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Effect of Motivational Music on Lactate Levels During Recovery from Intense Exercise
Abstract
The effects of music played during an exercise task on athletic performance have been previously studied. Yet, these results are not applicable for competitive athletes, who can use music only during warm-up or recovery from exercise. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of motivational music (music that stimulates or inspires physical activity) during recovery from intense exercise, on activity pattern, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate concentration. Twenty young, active men (mean age 26.2 ± 2.1 years) performed a 6-minute run at peak oxygen consumption speed (predetermined from the VO(2) max test). The mean heart rate (HR), RPE, number of steps (determined by step counter), and blood lactate concentrations were determined at 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 minutes during the recovery from the exercise, with and without motivational music (2 separate sessions, at random order). There was no difference in the mean HR during the recovery with and without music. Listening to motivational music during the recovery was associated with increased voluntary activity of the participants, determined by increased number of steps (499.4 ± 220.1 vs. 413.2 ± 150.6 steps, with and without music, respectively; p ≤ 0.05). The increased number of steps during the recovery was accompanied by a significantly greater decrease in blood lactate concentration percentage (28.1 ± 12.2 vs. 22.8 ± 10.9%, with and without music, respectively, p ≤ 0.05). This was associated with a greater decrease in RPE (77.7 ± 14.4 vs. 73.1 ± 14.7% with and without music, respectively; p ≤ 0.05). Our results suggest that listening to motivational music during nonstructured recovery from intense exercise leads to increased activity, faster lactate clearance, and reduced RPE and therefore may be used by athletes in their effort to enhance recovery.
... Studies that investigated the use of music for recovery immediately after exercise. . The results suggest that listening to motivational music during non-structured recovery leads to reduced perception of effort and maybe used by athletes to enhance recovery activity (Eliakim et al., 2012). In the same way Karageorghis et al., (2017), found that slow and sedative music can increase the recovery process immediately after strenuous exercise. ...
... However, recent studies investigated the effect of music on recovery and relaxation (Karageorghis et al., 2017), found that relaxing music promotes faster recovery after strenuous exercise. Similarly, Eliakim et al. (2012) found a greater reduction in the perception of effort after intense exercise. Alexandre et al. (2012) applied songs with different rhythms to recover several psychophysiological parameters in runners after completing three sessions of strenuous exercise. ...
... Ghaderi et al. (2015) observed a decreased response of metabolic fatigue during a circuit of resistance exercise with handball players. This evidence suggests that music is a technique with an acute effect on fatigue or recovery soon after an activity, whereas its long-term effects remain inconclusive (Eliakim et al., 2012). Possibly because the time of collection, the present study did not find a similar result in physical and mental fatigue after a volleyball competition. ...
Volleyball is a team sport with high physical and perceptual-cognitive demand, hence, increasing the perception of physical and mental fatigue during a competition. To alleviate fatigue (physical and mental), mindfulness and music have been proposed. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of mindfulness-based mental versus music training on mental fatigue, physical fatigue, and recovery in elite competitive female volleyball athletes using a randomized two-controlled study with follow-up. Participants were 30 elite female Brazilian volleyball athletes. Athletes were randomly assigned to the following groups: 1) mindfulness-based mental training group (MBMT); 2) music-based training group (MBT); or 3) control group (CG). Three variables were evaluated as follows: 1) recovery based on total quality recovery; 2) mental fatigue visual analog scale; and 3) physical fatigue visual analog scale. Regarding recovery, there was no difference between the MBMT, MBT, and CG groups (p > 0.05). A difference in mental fatigue was noted between MBT and CG at follow-up [F(2,26) = 5.71, p = 0.009; large]. Regarding physical fatigue, there was no difference between the MBMT, MBT, and CG groups (p > 0.05). The mindfulness intervention effectively attenuated the mental fatigue caused by competition in volleyball athletes. These results will assist coaches and staff in providing fatigue management and reinforce the applicability of mental training in sports.
... For example, Simpson and Karageorghis (2006) found that listening to synchronous music results in better 400-m sprint performance than a no-music control among male sports science undergraduates. Moreover, Eliakim et al. (2012) showed that listening to motivational music during recovery from intense exercise is more effective than a simple recovery without music. The results demonstrated that music could be an efficacious auditory stimulus for increasing the number of steps, and decreasing both blood lactate concentration and rated perceived exertion (RPE). ...
... The music was played only during the warm-up carried out on the Cycloergometer. This requirement was applied in order to stimulate competitive conditions (Eliakim et al. 2012). Music was played using personal headphones, and it was switched off at the end of the warm-up. ...
... The obtained results are in line with a consistent body of research showing the benefits of listening to music on the performance of sub-maximal aerobic exercise (e.g., Karageorghis et al. 2009;Terry and Karageorghis 2006;Terry et al. 2012). Our findings support those of previous empirical research investigations demonstrating that listening to several types of music (i.e., synchronous or motivational) before, during, or after intensive physical tasks can enhance the performance of supra-maximal anaerobic exercise and some subjective experiences (e.g., Chtourou et al. 2017;Eliakim et al. 2012;Simpson and Karageorghis 2006;Stork et al. 2019Stork et al. , 2015. More importantly, the obtained results are in accordance with previous scientific works showing that listening to music during the warm-up can improve supra-performance of maximal anaerobic exercise at the two day times, and reduce the morningafternoon differences. ...
Which type of music is better for improving short-term maximal performance (STMP) and subjective experiences, and under what conditions? The present study was designed to address this issue by investigating the effects of listening to synchronous versus motivational music during warm-up, as a function of time of day, on exercise performance. In a random order, sixteen highly trained physical education students (male) performed the 30-s Continuous Jump (CJ 30 ) during six sessions separated at minimum by 48h of recovery: after two warm-ups with synchronous music (WUSM), after two warm- ups with motivational music (WUMM), and after two warm-ups without music (WUWM), at 07:00 and 17:00h. The maximal jump height (H max ), mean jump height of all jumps (H mean ), and fatigue index (FI %) were measured during the test. Body temperature was collected before and after the warm-up, and at the end of the CJ 30 test. The rated perceived exertion (RPE) and the feelings states (FS) were obtained immediately after the warm-up and the test. The results revealed that H mean , H max , and temperature were higher at 17:00 than 07:00h in all experimental conditions. Moreover, H mean and H max were higher with WUSM and WUMM than WUWM at both times of day, with greater improvement in the morning. After performing the CJ 30 test, RPE scores were higher with WUMM than WUWM at both times of day. Moreover, FS scores were more positive with WUMM than WUWM in the morning. Furthermore, WUMM resulted in better H max and H mean at both times of day than WUSM. However, FS and RPE were independent of types of music. Findings suggested use of music during warm-up to increase STMP, RPE, and FS at both times of day, and reduce the morning-afternoon difference in the CJ 30 test. More importantly, a warm-up with motivational music is more beneficial than a warm-up with synchronous music for improving STMP, either in the morning or in the afternoon.
... A possible mechanism for this is the increase in blood flow to tired muscles and the metabolites washout by this process. However, most athletes after exercise and the resulting fatigue tend not to perform active recovery with maintaining a certain speed [20]. In this case, using music to facilitate the recovery process seems more appropriate, because it causes a series of changes in emotional, hormonal, nervous and cardiac and cardiorespiratory systems and etc. [7,20]. ...
... However, most athletes after exercise and the resulting fatigue tend not to perform active recovery with maintaining a certain speed [20]. In this case, using music to facilitate the recovery process seems more appropriate, because it causes a series of changes in emotional, hormonal, nervous and cardiac and cardiorespiratory systems and etc. [7,20]. ...
... Many coaches tend to have active recovery because of the superiority of active recovery in reducing lactate [18,19]. However, during the recovery period, athletes do not tend to be active recovery and use new methods and techniques to aid in the recovery process [20]. One of these is listening to music. ...
Background and Study Aim. During exercise, the effects of music on the performance have been previously evaluated. However, the superiority of the type of music and during recovery is not yet clear. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the impact of music with a spicy and light beat on changes in lactate levels, blood pressure, heart rate, and appetite during the recovery period after the endurance swimming.
Material and Methods. Thirteen healthy young girls participate in three control and experimental sessions. The participants performed a swimming. Immediately after swimming, they listened to music. Also, evaluations before and after (several times) swimming were performed.
