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Clinical Interventions in Aging 2011:6 275–280
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
open access to scientific and medical research
Open Access Full Text Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S25337
Social facilitation in virtual reality-enhanced
exercise: competitiveness moderates exercise
effort of older adults
Cay Anderson-Hanley1,2
Amanda L Snyder1
Joseph P Nimon1
Paul J Arciero1,2
1Healthy Aging and Neuropsychology
Lab, Department of Psychology,
Union College, Schenectady, NY,
USA; 2Health and Exercise Sciences
Department, Skidmore College,
Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
Correspondence: Cay Anderson-Hanley
Department of Psychology,
Union College, 807 Union Street,
Schenectady, NY 12308, USA
Tel +1 518 388 6355
Email andersoc@union.edu
Abstract: This study examined the effect of virtual social facilitation and competitiveness
on exercise effort in exergaming older adults. Fourteen exergaming older adults participated.
Competitiveness was assessed prior to the start of exercise. Participants were trained to ride
a “cybercycle;” a virtual reality-enhanced stationary bike with interactive competition. After
establishing a cybercycling baseline, competitive avatars were introduced. Pedaling effort
(watts) was assessed. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant group (high vs low
competitiveness) × time (pre- to post-avatar) interaction (F[1,12] = 13.1, P = 0.003). Virtual social
facilitation increased exercise effort among more competitive exercisers. Exercise programs
that match competitiveness may maximize exercise effort.
Keywords: exercise, aging, virtual reality, competitiveness, social facilitation, exercise
intensity
Introduction
A growing literature has demonstrated that exercise boosts not only physical, but
also cognitive and psychological health in older adults.1–3 However, participation in
exercise among older adults is particularly poor. According to the 2007 National Health
Interview Survey from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy
People 2010 Database, only 14% of adults 65–74 years old and 7% over 75 years of
age reported regular exercise (www.cdc.gov/nchs/healthy_people.htm). With recent
revisions to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) standards which are
even more stringent,4 these figures are likely to be overestimates of current rates of
exercise. Research has shown that despite pleasure derived from even simple exercise
such as walking,5 a variety of barriers impede older adult participation;6,7 ranging from
low self-efficacy to inclement weather, to a lack of motivation. Thus, alternative and
novel forms of exercise are being explored for their potential to increase physical
activity. Virtual reality-enhanced exercise, or “exergames” are on the rise in the
marketplace and in academic research.8–10 Although evidence has begun to show that
exergaming can increase exercise participation and mood,10,11 little is known about
the role of specific aspects of the virtual environment in facilitating exercise effort.
This study examines the role of social facilitation when avatars are introduced, and the
potential moderating effect of participants’ competitiveness.
Theories of social facilitation and social comparison have long since been used
to explain changes in exercise behavior when in the presence of others.12,13 Social
facilitation most broadly construed holds that behavior in simple tasks is improved
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Anderson-Hanley et al
in the presence of others. Research suggests that social
presence causes individuals to evaluate and adjust their
exercise performance in response to the individuals within
their social environment, and that this change can result
from making personal comparisons between their own
abilities and the abilities of those around them.14 The social
presence of another individual when completing an exercise
task is believed to sharpen one’s competitive instincts.15 The
generalized drive hypothesis provides evidence to suggest
that social facilitation increases one’s innate internal drive
and activation level, which are found to be elevated in
competitive environments.16 Studies have shown that exercise
performance improves when in a competitive setting,17,18 and
that these changes may be due to a variety of mechanisms
including: increased levels of arousal,19 adrenocortical
activity,20 and mood.11,21 However, a meta-analysis of over
200 studies concluded that social presence typically led only
to small effects.22
We hypothesize that a variety of factors could moderate
the effect of social facilitation and, if not taken into
consideration, the effect could appear dampened. While
competitive environments may generally elicit changes
in exercise behavior, the level of a personality trait like
competitiveness, could interact with and thus moderate
this effect.23 Indeed, social value orientations, such as
prosocial, individualistic, and competitive, are largely
predictive of behavioral tendencies on task performance,
and influence one’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivations
related to exercise.24 Competitive environments can result
in decreased levels of intrinsic motivation, suggesting that
factors, such as competition, may outweigh enjoyment of
exercise tasks for certain individuals.25 It has recently been
reported that exergaming, where competition is a key feature,
can affect intrinsic motivation.26 Changes in behavior may
also be influenced by the Kohler effect, which suggests that
the presence of a superior (eg, stronger, faster) competitor
will cause increased effort.27 Exergames which integrate
competitive avatars, provide an ideal environment for
evaluating our hypotheses since the presence of competitors
can be manipulated, while keeping other features consistent
(eg, virtual esthetic environment, course difficulty).
