is used. The most common way to use gaze for text entry is direct pointing by looking at the desired letter. A typical setup has an on-screen keyboard with a static layout, an eye tracking device that tracks the user's gaze, and a computer that analyzes the user's gaze behavior.