Results. Five minutes after swimming there was also a significant difference between the non-sound group with the music groups (p
... Secondly, listening to music can reduce the perceived effort [4] and fatigue [5,6] in athletes. Thirdly, listening to music could optimize the period of consecutive recovery among physical efforts [7,8]. ...
... The present results suggest that the use of self-selected motivational music while warming-up engender more important gains in comparison with the imposed music for STMP during the 5-m multiple shuttle run test in the morning and the afternoon. Findings are in agreement with the results of previous studies showing that music during consecutive recovery period could optimize physical performance [7,8]. ...
... The present study's findings and those of Eliakim et al. [7,8] provide evidence for the importance of listening to music during warm-up before a major competition. Several mechanisms may explain the ergogenic impact of music on STMP. ...
The present experiment examined the effects of listening to different types of music during warm-up on the diurnal variation of short-term maximal performance (STMP) in soccer players, using a 3×2 mixed design with factors “Condition” (warm-up with self-selected motivational-music (WUMM) vs. warm-up with neutral-music (WUNM) vs. warm-up without-music (WUWM) and “Time of Day” (07h00 vs. 17h00). In a random order, twelve male soccer players performed a 5-m shuttle run test after a 10 min of WUMM, a 10 min of WUNM and a 10 min WUWM at 07h00 and 17h00. The higher distance (HD) and total distance (TD) were measured during the test, and the rated perceived exertion (RPE) and the feelings states (FS) were obtained immediately after the warm-up and the test. The results revealed that HD and TD were higher at 17h00 than 07h00 in all conditions (p<0.01). At 07h00 and 17h00, TD and HD were higher after WUMM and WUNM than WUWM and after WUMM than WUNM (p<0.01). This improvement was greater at 07h00 than 17h00 (e.g., 6.97% vs. 5.26% for TD). Moreover, FS were more positive after WUNM than WUWM only at 07h00, after WUMM than WUWM at the two time-of-day (p<0.01), and after WUMM than WUNM at 17h00 (p<0.01). After the 5-m shuttle run test, FS were more negative and the RPE scores were higher with WUMM than WUWM at 07h00 (p<0.01). The findings suggested that STMP and feelings depend on types of music listened during a warm-up. A warm-up with self-selected motivational-music improves STMP and feelings at 07h00 and 17h00 with greater enhancement in the morning. However, a warm-up with neutral-music improves STMP and feelings only at 07h00.
... Leurs recherches ont consisté à examiner l'effet de la musique sur les performances des sportifs à des exercices sub-maximaux [5,[11][12][13][14] et maximaux sollicitant principalement le métabolisme aérobie [4,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] ou anaérobie [23][24][25]. L'effet de la musique sur les performances a aussi été examiné durant des phases antérieures [23][24][25][26][27] et postérieures à la performance [28,29]. ...
... Les études s'intéressant aux effets de la musique pendant la période de récupération sur des indicateurs de performance sont peu nombreuses. Seules deux études, celles d'Eliakim et al. [28,29], ont investigué les effets de la musique sur la perception d'effort, la FC, la lactatémie et la récupération (i.e., enregistrée en termes de nombre de pas effectués consécutivement à une course de 6 min exécutée à la vitesse correspondant à la VO 2 pic). ...
... Eliakim et al. [28,29] ont examiné les effets de la musique lors de la période de récupération, consécutive à une course de 6 min exécutée à la vitesse correspondant à la VO 2 pic, sur la FC moyenne, la perception d'effort, le nombre de pas et la lactatémie. Ces paramètres ont été enregistrés à 3, 6, 9, 12 et 15 min durant la récupération. ...
Aim. — The purpose of the present review consists in reporting studies examining the relationship between music and sport performance involving short-term and long-term efforts.
Actualities. — Literature clearly displays music benefits on motor and/or sport performance. Most of the studies interested in the Music-Performance relationship revealed that listening to music before, during, or after effort, influences psychophysiological processes of performance and/or performance itself during short- or long-term efforts. The literature also reveals that the Music-Performance relationship is complex because it involves a great number of factors, as pertaining to internal, situational, and contextual factors, which are in complex interaction, thereby affecting individuals' affective, cognitive, motivational, physiological and behavioral spheres.
Perspectives. — Even if literature includes a lot of studies supporting the view that listening to music improves performance, understanding psychophysiological mechanisms underlying the Music-Performance relationship is still limited. Borrowing a complex and dynamical perspective may shed the light on mechanisms underlying this relationship.
Conclusion. — Although exploring mechanisms of the Music-Performance relationship is primarily a theoretical purpose, better understanding this relationship should allow building effective strategies to improve athletic performance.
... Recently, we demonstrated that listening to motivational music (a Western CD collection of greatest hits of all times converted to dance style, 140 b$min 21 , strong bit, played by portable MP3 device using headphones at music volume of 70 dB) during the recovery from intense exercise was associated with increased activity, faster lactate clearance, and reduced RPE (9). We suggested, therefore, that motivational music might be used by athletes in their effort to enhance recovery. ...
... We recently demonstrated that listening to motivational music during the recovery from intense exercise was associated with increased activity, faster lactate clearance, and reduced RPE (9). The aim of the present study was to determine the relative isolated contribution of rhythm to the effect of music on the recovery from intense exercise in 10 young adult male physical education students. ...
... We used the same music that was previously shown to enhance recovery. Briefly, music was selected from a Western CD collection of greatest hits of all times converted to dance style, at 140 b$min 21 , played by a portable MP3 device using headphones at a volume of 70 dB (9). The rhythm only tracks were isolated by a professional musician from the same music selection and were played during the recovery from exercise at a similar tempo and volume. ...
Motivational music (music that stimulates physical activity) was previously shown to enhance the recovery from intense exercise. The aim of the present study was to isolate the effect of rhythm (presumed to be the most effective factor of motivational music), on the recovery from intense exercise. Ten young adult active males (age: 26.1±1.7 years) performed 6-minute run at peak oxygen consumption speed, at three separate visits (random order). At one visit no music was played during the recovery following exercise. In the other visits, participants listened to motivational music that was previously shown to enhance recovery (A Western CD collection of greatest hits of all times converted to dance style, 140 BPM, strong bit, played by portable MP-3 device using headphones at a volume of 70 decibels), or only to the rhythm beats derived from the same songs. Mean heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), number of steps (measured by step counter) and blood lactate concentrations, were determined at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15min of the recovery.There was no difference in heart rate changes during the recovery at all conditions. Compared to the recovery without music, listening to motivational music during recovery, was associated with significant greater number of steps, lower absolute lactate levels and greater mean decrease of RPE. Listening only to rhythm beats, derived from the same music, during the recovery was associated with significant greater number of steps and lower absolute lactate levels compared to recovery without music. Music was significantly more effective than rhythm only in the absolute mean number of steps. The beneficial effect of both music and rhythm was greater towards the end of the recovery period. Results suggest that listening to music during non-structured recovery can be used by professional athletes to enhance recovery from intense exercise. Rhythm plays a very important role in the effect of music on recovery, and can be used to enhance non-structured recovery when music is unavailable, or when cultural barriers and individual music preferences may apply. The optimal music and rhythm selection is yet to be determined.
... Studies have been conducted with presentation of music to runners recovering from an intense six-minute treadmill run at levels of peak oxygen uptake. Eliakim et al. (2012) presented stimulating moderate-tempo dance music (140 BPM) during active recovery from exercise while measuring blood lactate, HR, and perceived exertion. Music listening during a fifteen-minute active recovery walk, compared with no music, was associated with greater movement (number of steps), greater decrease in blood lactate percentage, and greater decrease in perceived exertion, but no differences in HR (Eliakim et al., 2012). ...
... Eliakim et al. (2012) presented stimulating moderate-tempo dance music (140 BPM) during active recovery from exercise while measuring blood lactate, HR, and perceived exertion. Music listening during a fifteen-minute active recovery walk, compared with no music, was associated with greater movement (number of steps), greater decrease in blood lactate percentage, and greater decrease in perceived exertion, but no differences in HR (Eliakim et al., 2012). To address whether music serves as a distractor, or alternatively arouses a motor response through the rhythmic pattern of the music, the authors conducted another study (Eliakim et al., 2013) in which participants ran on a treadmill at peak oxygen uptake for six minutes, and then walked for fifteen minutes in the active recovery period. ...