The integration of videogames into exercise equipment
produces visually stimulating exercise experiences and has
resulted in greater improvements in self-efficacy and mood,
as well as promoting adherence to exercise behaviors and
improved health.28–31 Some studies have illustrated the
importance of a competitive element in the successful inte-
gration of videogames into the exercise experience, which
in many cases is represented by a virtual competitor, or
avatar, which can be perceived as a social presence.32,33 The
nature of an avatar has been found to elicit varied emotional
responses in participants; videogame players experienced
greater engagement and threat when an avatar represents
a human-operator as contrasted with a computer-operated
opponent.33
The current study aimed to assess the effects of social
presence on exercise behavior, focusing on the role of virtual
social facilitation. Competitiveness was examined for its
impact on the amount of effort expended while completing
an exergaming task in the presence of a virtual competitor.
This research aimed to improve upon previous literature
that has evaluated the effects of virtual social facilitation
and competition on video game behaviors by evaluating the
impact during an exergame.
Method
Participants
Fourteen independent living older adults ranging in age
from 60 to 99 participated (Table 1); all were Caucasian,
consistent with the composition of the regional population.
These older adults were from eight retirement communities,
and were participating in a larger randomized controlled trial
(www.clinicaltrials.govidentifier:NCT01167400) examining
Table 1 Baseline characteristics and change in exercise effort
with competition
Competitiveness t-test
Low
(n = 8)
High
(n = 6)
P
Mean SD Mean SD
Baseline characteristics
Age (years) 80.7 (12.3) 75.6 (13.5) 0.48
Education (years) 13.9 (2.5) 12.7 (1.0) 0.29
Women (n) 7 6
Competitiveness 4.4 (3.2) 11.5 (2.6) 0.001
Weight (kg) 68.9 (8.6) 70.1 (10.7) 0.83
BMI 25.7 (2.3) 27.0 (2.8) 0.36
HR 57.1 (5.4) 60.3 (5.0) 0.29
BP (systolic) 126.3 (24.9) 132.3 (13.8) 0.61
BP (diastolic) 71.0 (15.1) 71.0 (9.4) 1.00
Fat tissue % 40.4 (4.2) 44.5 (4.3) 0.10
Fat mass (kg) 26.8 (3.8) 30.5 (7.2) 0.26
Lean mass (kg) 39.7 (6.1) 37.4 (4.0) 0.44
Abdominal fat % 42.3 (9.1) 47.2 (8.2) 0.33
Exercise effort
Pre-competition (watts) 16.3 (9.6) 25.5 (11.4) 0.12
With competition (watts) 16.9 (9.2) 30.2 (11.1) 0.03
Change (watts) 0.6 (1.1) 4.7 (2.9) 0.003
Change (% watts) 6.0 (9.0) 20.9 (13.2) 0.03
Abbreviations: BP, blood pressure; BMI, body mass index; HR, heart rate.
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Social facilitation and competitiveness in exergaming
the cognitive benefits of exergaming 2–5 times per week
for 3 months compared with traditional stationary cycling.
Volunteers (unpaid) for the RCT were screened (n = 198),
102 received medical clearance and provided signed informed
consent, 79 completed pre-evaluations and started training,
63 completed the study, only participants in the first year
of the study (n = 31) were eligible for this pilot analysis
due to a change in bike equipment in the second year that
precluded these analyses and of these, only those assigned
to the cybercycle condition were appropriate (n = 14).34
Baseline measures included: weight (kg) and height (cm)
to compute Body Mass Index (BMI), total and abdominal
body composition (fat mass, lean mass) using the iDXA (GE
Lunar, Inc), and heart rate and blood presssure data were
collected by a registered nurse (Table 1).
Measures
Participants’ self-reported tendency toward competitiveness
was measured using the Competitiveness Index which has
been shown to have good reliability (alpha = 0.90) and
validity.35 Twenty different statements are presented on this
scale and participants indicate whether each statement is more
or less true or false for them. The total score can range from
zero to 20, with higher scores indicating greater competitive-
ness. The scores in this sample ranged 1–16; using a median
split procedure (low , 9 and high 9), six participants
were classified as highly competitive (average = 11.5), while
eight were less competitive (average = 4.4). The median split
mark was also comparable with normative data (mean for
women = 9.5).35
Exercise effort (watts) was captured in 10-second inter-
vals by cybercycle sensors and recorded on the internal
computer, averaged across sessions, and then averaged
across the evaluation period. These data were downloaded
and average pedaling intensity (watts) was computed over a
1-month period before and after the introduction of on-screen
riding competitors (at the end of the second and third months
of the larger trial).
