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THE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS OF
THERAPEUTIC PERSONALITY CHANGE: REACTIONS TO
ROGERS’ 1957 ARTICLE
LISA WALLNER SAMSTAG
Long Island University
Carl Rogers’ article on the necessary
and sufficient conditions for personality
change has had a significant impact on
the field of psychotherapy and psycho-
therapy research. He emphasized the
client as arbiter of his or her own sub-
jective experience and tested his hy-
pothesized therapist-offered conditions
of change using recorded sessions. This
aided in demystifying the therapeutic
process and led to a radical shift in
the listening stance of the therapist. I
briefly outline my views regarding the
influence of the ideas presented in this
work, describe the intellectual and cul-
tural context of the times, and discuss a
number of ways in which the therapist-
offered conditions for psychological
transformation are neither necessary
nor sufficient.
Keywords: therapist conditions, empa-
thy, conditions
In June 1956, Carl Ransom Rogers submitted
his article, “The Necessary and Sufficient Condi-
tions of Therapeutic Personality Change” to the
Journal of Consulting Psychology (now called
the Journal for Consulting and Clinical Psychol-
ogy). He succinctly outlined what he considered
to be the ingredients of effective client-centered
psychotherapy, which were later extended to ap-
ply to any helping relationship. Of the six neces-
sary and sufficient conditions he identified, three
therapist qualities were considered to be most
central: the therapist should be genuine and hon-
est in the relationship with the client, experience
an unconditional positive regard or basic respect
for all aspects of the client, and have the ability to
empathize with the client. The skill of reflective
listening required the therapist to compassion-
ately receive and warmly mirror back that which
the client could not quite articulate. Rogers’ es-
sential premise in his client-centered approach
was that a person was motivated to self-actualize,
that is, to develop his or her potential to the
greatest extent possible. According to Rogers,
clients knew best what was wrong with them and
how to go about resolving their problems. As
such, interventions like interpretations, which
demonstrated that the therapist had expert knowl-
edge about the client, were considered to foster a
dependent relationship that thwarted the client’s
efforts toward becoming a fully functioning, sub-
jectively free individual.
To better understand the impact of Rogers’
contributions with this article, it is useful to place
the ideas within the broader context of his theo-
ries about personality development and therapeu-
tic change. I also think it is meaningful to exam-
ine his work within the intellectual and social
realm of the times.
Intellectual and Historical Context
(1930s–1950s)
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are consid-
ered to be the founders of the humanistic move-
ment in psychology, publishing their first major
works in the 1940s. The humanistic focus on the
free will of the individual and the democratic
relationship between client and therapist was
emerging as a reaction to theories espousing phil-
osophical determinism. For instance, in Freudian
psychoanalysis, man was understood as being
controlled by unconscious forces that operated
outside of awareness. Innate aggression and sex-
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Lisa Wallner Samstag, Long Island University, Department of
Psychology, 1 University Plaza, Brooklyn, NY 11201. E-mail:
lisa.samstag@liu.edu
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association
2007, Vol. 44, No. 3, 295–299 0033-3204/07/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0033-3204.44.3.295
295
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