This Element reviews literature on the physiological influences of music during perception and action. It outlines how acoustic features of music influence physiological responses during passive listening, with an emphasis on comparisons of analytical approaches. It then considers specific behavioural contexts in which physiological responses to music impact perception and performance. First, it describes physiological responses to music that evoke an emotional reaction in listeners. Second, it delineates how music influences physiology during music performance and exercise. Finally, it discusses the role of music perception in pain, focusing on medical procedures and laboratory-induced pain with infants and adults.
... However, information regarding effect of music intervention on post-exercise recovery has not been extensively understood. Post-exercise music intervention has been shown as an optimal tool to facilitate psychophysiological recovery after maximal intensity of cycling exercise (Karageorghis, Bruce, Pottratz, Stevens, Bigliassi, & Hamer, 2018), repeated bouts of intense cycling exercise, and intense short-term running (Eliakim, Bodner, Eliakim, Nemet, & Meckel, 2012;Eliakim, Bodner, Meckel, Nemet, & Eliakim, 2013). To our knowledge, there is no information in the literature to discuss acute effects post-exercise music intervention on autonomic functions after submaximal intensity of cycling exercise and its manners regarding gender difference. ...
... Indeed, information regarding post-excise music intervention on HRR is controversial. Eliakim et al. (2012) demonstrated that motivational music was unable to change the HRR but was able to alter blood lactate clearance and alleviated perceived execution during 15-min post-exercise recovery after 6-min running at speed of peak oxygen consumption. In contrast, listening slow tempo music fasted HRR after 20-min self-pace treadmill running (Lee, & Kimmerly, 2016). ...
Background: Music intervention is considered as an optimal modality to improve exercise motivation, exercise performance, and endurance capacity. The aim of this study is to investigate the acute effects of self-selected music intervention on post-exercise heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV) and anxiety after a submaximal intensity of cycling exercise. Methods: Fifty-two healthy adults (males: n= 24, age: 20.6 ± 2 yrs; female: n= 28, 21.8 ± 2.1 yrs) were voluntarily participated this study. A counterbalanced design was used to examine submaximal intensity of cycling exercise with non-music or self-selected music trials at least 48 hours apart. Participants first visit the laboratory to determine individual self-selected music and to complete an incremental exercise test until HR response researched to 80% of heart rate reserve (HRreserve). The 80% HRreserve was used to control the exercise intensity during a subsequent 10-minute stationary cycling exercise. At the beginning of experiment, the participants performed a 5-min cycling warm-up exercise with self-pace. Afterwards, the participants rested in a sitting position for 5-min and then performed 10-min cycling exercise with intensity of 80% HRreserve. After the cycling exercise, 5-min HR recovery (HRR) and 10-min HRV was measured in a sitting position for 15-min. A situational anxiety mass scale (STAI-S) was used immediately after the cycling exercise. Music intervention was applied during 15-min post-exercise recovery. Results: The exercise HR and post-exercise HRV showed no significant differences between self-selected music trial and non-music trial in both groups. In self-selected music trial, HRR was significantly faster after the self-selected music trial than that of non-music trial in female. In addition, the STAI-S scores were significantly lower in the self-selected music trial than that of non-music trial in both groups. Conclusion: Self-selected music intervention can improve HRR in healthy female. Consideration to implement a self-selected music intervention after submaximal intensity of stationary cycling exercise to reduce post-exercise anxiety in male and female is warrant. Resumen: Antecedentes: la intervención musical se considera una modalidad óptima para mejorar la motivación del ejercicio, el rendimiento del ejercicio y la capacidad de resistencia. El objetivo de este estudio es investigar los efectos agudos de la intervención musical autoseleccionada sobre la frecuencia cardíaca (FC) posterior al ejercicio, la variabilidad de la FC (VFC) y la ansiedad después de una intensidad submáxima del ejercicio en bicicleta. Métodos: Cincuenta y dos adultos sanos (hombres: n = 24, edad: 20.6 ± 2 años; mujeres: n = 28, 21.8 ± 2.1 años) participaron voluntariamente en este estudio. Se utilizó un diseño equilibrado para examinar la intensidad submáxima del ejercicio de ciclismo con ensayos musicales no musicales o autoseleccionados con al menos 48 horas de diferencia. Los participantes primero visitan el laboratorio para determinar la música individual seleccionada por ellos mismos y completar una prueba de ejercicio incremental hasta que la respuesta de FC investigue al 80% de la reserva de frecuencia cardíaca (HRreserve). El 80% HRreserve se utilizó para controlar la intensidad del ejercicio durante un ejercicio de ciclismo estacionario de 10 minutos. Al comienzo del experimento, los participantes realizaron un ejercicio de calentamiento en bicicleta de 5 minutos con ritmo propio. Posteriormente, los participantes descansaron sentados durante 5 minutos y luego realizaron 10 minutos de ejercicio en bicicleta con una intensidad de reserva de HR del 80%. Después del ejercicio de ciclismo, se midió la recuperación de la FC de 5 minutos (HRR) y la HRV de 10 minutos en una posición sentada durante 15 minutos. Se utilizó una escala de masa de ansiedad situacional (STAI-S) inmediatamente después del ejercicio de ciclismo. La intervención musical se aplicó durante 15 minutos después de la recuperación del ejercicio. Resultados: El HR de ejercicio y el HRV posterior al ejercicio no mostraron diferencias significativas entre el ensayo musical autoseleccionado y el ensayo no musical en ambos grupos. En la prueba musical autoseleccionada, la HRR fue significativamente más rápida después de la prueba musical autoseleccionada que la de la prueba no musical en mujeres. Además, las puntuaciones de STAI-S fueron significativamente más bajas en la prueba musical autoseleccionada que en la prueba no musical en ambos grupos. Conclusión: la intervención musical autoseleccionada puede mejorar la HRR en mujeres sanas. Se justifica la implementación de una intervención musical autoseleccionada después de la intensidad submáxima del ejercicio de ciclismo estacionario para reducir la ansiedad posterior al ejercicio en hombres y mujeres. Palabras Claves: Intervención musical, recuperación de la frecuencia cardíaca, variabilidad de la frecuencia cardíaca, intensidad submáxima, ejercicio en bicicleta
... Probably through these central mechanisms, the music seems to reduce the perceived exertion during exercise [8]. Other studies have also demonstrated that music can influence peripheral variables [66,67]. In short, music may have an ergogenic effect on physical exercise [16, 68,69]. ...
... Studies analyzing the effects of music on [Lac] are scarce. Eliakim et al. [66] demonstrated that motivational music leads to higher lactate clearance after subjects performed a 6-min run exercise at peak aerobic power. This result was explained by the fact that music kept subjects active after exercise, promoting lactate clearance. ...
This study aimed to investigate and compare the effects of preferred music on anaerobic threshold determination in an incremental running test, as well the physiological responses and perceived exertion at this intensity, in physically active men and women. Additionally, by using area under the curve (AUC) analysis of the parameters of interest during the graded test, we studied the effects of music at two physiological moments—before and after anaerobic threshold intensity (iAT)—in men and women. Twenty (men = 10; women = 10) healthy and active participants completed four visits to the laboratory. The first and second sessions were used for sample characterization. In the third and fourth sessions, participants performed an incremental running test (started at 7 km.h⁻¹ with increments of 1 km.h⁻¹ at each 3-minute stage) under preferred music and non-music conditions. Blood lactate ([Lac]), heart rate (HR), and perceived exertion were measured by two scales (RPEBorg and the estimation of time limit ‒ ETL) during all tests, and the total time of effort (TT) was considered as performance. Individual curves of the “intensity vs blood lactate” analyzed by the bissegmentation method provide the iAT and the AUC of [Lac], HR, RPEBorg, and ETL before and after the iAT attainment were calculated. The iAT for men (non-music: 11.5±0.9km.h⁻¹ vs music: 11.6±1.1km.h⁻¹) and women (non-music: 9.8±0.7km.h⁻¹ vs music: 9.7±0.7km.h⁻¹) was not affected by music, and for both sexes, there was no difference between non-music and music conditions in all variables obtained at iAT. The AUC of all variables were not affected by music before the iAT attainment. However, [Lac], HR, and RPEBorg presented higher values of AUC after iAT for the female group with preferred music. This may be due to the fact that 70% of women have increased TT under music conditions. Overall, preferred music did not affect the iAT determination in an incremental running test. However, some physiological responses and perceived exertion after iAT of female subjects seems to be influenced by preferred music.