Procedures
All participants were participating in a larger randomized
controlled trial, The Cybercycle Study,36 which was approved
by the Institutional Review Boards at Union and Skidmore
Colleges. The participants in this study had been randomly
assigned to the cybercycle condition and met the minimum
ride frequency threshold for inclusion in analyses (average
2–3 rides per week for 3 months or 25 total allowing for
brief periods of illness, vacation, equipment malfunction;
only two of 79 randomized participants had to be excluded
for not meeting this minimum threshold). During the first
month of familiarization, these previously sedentary older
adult participants were trained to ride the stationary bike in
biofeedback mode only (no virtual reality display) and were
to attend to their heart rate, aiming for 60% of their computed
ideal heart rate reserve range. The cybercycle comprised an
easy to use recumbent “step-through” ergometer (Tunturi
e60R), interfaced with Netathalon riding software (v 2.0)
via a sensor kit, on an Acer laptop. In the second month,
participants in the experimental condition were introduced
to the virtual reality features (eg, virtual terrain such as a
mountain, desert, or small town landscapes). In the third
month, on-screen riders were introduced and participants
were trained to try to outpace the avatars.
Data analysis
All analyses were conducted in SPSS for Windows (v 16.0.01;
SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). Repeated measures ANOVA was
used to test the hypothesis that competitiveness would
moderate any effect of social facilitation on exercise effort.
Exercise effort (pedaling intensity measured in watts) was
the dependent variable and measured over time (1 month pre/
post-introduction of competitive avatars). Competitiveness
was the independent variable with high and low groups
created by median split.
Results
Competitiveness as a moderator
of social facilitation effect
The two groups were comparable on demographics and
physiological fitness measures taken at pretest (Table 1);
there were no significant changes in physiological measures.
Assumptions of normality were met for repeated measures
ANOVA which revealed a significant group (high vs low
competitiveness) × time (pre- to post-competitors) interaction
F(1,12) = 13.1, P = 0.003. Given the imbalance in sex
representation, analyses were also conducted after dropping
the single male from the sample and the interaction effect
was found to be almost identical: F(1,11) = 13.0, P = 0.004.
Results showed that for more competitive older adults, the
introduction of on-screen competitors led to an increase in
riding intensity more so than for less competitive, older adults
(20% and 6% increases, respectively; Table 1).
Discussion
Previous research has shown that older adults have poor
compliance with recommended frequency and intensity
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Anderson-Hanley et al
of exercise in general, but novel, virtual reality-enhanced,
exercise has been shown to increase participation.9 The
effect on exercise behaviors of various factors within the
virtual environment (such as the presence of a competitive
avatar) and within the person (such as competitiveness) is
still unclear, however. The aim of this study was to evaluate
the effect of virtual social facilitation on exercise behavior in
older adults using a virtual reality-enhanced stationary bike
or “cybercycle”. We were also interested in whether greater
competitiveness could moderate the influence of social
facilitation on the degree of exercise effort. Results showed
that for more competitive compared with less competitive
older adults, the presence of competitive avatars significantly
increased pedaling intensity exhibited during cybercycling.
The observation that social presence in a competitive setting
resulted in behavioral change is consistent with previously
conducted research.12,15,17 Additionally, our findings are con-
sistent with research that has suggested that social facilitation
interacts with an exerciser’s competitive orientation such that
it can enhance or detract from exercise goals, depending on
the desired outcomes.24 These findings also fit with results of
a recent study which examined the Köhler motivation gain
effect resulting from a virtually-presented partner. Using
an isometric plank exergame it was found that participants
performed significantly better than in a solo control condi-
tion in all variants with a superior virtual partner (ie, whether
coacting, additive, or conjunctive).37 This suggests that
working out with a superior virtual partner can be effective
for enhancing exercise performance. Future research could
examine the role of the Köhler effect by manipulating the
confederate to be a known superior competitor over repeated
trials, perhaps while also manipulating social facilitation by
controlling an avatar’s presence on the screen or “behind the
scenes”. To our knowledge, this is the first report to examine
the moderating role of competitiveness in virtual social
facilitation among older adults.
In contrast to our findings, it has also been shown that
exercising in the presence of others can have a detrimental
impact on the mood or psychological state of individuals who
do not have a dominant competitive personality trait, even
leading to decreased adherence with exercise.38,39 However,
in this study, participants who were lower on competitiveness
maintained their initial level of exercise effort, and thus effort
did not appear to be adversely affected by the introduction
of on-screen competitors. This may indicate that for less
competitive individuals, the virtual reality-enhanced
environment may be flexibly perceived, allowing one to
choose to cognitively discount or reinterpret the social
presence of an avatar since it is not the equal of a real-life
competitor. Future research could explore these nuances;
perhaps focusing on both the participant’s perception of the
avatar (eg, by way of manipulating nonverbal cues),40 as well
as their own sense of presence in the virtual world which has
been found to be salient in avatar-based exergames.41
A strength of this study is the utilization of an exercise
bike with engaging virtual features, a comfortable recumbent
seat, safe indoor location, and easy access step-through
design, all of which overcome many barriers typically
asserted by sedentary older adults.6,7 As such, it may make
it easier for participants to reverse negative thinking about
exercise.42 Other important strengths of this study are that
it extends prior research on social facilitation to the older
adult population, which is often underserved, and applies
traditional exercise theory to a novel exergaming modality.