... While many studies have investigated effects of music pre and during exercise (13,14) there is not enough number of studies investigating effect of music on recovery following a strenuous exercise. Some of these studies suggested sedative music at least 15 min following an exercise session to stimulate recovery (15,16). Thus, the aim of this study was to determine effect of different tempos music on aerobic performance and recovery. ...
... stated no effect of music on HR and lactate removal during recovery following an exhaustion exercise but highlighted a faster lactate removal with music (28.1%) compared to no music condition (22.8%). Moreover, lactate removal increases with music for 12-15 min (15). Tan et al. (2014) stated that listening to sedative music for 15 min after an exercise did not enhance recovery in HR compared to no music (34). ...
The aim of this study was to determine effect of different music tempos on aerobic performance and recovery period. Thirty-five healthy male students (age=22.63±2.94, body mass=71.40±10.71, height=178.24±9.95) who were studying at Faculty of Sport Sciences voluntarily participated in this study. Participants carried out Bruce treadmill test with 72 hour intervals under three conditions: slow tempo music (100 bpm), fast tempo music (140 bpm) and no music. Anova was applied for statistical analysis. Fast tempo music (18.28±3.01 minute) was determined to improve running time by 4.63% and 3.10% compared to no music (17.47±2.83 min) and slow tempo music (17.73±3.09 min), respectively (p<0.01). Slow and fast tempo music did not have any effect on heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) during and after exercise (p>0.05). Lactate accumulation during 15 min recovery was found lower with slow tempo music compared to fast tempo and no music conditions (p<0.05). As a result, it can be concluded that fast tempo music improved running time and performance by creating ergogenic effect while slow tempo music led to fast decreasein heart rate and lactate accumulation during 15 min recovery.
... Probably through these central mechanisms, the music seems to reduce the perceived exertion during exercise [8]. Other studies have also demonstrated that music can influence peripheral variables [66,67]. In short, music may have an ergogenic effect on physical exercise [16, 68,69]. ...
... Studies analyzing the effects of music on [Lac] are scarce. Eliakim et al. [66] demonstrated that motivational music leads to higher lactate clearance after subjects performed a 6-min run exercise at peak aerobic power. This result was explained by the fact that music kept subjects active after exercise, promoting lactate clearance. ...
Ten healthy male individuals were randomly evaluated in two exercise sessions (with or without music during the tests). They were submited to an incremental running test (3-min stages; initial intensity equal to 7 km.h-1 and 1 km.h-1 increments; treadmill inclination equal to 1%). The music´s motivation were adressed by the Brunel Rating Music Inventory- 2, considering the most motivation on top of the playlist, and then yours subsequents. Anaerobic threshold intensity (iAnT), blood lactate concentration ([Lac]iAnT) and heart rate (HRiAnT) at anaerobic threshold intensity were considered as physiological parameters. Psychophysiological scales such as Perceived Exertion (PSEBorg), Perceived Effort (PSEFoster) and Estimation of Time Limit (ETL) were used for psychophysiological analyses. Time to exhaustion (T.T) was considered as performance parameter. No differences were found between iAnT (p=0.248), [Lac]iAnT (p=0.786), HRiAnT (p=1.000) an T.T (p=0.055). However, 70% of the sample presented better performance with asynchronous music was inserted (p=0.003). Significant differences were visualized for PSEBorg (AM= ;WM= ;0,042) and ETL (AM= ;WM= ;p=0.015). In sumary, for 70% of the evaluated sample asynchronous music exerted ergogenic effect on the physical performance in an incremental running protocol attenuating the psychophysiological responses without changing physiological parameters.
... Lee and Kimmerly [16] established it lowered blood lactate levels, with quicker HR recovery. Eliakim et al. [17] despite finding reduction in lactate levels, observed no effect on HR. Whilst, Tan et al. [18] found effects of MAS on only the initial minutes of recovery. ...
... The prior recovery of HR may be partially related to a reduction induced by ''relaxing'' music style enforced in this study [25,26]. Eliakim et al. [17] by means of ''motivational'' music found no significant changes in average HR with or without music during the post-exercise phase. Another study used ''calm, relaxing'' song, chosen by the participant, applied during rest and during a cycling intervention. ...
Objective
To investigate the effect of music auditory stimulation on cardiorespiratory parameters in recovery from exercise.
Methods
Thirty-five healthy men underwent an experimental protocol with three steps: maximal exercise test, control protocol and music protocol. The control protocol consisted of 15 minutes of rest, followed by 30 minutes of exercise on a treadmill and 60 minutes of recovery. In the music protocol volunteers were exposed to music auditory stimulation during exercise and recovery from exercise. We analyzed the following parameters: heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate and blood oxygen level during the initial rest stage and recovery.
Results
Statistical differences in heart rate between rest and post exercise (P < 0.05, 5%) were found from the 1st to the 40th minute in the music protocol while in the control protocol was observed until the end of recovery. For systolic blood pressure, differences were found until the 10th minute of recovery in the control protocol and until the 7th minute in the music protocol.
Conclusion
Music auditory stimulation accelerated the recovery of heart rate and systolic blood pressure, however we can not state that this method alone can improve recovery after exercise in healthy subjects.
... Other studies have evaluated the influence of MAS with larger recovery periods [15,18] . Lee et al [15] pointed out that MAS was able to lead to an acceleration in HR recovery rate after 20 minutes of aerobic exercise [15] . ...
... Lee et al [15] pointed out that MAS was able to lead to an acceleration in HR recovery rate after 20 minutes of aerobic exercise [15] . However, Eliakim et al [18] not observed differences in average HR during recovery with and without music. ...
... These changes were proportional to GH changes in the present study and supported the theory that one of the mechanisms of the increase of GH during exercises is the increase of H + due to the production of lactic acid (Hoffman, et al., 2003). In student players, listening to motivational music significantly increased the training volume and consequent lactate concentrations, while RPE was significantly lower during the first 15 minutes of recovery (Eliakim et al., 2012), which were similar to the findings of the present study (Ghavam-Bakhtiar et al., 2012). Sadegi-Borujerdi and Rahimi (2008) also reported an increase in lactate and GH levels after one session of resistance training in men. ...
... Nevertheless, the decrease of lactate observed could also result from increased blood lactate clearance that cannot be ruled out, and the present study protocol does not allow for determining if the decreased lactate observed could result from less production and/or higher clearance. In all cases, listening to music seems to have reduced the fatigue related signs, and that is in accordance with the findings of previous studies (Eliakim et al., 2012;Ghavam-Bakhtiar et al., 2012). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the listening to motivational music and lactate and cortisol response to a single circuit resistance exercise (CRE) in male handball players. Sixteen handball players were randomly assigned to two equal groups of eight participants that trained with the intensities of 60% (G60) and 80% (G80) of their 1RM. G60 and G80 performed the exercise with (G60-M and G80-M) and without (G60-nM and G80-nM) music. Serum cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, growth hormone (GH) and lactate levels were measured before (BE), immediately (IAE) and two hours after the exercise (2AE). In all groups, GH and lactate increased from BE to IAE and decreased from IAE to 2AE (p≤0.05). Serum cortisol levels decreased from BE to IAE and BE to 2AE in the group G60-M (p≤0.05). Listening to motivational music during CRE had no effect on GH, epinephrine and norepinephrine, yet decreased responses of lactate and cortisol were observed, which might be one underlying mechanisms of fatigue reduction. More studies are needed to understand the exact mechanisms about the hormonal responses to music listening during exercise.
... These changes were proportional to GH changes in the present study and supported the theory that one of the mechanisms of the increase of GH during exercises is the increase of H + due to the production of lactic acid (Hoffman, et al., 2003). In student players, listening to motivational music significantly increased the training volume and consequent lactate concentrations, while RPE was significantly lower during the first 15 minutes of recovery (Eliakim et al., 2012), which were similar to the findings of the present study (Bakhtiar et al., 2012 ). Borujerdi and Rahimi (2008) also reported an increase in lactate and GH levels after one session of resistance training in men. ...
... Nevertheless, the decrease of lactate observed could also result from increased blood lactate clearance that cannot be ruled out, and the present study protocol does not allow for determining if the decreased lactate observed could result from less production and/or higher clearance. In all cases, listening to music seems to have reduced the fatigue related signs, and that is in accordance with the findings of previous studies (Eliakim et al., 2012; Ghavam-Bakhtiar et al., 2012). ...
... These changes were proportional to GH changes in the present study and supported the theory that one of the mechanisms of the increase of GH during exercises is the increase of H + due to the production of lactic acid (Hoffman, et al., 2003). In student players, listening to motivational music significantly increased the training volume and consequent lactate concentrations, while RPE was significantly lower during the first 15 minutes of recovery (Eliakim et al., 2012), which were similar to the findings of the present study (Ghavam-Bakhtiar et al., 2012). Sadegi-Borujerdi and Rahimi (2008) also reported an increase in lactate and GH levels after one session of resistance training in men. ...
... Nevertheless, the decrease of lactate observed could also result from increased blood lactate clearance that cannot be ruled out, and the present study protocol does not allow for determining if the decreased lactate observed could result from less production and/or higher clearance. In all cases, listening to music seems to have reduced the fatigue related signs, and that is in accordance with the findings of previous studies (Eliakim et al., 2012;Ghavam-Bakhtiar et al., 2012). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the listening to motivational music and lactate and cortisol response to a single circuit resistance exercise (CRE) in male handball players. Sixteen handball players were randomly assigned to two equal groups of eight participants that trained with the intensities of 60% (G60) and 80% (G80) of their 1RM. G60 and G80 performed the exercise with (G60-M and G80-M) and without (G60-nM and G80-nM) music. Serum cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, growth hormone (GH) and lactate levels were measured before (BE), immediately (IAE) and two hours after the exercise (2AE). In all groups, GH and lactate increased from BE to IAE and decreased from IAE to 2AE (p≤0.05). Serum cortisol levels decreased from BE to IAE and BE to 2AE in the group G60-M (p≤0.05). Listening to motivational music during CRE had no effect on GH, epinephrine and norepinephrine, yet decreased responses of lactate and cortisol were observed, which might be one underlying mechanisms of fatigue reduction. More studies are needed to understand the exact mechanisms about the hormonal responses to music listening during exercise.
... Desse modo, uma série de recursos capazes de aumentar o desempenho atlético visando melhores resultados tem surgido ao longo dos anos, tais recursos são denominados ergogênicos, ou seja, alguma forma de aperfeiçoar o desempenho físico em tarefa física, tendo esses sua classificação em diferentes âmbitos: fisiológicos, biomecânicos, nutricionais, farmacológicos e psicológicos (MAUGHAN, 2009;BERNSTEIN et al., 2003). Dentre essas possibilidades, recursos ergogênicos psicológicos têm sido constantemente estudados devido aos benefícios encontrados, muitas vezes relacionados ao aumento da ativação para a tarefa, diminuição da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e melhora em variáveis de desempenho (KARAGEORGHIS et al., 2008;SZMEDRA;BCHARACH., 1998;MOHAMMADEZDEH et al., 2008;NAKAMURA et al., 2010;ELIAKIM et al., 2012), sendo esses usados em diferentes formas, como o uso de encorajamento verbal, retroalimentação visual e até a utilização de músicas e vídeos em momentos anteriores, paralelos ou posteriores ao exercício (NAKAMURA et al., 2008;ANDREACCI et al, 2002;LIM et al., 2009;ELIAKIM et al., 2012). Analisando essa perspectiva, é possível identificar estratégias e meios de potencializar os resultados em testes representativos de competição, dessa forma o aspecto motivacional surge como ponto conhecido capaz de modular a ativação para uma determinada tarefa, aproximando o que se entende como capacidade máxima de trabalho, na perspectiva de utilizar a força máxima dentro de parâmetros de técnica e empenho em uma modalidade específica (DUDA, 1989). ...
... Desse modo, uma série de recursos capazes de aumentar o desempenho atlético visando melhores resultados tem surgido ao longo dos anos, tais recursos são denominados ergogênicos, ou seja, alguma forma de aperfeiçoar o desempenho físico em tarefa física, tendo esses sua classificação em diferentes âmbitos: fisiológicos, biomecânicos, nutricionais, farmacológicos e psicológicos (MAUGHAN, 2009;BERNSTEIN et al., 2003). Dentre essas possibilidades, recursos ergogênicos psicológicos têm sido constantemente estudados devido aos benefícios encontrados, muitas vezes relacionados ao aumento da ativação para a tarefa, diminuição da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e melhora em variáveis de desempenho (KARAGEORGHIS et al., 2008;SZMEDRA;BCHARACH., 1998;MOHAMMADEZDEH et al., 2008;NAKAMURA et al., 2010;ELIAKIM et al., 2012), sendo esses usados em diferentes formas, como o uso de encorajamento verbal, retroalimentação visual e até a utilização de músicas e vídeos em momentos anteriores, paralelos ou posteriores ao exercício (NAKAMURA et al., 2008;ANDREACCI et al, 2002;LIM et al., 2009;ELIAKIM et al., 2012). Analisando essa perspectiva, é possível identificar estratégias e meios de potencializar os resultados em testes representativos de competição, dessa forma o aspecto motivacional surge como ponto conhecido capaz de modular a ativação para uma determinada tarefa, aproximando o que se entende como capacidade máxima de trabalho, na perspectiva de utilizar a força máxima dentro de parâmetros de técnica e empenho em uma modalidade específica (DUDA, 1989). ...
BIGLIASSI, M,; KANTHACK, T. F. D.; CARNEIRO, J. G.; SERON, B. B.; DOURADO, A. C.; ALTIMARI, L. R. Intervenção psicológica prévia: efeito de uma estratégia sensorial nos 100 metros rasos. Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity. v. 6, n. 3, p. 203-212, 2012. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar a influência de uma estratégia motivacional utilizando vídeo/música no momento pré-teste sobre variáveis psicofisiológicas e de desempenho em jovens corredores de 100 m. Participaram do estudo 8 atletas jovens homens que realizaram duas condições experimentais: controle (Con) submetidos a 5 minutos sem inferência e intervenção (Int) submetidos a 5 minutos de vídeo/música no momento pré-teste. Após este procedimento os sujeitos responderam os questionários de humor de Brunel e a escala de motivação no desporto (EMD). Foi avaliada a frequência cardíaca (FC), o tempo total (TT) e a velocidade média (VM). Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre TT, VM, FC e EMD em nenhuma das condições experimentais. Os resultados de humor mostraram uma menor taxa de inclinação para a sensação de fadiga na condição Int (p<0,05). Conclui-se que a exposição a 5 minutos de um vídeo/música motivacional foi capaz de diminuir o valor de slope no domínio da fadiga. Palavras chave: música, motivação, desempenho atlético.
... Desse modo, uma série de recursos capazes de aumentar o desempenho atlético visando melhores resultados tem surgido ao longo dos anos, tais recursos são denominados ergogênicos, ou seja, alguma forma de aperfeiçoar o desempenho físico em tarefa física, tendo esses sua classificação em diferentes âmbitos: fisiológicos, biomecânicos, nutricionais, farmacológicos e psicológicos (MAUGHAN, 2009; BERNSTEIN et al., 2003). Dentre essas possibilidades, recursos ergogênicos psicológicos têm sido constantemente estudados devido aos benefícios encontrados, muitas vezes relacionados ao aumento da ativação para a tarefa, diminuição da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e melhora em variáveis de desempenho (KARAGEORGHIS et al., 2008; SZMEDRA; BCHARACH., 1998; MOHAMMADEZDEH et al., 2008; NAKAMURA et al., 2010; ELIAKIM et al., 2012), sendo esses usados em diferentes formas, como o uso de encorajamento verbal, retroalimentação visual e até a utilização de músicas e vídeos em momentos anteriores, paralelos ou posteriores ao exercício (NAKAMURA et al., 2008; ANDREACCI et al, 2002; LIM et al., 2009; ELIAKIM et al., 2012). Analisando essa perspectiva, é possível identificar estratégias e meios de potencializar os resultados em testes representativos de competição, dessa forma o aspecto motivacional surge como ponto conhecido capaz de modular a ativação para uma determinada tarefa, aproximando o que se entende como capacidade máxima de trabalho, na perspectiva de utilizar a força máxima dentro de parâmetros de técnica e empenho em uma modalidade específica (DUDA, 1989). ...