The implications of this study are that older adults may
benefit from virtual reality-enhanced exercise, and greater
exercise effort might be derived by matching the type
of exergame experience (eg, competitive or not) to the
individual’s personality. Given the vast majority of older
adults who are not exercising at recommended levels, it
would be exciting if exergames could be implemented in
senior facilities and carefully prescribed so that more might
reap the physical, cognitive, and psychological benefits of
engaging exercise in later life.
These results should be interpreted cautiously due to
several limitations. First, our data were collected from
a small sample of participants who were independent
living Caucasian older adults in relatively good health,
and of moderately high socioeconomic status; results need
replication and generalizability may be limited. Second, our
sample was disproportionally women, thus making it difficult
to draw accurate conclusions about the moderating effects of
social facilitation and competition on exercise performance
in men. Additionally, the participants were engaging in a
larger clinical trial, and as such had been instructed previ-
ously to work toward increasing their exercise behavior; thus
it is possible that the confounding of time in the trial and
the sequential change in the virtual reality conditions could
have obscured results. However, the differential response of
the more and less competitiveness subgroups is compelling,
since both were given the same instruction at the start of the
larger trial.
Future research replicating and extending this study
could explore ways to use remote monitoring via the internet,
to tailor individual feedback, and increase adherence with
either in-home or facility-based applications of this type
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Social facilitation and competitiveness in exergaming
of exercise modality.43 Studies could explore the broader
physical activity identity of older adults,44 beyond their
sense of competitiveness, and its role in influencing virtual
reality-enhanced exercise behavior. Alternatively, physical
activity preference (eg, to be alone or with others)45 may be
another way to conceptualize the competitiveness measured
herein, and could add to the prediction and enhancement
of exercise effort. Similarly, since self-selection (vs
assignment) to exergaming has been found to influence
mood, it would be useful to clarify the possible moderating
role of choice in exergaming.46 Given that an individual’s
degree of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation for exercise can
significantly influence exercise behavior and also how one
responds to social facilitation,25 it would be interesting to
measure motivation in future exergaming research. Since
it is possible to influence one’s level of competitiveness
through priming,23 a follow-up study could investigate
whether such an influence carries through to the behavioral
effect found herein. Additional research might explore the
possible connection between social facilitation and the
known importance of social reinforcement which has been
shown to account for much of the variability in exercise
behavior.47,48 Last, future research could compare and
contrast the differential impacts of virtual and real social
facilitation on exercise behaviors, while taking into account
the role that competitive tendency may play.
Conclusion
In summary, over a 1-month period, 14 independent living
older adults using a virtual reality-enhanced stationary bike or
“cybercycle” were exposed to virtual competitors; more com-
petitive participants were found to significantly increase exer-
cise effort compared with their less competitive counterparts.
Thus, the introduction of a competitive avatar did not
adversely impact less competitive riders, but it did enhance
the exercise effort of more competitive riders. More research
is needed to identify alternative motivators that can increase
the exercise effort of less competitive older adults. If repli-
cated, this finding suggests that the greatest exercise benefit
might be achieved by matching the nature of an exergame
experience to a rider’s level of competitive tendency, espe-
cially for more competitive riders.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by a grant from the Pioneer Portfolio
of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, through the Health
Games Research national program (#64449); and by faculty
and student grants from Union and Skidmore Colleges.
We acknowledge important technical assistance from: Bruce
Winkler and Ivjot Kholi from RA Sports, LLC for use of their
NetAthalon cycling software and sensor kits, and Mark Mar-
tens regarding our pilot study of the FitClub riding software
from Pantometrics. We greatly appreciate the participation of
the residents and essential facilitation of the site administra-
tors from: Beltrone Living Center, Glen Eddy, High Pointe
Apartments, Kingsway Village, Prestwick Chase, Schaf-
fer Heights, Wesley Health Care (Embury Apartments and
Woodlawn Commons), and Westview Apartments. This
research could not have been possible without the dedica-
tion of many research assistants; in particular, we would like
to acknowledge: Lyndsay De Matteo, Ariele Gartenberg,
Veronica Hopkins, Eric Hultquist, Dinesh Kommareddy,
Darlene Landry, Shi Feng Lin, Molly Merz, Naoko
Okuma, Mariale Renna, Tracey Rocha, Michelle Russo,
Nick Steward, Amanda Snyder, Sarah Westen, and Vadim
Yerokhin. An earlier version of this data was presented at
the 2010 Annual Meeting of the International Congress for
Behavioral Medicine, in Washington, DC.
Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
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