... Desse modo, uma série de recursos capazes de aumentar o desempenho atlético visando melhores resultados tem surgido ao longo dos anos, tais recursos são denominados ergogênicos, ou seja, alguma forma de aperfeiçoar o desempenho físico em tarefa física, tendo esses sua classificação em diferentes âmbitos: fisiológicos, biomecânicos, nutricionais, farmacológicos e psicológicos (MAUGHAN, 2009; BERNSTEIN et al., 2003). Dentre essas possibilidades, recursos ergogênicos psicológicos têm sido constantemente estudados devido aos benefícios encontrados, muitas vezes relacionados ao aumento da ativação para a tarefa, diminuição da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e melhora em variáveis de desempenho (KARAGEORGHIS et al., 2008; SZMEDRA; BCHARACH., 1998; MOHAMMADEZDEH et al., 2008; NAKAMURA et al., 2010; ELIAKIM et al., 2012), sendo esses usados em diferentes formas, como o uso de encorajamento verbal, retroalimentação visual e até a utilização de músicas e vídeos em momentos anteriores, paralelos ou posteriores ao exercício (NAKAMURA et al., 2008; ANDREACCI et al, 2002; LIM et al., 2009; ELIAKIM et al., 2012). Analisando essa perspectiva, é possível identificar estratégias e meios de potencializar os resultados em testes representativos de competição, dessa forma o aspecto motivacional surge como ponto conhecido capaz de modular a ativação para uma determinada tarefa, aproximando o que se entende como capacidade máxima de trabalho, na perspectiva de utilizar a força máxima dentro de parâmetros de técnica e empenho em uma modalidade específica (DUDA, 1989). ...
CARNEIRO, J. G.; SERON, B. B.; DOURADO, A. C.; ALTIMARI, L. R. Intervenção psicológica prévia: efeito de uma estratégia sensorial nos 100 metros rasos. Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity. v. 6, n. 3, p. 203-212, 2012. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar a influência de uma estratégia motivacional utilizando vídeo/música no momento pré-teste sobre variáveis psicofisiológicas e de desempenho em jovens corredores de 100 m. Participaram do estudo 8 atletas jovens homens que realizaram duas condições experimentais: controle (Con) submetidos a 5 minutos sem inferência e intervenção (Int) submetidos a 5 minutos de vídeo/música no momento pré-teste. Após este procedimento os sujeitos responderam os questionários de humor de Brunel e a escala de motivação no desporto (EMD). Foi avaliada a frequência cardíaca (FC), o tempo total (TT) e a velocidade média (VM). Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre TT, VM, FC e EMD em nenhuma das condições experimentais. Os resultados de humor mostraram uma menor taxa de inclinação para a sensação de fadiga na condição Int (p<0,05). Conclui-se que a exposição a 5 minutos de um vídeo/música motivacional foi capaz de diminuir o valor de slope no domínio da fadiga. Palavras chave: música, motivação, desempenho atlético.
... Interestingly, listening to preferred music improved endurance cycling (Nakamura et al., 2010) and bench press performances and decreased RPE scores to a greater extent (Silva et al., 2020) than listening to non-preferred music. In addition, during recovery from intense exercise, motivational music decreased both RPE scores and blood lactate concentration in comparison with recovery without music (Eliakim et al., 2012). Likewise, listening to fast-tempo music improved subsequent repeated sprint cycling performance during passive recovery (Dobashi et al., 2021). ...
In this investigation, we examined the effects of listening to non-preferred (neutral) or self-selected motivational music while warming-up for the Wingate test at varied times of day. Participants were 10 male physical education students who were randomly assigned in a counterbalanced order to perform the Wingate test after a 10-minute warm-up with (a) self-selected motivational music (WUMM), (b) non-preferred music (WUNPM) or (c) no music (WUWM) at morning (0700) or afternoon (1700) times of day. We measured their peak powers (PP) and mean powers (MP) during the Wingate test, and we measured their ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) immediately after each of the warm-up and Wingate performances. PP and MP were higher in the afternoon, compared to the morning for all conditions. Both WUNPM and WUMM conditions were associated with enhanced PP in the morning (WUNPM: p < 0.001, d = 1.82; WUMM: p < 0.001, d = 2.59) and in the afternoon (WUNPM: p < 0.001, d = 1.24; WUMM: p < 0.01, d = 1.76) compared to WUWM, with greater enhancements after WUMM (0700: p < 0.05, d = 0.77; 1700: p < 0.05, d = 0.81) than after WUNPM. After the Wingate test, participants reported lower RPE scores for the WUMM condition, compared to either the WUWM condition (0700: p < 0.001, d = 0.20; 1700: p < 0.001, d = 0.84) or the WUNPM condition (0700: p < 0.01, d = 0.10; 1700: p < 0.05, d = 0.79). Thus, a warm-up with self-selected motivational music improved muscle power and decreased perceived exertion at both time points, with greater improvements at the morning hour (0700).
... Ghaderi et al. showed that trained handball players had lower blood lactate levels following high-intensity exercise while listening to motivational music compared to no music [63]. Listening to motivational music during exercise recovery has also been shown to be associated with increased lactate clearance in active males [64]. If suggestions of increased blood flow to working skeletal muscle while listening to music hold true, then improvements in acute recovery may underpin ergogenic effects of music especially in the context of repeated bouts of exercise. ...
Listening to music has been repeatedly shown to have ergogenic benefits during various modes of exercise, including endurance, sprint, and resistance-based activities. Music is commonly incorporated into training regimens by recreational exercisers and competitive athletes alike. While specific modalities of exercise elicit varying physiological responses, listening to music has been shown to modulate many of these responses (i.e., heart rate, catecholamines, muscle activation) often leading to improved performance. Furthermore, listening to music during exercise may positively impact psychological (i.e., mood, motivation) and psychophysiological (i.e., rate of perceived exertion, arousal) changes, which may allow for favorable responses during an exercise challenge. However, there is mixed evidence regarding music’s efficacy, which may be mediated through differences in music selection and preference. Emerging evidence has shown that, whether an individual prefers or does not prefer the music they are listening to during exercise greatly influences their ergogenic potential in addition to physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise. From a practical standpoint, music may be controlled by the individual through headphones but is often played communally over speakers in locker rooms, gyms, and health clubs, which may have consequences on performance and training. The following review will describe the physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological responses to exercise while listening to music and how music preference may particularly alter them. Current knowledge and new evidence on how music preference factors into enhancing performance in various modes of exercise will be further discussed, incorporating practical considerations for individuals and practitioners in real-world applications to optimize performance.
... An additional attestation to music's metabolic impact is the reductive effects it has on lipids and lactic acid levels both MMD | 2014 | 6 | 2 | Page 42 during and following exercise. A recent study has shown that listening to motivational music following exercise in 20 young men lead to increased voluntary activity in participants, and a statistically significant decrease in blood lactate levels [29]. This has been considered from a sporting perspective, however just as lactate levels rise in physical stress, so they rise in physiological stress inhibiting effective metabolic processes, and therefore it can be assumed that music will aid these parameters in acute medicine also. ...
The application of music as a therapeutic, strategized intervention in the intensive care environment is considered as critical consideration and evaluation of current research is explored. Through a comprehensive literature review, it is considered why music might prove suitable in ICU care, and how it can significantly affect cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic parameters amongst other physiological and psychological aspects pertinent to recovery. Consideration of music application outside of the intensive care unit in affiliated areas is discussed as well as its use in targeted therapy application with specific patient groups. The importance of distinguishing between a live or recorded musical intervention and the music type itself is highlighted, particularly with respect to research where this has typically been poorly defined.
... To answer this, it is helpful to look at 'neuro-doping' in a broad sense, that is other ways of brain stimulation, as such phenomena has been known for quite some time. Research has found that listening to motivational music after intense exercise can help athletes recover faster [11]. More importantly, it has also been shown that performance can be manipulated by music. ...
The formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999 was spurred by the 1998 revelation of widespread use in professional cycling of erythropoietin (EPO). The drug was supposedly a real danger. The long-term consequences were unknown, but rumor said it made athletes’ blood thick as jam with clots and other circulatory fatalities likely consequences. Today the fear of EPO has dampened. However, new scientific avenues such as ‘neuro-doping’ have replaced EPO as emergent and imagined threats to athletes and to the integrity of sport. In this paper, we analyze the alleged threat from ‘neuro-doping’ in the following steps: First, we outline an understanding of ‘neuro-doping’ in a narrow sense, which we then put into context by looking at the phenomenon in a broader sense. Second, we highlight examples of societal perceptions of sport and science in order to shed light on where the concern for ‘neuro-doping’ comes from. Third, we address the more general fear of technology as a root for this concern. Fourth, we examine the evidence for the performance enhancing capacities of ‘neuro-doping’, where after we look at the obstacles for a ban on this technology. We conclude the analysis by stating that at present ‘neuro-doping’ cannot be considered a threat to the integrity of sport. Finally, however, we put this conclusion into perspective by examining what the most reasonable response would be if in the future neuro-stimulation techniques becomes an effective performance-enhancing mean in sport.
... There is a growing body of evidence supporting the use of recuperative or posttask music (e.g., Eliakim, Bodner, Meckel, Nemet, & Eliakim, 2013;Savitha, Sejil, Rao, Roshan, & Roshan, 2013), although methodological rigor has been questionable in some studies, and hence a program of systematic work is needed to drive this area forward and eventually inform evidence-based practice. Specific improvements that need to be made to studies examining the recuperative effects of music include combining both active and static recovery in study designs; to date, studies have tended to examine either one or the other of these recovery phases (e.g., Eliakim, Bodner, Eliakim, Nemet, & Meckel, 2012;Savitha et al., 2013). Also, standardizing work intensity across participants (see Lim et al., 2014) and using measures sensitive to the rate of postexercise recovery (e.g., affective valence and salivary cortisol; see Tan et al., 2014) will serve to enhance the quality of the evidence base. ...
Regular physical activity has multifarious benefits for physical and mental health, and music has been found to exert positive effects on physical activity. Summative literature reviews and conceptual models have hypothesized potential benefits and salient mechanisms associated with music listening in exercise and sport contexts, although no large-scale objective summary of the literature has been conducted. A multilevel meta-analysis of 139 studies was used to quantify the effects of music listening in exercise and sport domains. In total, 598 effect sizes from four categories of potential benefits (i.e., psychological responses, physiological responses, psychophysical responses, and performance outcomes) were calculated based on 3,599 participants. Music was associated with significant beneficial effects on affective valence (g = 0.48, CI [0.39, 0.56]), physical performance (g = 0.31, CI [0.25, 0.36]), perceived exertion (g = 0.22, CI [0.14, 0.30]), and oxygen consumption (g = 0.15, CI [0.02, 0.27]). No significant benefit of music was found for heart rate (g = 0.07, CI [−0.03, 0.16]). Performance effects were moderated by study domain (exercise > sport) and music tempo (fast > slow-to-medium). Overall, results supported the use of music listening across a range of physical activities to promote more positive affective valence, enhance physical performance (i.e., ergogenic effect), reduce perceived exertion, and improve physiological efficiency.
... Also, self-paced active recovery is more effective than passive recovery (39). Listening to motivational music may indirectly support the greater postexercise decrease in blood LA concentration by an increased spontaneous activity (15). ...
Abstract Janowski, M, Zieliński, J, and Kusy, K. Exercise response to real combat in elite taekwondo athletes before and after competition rule changes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2019—We hypothesize that recent (2017) changes in competition rules significantly affected kinematic (mechanical activity) and physiological (cardiopulmonary indices and lactate concentration) profile of the taekwondo combat, which is currently becoming more demanding in terms of exercise intensity and fatigue. Twenty two male and female elite taekwondo athletes were followed up for over 2 years. In total, 258 real tournament combats were included in the analysis (133 in old rules and 125 in new rules). Kinematic and physiological characteristics were recorded using a biomonitor (BioHarness 3; Zephyr Technologies) worn by athletes during tournaments. Blood samples were drawn after each combat for lactate concentration. Our research showed that recent amendments of competition rules were linked to a noticeable shift toward higher kinematic output and, consequently, increased physiological response. Significant increments in kinematic variables (3–8%), heart rate (HR) (1.5–1.8%), energy expenditure (EE) (3–5%), overall physiological load (2–4%), and lactate concentration (∼15% immediately after exercise and ∼25% in recovery) suggest that new rules are more demanding, although the statistical effect size is only small or moderate. In conclusion, after competition rule changes, there has been a shift in taekwondo combat profile toward greater body movement dynamics, higher intensity, and greater postexercise fatigue. The values of key indices of exercise response (mechanical activity, HR, EE, and lactate concentration) during tournaments are near or exceeding the maximum attained during progressive exercise until exhaustion. Therefore, more focus is needed on taekwondo-specific high-intensity training and postcombat recovery to adapt athletes to increased competition requirements.
... Of note, the literature revealed controversial results regarding the effect of pre-task motivational music on performance during short-term high-intensity exercises. Indeed, some authors reported that motivational music enhanced the ability to produce mechanical power output [5,11]. For instance, the power output during the Wingate test was higher after music-warm-up condition compared to no-music condition in physical education students [5], elite adolescent volleyball players [6], young male sprinters [12,13], and well-trained athletes [14]. ...
Purpose : The aim of the current study was to compare the effect of listening to music during warming-up on repeated-sprint performance and affective load in young male and female soccer players.
Methods : Thirty-three Tunisian highly trained soccer players [19 men (age : 17 ± 0.3 years, BMI : 21.9 ± 1.4 kg•m-2) and 14 women (age : 17 ± 0.2 years, BMI : 21.3 ± 3.5 kg•m-2)] took part in two experimental sessions with or without listening to music during warming-up. High tempo music (> 130 to 140 bpm) was chosen. The players then performed a repeated-sprint test (six 40-m sprints with 180° direction change interspersed with a 20-second passive recovery period). Best and mean sprint times, performance decrement, as well as affective load scores were measured.
Results : The analysis of variance for repeated measures revealed a significant improvement in best and mean time only in females (P < 0.05). Moreover, no significant effect of music was observed on performance decrement and affective load in both males and females (all P > 0.05).
Conclusions : Female academy soccer players seemed to derive the greatest benefit from motivational music during repeated-sprint exercise compared to their male counterparts.
... They investigated 20 active young men. The results exhibited a significant difference in the blood lactate concentrations, as well as a reduction in the perception of the exercise pressure, while the participants experienced a better recovery time [13]. ...
Objective: Aerobic exercises have a significant effect on losing weight and increasing the energy levels. This research aimed to increase the fatigue time in this type of exercises, making it more enjoyable. Method: In this study, eight physical education female students with the same preparedness level were selected by random sampling. The subjects participated ina periodic aerobic exercise during three stages with an interval of 48 hours. The test was based on the Bruce Protocol, which measured the burnout, the maximum oxygen consumption, the perceived exercise pressure, and the heart rate in each stage. Findings: the results revealed that there was a significant difference in the subjects’ burnout time (p = 0.039) while the impact of the visual music compared to the non-visual music in perceiving the exercise pressure was significantly different (p = 0.034). Nonetheless, while measuring the heart rate (p = 0.443), the maximum oxygen consumption (p <0.05) had no significant effect. Conclusion: In was found in the current research that the visual music can be a stronger factor than the non-visual music in making the exercise more enjoyable and increasing the fatigue time.
... Most of the literature addressing the psychological and psychophysiological effects of music in the exercise domain has focused on pretask and in-task applications (4,5). To date, scant attention has been given to investigation of the posttask application of music (6). In an exercise context, posttask music is proposed to serve a recuperative role and aid recovery from stressful tasks, such as maximal exercise protocols (7). ...
Purpose: Few studies have examined the psychological and psychophysiological effects of recuperative music following exhaustive exercise. The main purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of two music conditions compared with a no-music control on psychological and psychophysiological recovery processes post-exercise.
Methods: A randomized, fully counterbalanced, crossover design was used. Core affect, salivary cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure were measured before exhaustive exercise, immediately after, and in 10-, 20-, and 30-min intervals during passive recovery (21 women and 21 men; 20.9 +/- 1.7 yr) over three separate trials (slow, sedative music; fast, stimulative music; no-music control). The exercise task entailed incremental cycle ergometry performed at 75 rpm with a 22.5 W.min-1 increase in intensity at the end of each minute until exhaustion. Data were analyzed using mixed-model 3 (condition) x 4 (time) x 2 (gender) MANOVA/ANCOVA.
Results: The largest decline in affective arousal between active and passive recovery phases was evident in the slow, sedative condition ([eta]p2 = 0.50). Women had a more pronounced reduction in arousal than men in the slow, sedative music condition. Heart rate measures showed that fast, stimulative music inhibited the return of heart rate toward resting levels ([eta]p2 = 0.06). Similarly, salivary cortisol levels tended to be lower in response to slow, sedative music ([eta]p2 = 0.11). There was a main effect of condition for affective valence indicating that the slow, sedative condition elicited more positive affective responses than the control and fast, stimulative conditions ([eta]p2 = 0.12).
Conclusions: The present findings support the notion that slow, sedative music can expedite the recovery process immediately after strenuous exercise.
... In this instance, sedative music led to decreases in heart rate (HR) intimating the capacity for sedative music to expedite recovery from exercise. Physiology & Behavior 170 (2017) [106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114] Contrastingly, applying motivational music post-exercise encourages participants to engage in a more active recovery which, in turn, leads to reduced blood lactate concentrations [11]. ...
Numerous studies have examined the multifarious effects of music applied during exercise but few have assessed the efficacy of music as an aid to recovery. Music might facilitate physiological recovery via the entrainment of respiratory rhythms with music tempo. High-intensity exercise training is not typically associated with positive affective responses, and methods of assuaging this warrant further exploration. This study assessed the psychophysiological effects of music on acute recovery and prevalence of entrainment in-between bouts of high-intensity exercise. Thirteen male runners (Mage = 20.2 ± 1.9 years; BMI = 21.7 ± 1.7; V̇O2 max = 61.6 ± 6.1 ml·kg·min− 1) completed three exercise sessions comprising 5 × 5-min bouts of high-intensity intervals interspersed with a 3-min passive recovery period. During recovery, participants were administered positively-valenced music of a slow-tempo (55–65 bpm), fast-tempo (125–135 bpm), or a no-music control. A range of measures including affective responses, RPE, cardiorespiratory indices (gas exchange and pulmonary ventilation), and music tempo-respiratory entrainment were recorded during exercise and recovery. Fast-tempo, positively-valenced music resulted in higher Feeling Scale scores throughout recovery periods (p < 0.01, ηp² = 0.38). There were significant differences in HR during initial recovery periods (p < 0.05, ηp² = 0.16), but no other music-moderated differences in cardiorespiratory responses. In conclusion, fast-tempo, positively-valenced music applied during recovery periods engenders a more pleasant experience. However, there is limited evidence that music expedites cardiorespiratory recovery in-between bouts of high-intensity exercise. These findings have implications for athletic training strategies and individuals seeking to make high-intensity exercise sessions more pleasant.
... Music has found a place in the warm up and cool down periods of these sports. Research is even beginning to show that music during recovery had additional physiological effects over participants who did not listen to music during recovery (Eliakim, et. al., 2012). ...
This paper seeks to examine the ways in which societal creation, interaction, and engagement with music in recorded and performed states can potentially evolve from the year 2015 to the year 2030.
Research included secondary and primary research. We examined changes in the music industry using not only the lenses of Sociology, Political Science, Economics, Environment and Values, but also backcasting of trends. Primary research included interviews with employees from record labels such as Universal Music along with recording artists such as Grammy winner DJ Swivel.
The dossier involved the creation of an experiential future scenario using a new augmented reality product class; hearables that is detailed within.
... Outro aspecto a ser discutido acerca dos resultados encontrados é a participação da música envolvida no jogo, uma vez que nas últimas décadas, surgiram relatos indicando alterações fisiológicas em decorrência da audição de música. Entre estas alterações estão, aumento da frequência cardíaca 23 e da modulação autonômica cardíaca 24 , além da redução da ansiedade 25 e do aumento da sensação de relaxamento 26 . ...
... Although there are many post-exercise recovery treatments, only a few of them have been scientifically confirmed. The fol- lowing are given as examples of methods that influence the pace and quality of regeneration ( Sellwood et al., 2007;Vaile et al., 2008aVaile et al., , 2008bEliakim et al., 2012;Lee et al., 2015;MankovskyArnold et al., 2013;Singla et al., 2015;Johar et al., 2012): stretching, massage, cold treatment, transcutaneous muscle sti- mulation (TENS), kinesiotaping, music therapy, low-intensity ex- ercise, and pharmacological agents, among others. ...
Cold water immersion (CWI) and ice massage (IM) are commonly used treatments to prevent the delay onset of muscle soreness (DOMS); however, little is known on their relative benefits and effectiveness to lower tissue temperature. This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of IM and CMI on tissue temperature and potential benefit to preventing DOMS. The research encompassed 36 subjects divided into three groups of twelve depending on the form of recovery: ice massage (IM), cold-water immersion (CWI), or passive recovery (PAS). All the participants were asked to jump as high as possible from a full squat for one minute. Thermal imaging was conducted at rest, immediately following the exercise, immediately after the trial, following the recovery treatment, and after 30 minutes of rest. Their pain levels were assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). After applying the selected method for supporting recovery, the LA level decreased by 4.25 mmol/L in the IM group, and by 4.96 mmol/L in the CWI group (IM vs. CWI p>0.05). The 2.75 mmol/L decrease in lactate concentration in the PAS group was significantly lower than in the other groups (IM vs. PAS p<0.05 / CWI vs. PAS p<0.01). In both groups, Tsk after 30 minutes was significantly lower (ΔTsk ~0.5 °C) than at rest (p<0.05). In turn, Tsk in the PAS group returned to the resting values (p>0.05). Seventy-two hours after the exercise, a clear decrease in discomfort was observed in the IM and CWI groups compared to the PAS group. The two applied treatments have proven to be effective both in utilizing lactate and preventing DOMS. Depending on training requirements, we recommend the use of IM when athletes experience localized muscle fatigue. One the other hand, CWI is recommended in situations of global or generalized muscle injury or fatigue.
... Other factors can possibly influence recovery, e.g. listening to motivational music during non-structured recovery from intense exercise leads to increased activity and faster lactate clearance (Eliakim, Bodner, Eliakim, Nemet, & Meckel, 2012). This simultaneously suggests the possible directions for further scientific exploration. ...
Changes in body temperature and in the blood lactate concentration are typical symptoms of an organism's reaction to effort. The aim of this work was to search for a relation between the temperature of the lower extremities and the blood lactate concentration. Sixteen non-training male subjects took part in the test (average age: 22.3±1.6 years). They performed maximum-height jumps from a fully knee-bent position for one minute. Their body temperature was measured by thermographic imaging and blood lactate concentration was determined at the beginning and throughout a thirty-minute recovery. An analysis of isotherms showed a strong dependence between the temperature of the front surface (FS) and back surface (BS) of the lower extremities (r=.83, p<.05). Immediately after exercise the temperature of the lower limbs decreased on average by about 1.44°C (p<.001) and then during the recovery period rose almost to the pre-exercise value. There was a significant negative correlation (r=-.29, p<.05) between the temperature of lower limbs and the blood lactate concentration, both for FS (r=-.22, p<.05) and BS (r=-.23, p<.05). The results show that a maximum anaerobic effort is accompanied by a substantial drop of the temperature on surface of engaged muscles and the degree of the drop is proportional to the blood lactate concentration.
It is known that the respiratory system develops in response to exercise. However, it is not clear whether sport or music has a greater effect. The aim of this study was to investigate whether different types of sport and music have a greater effect on the development of the respiratory system. Individuals who continued their active sports and music life, who exercised regularly at least 3 days a week and whose FEV1/FVC ratio was above 75% were included in the study, while individuals with a history of lung disease, upper respiratory disease and less than 6 years of experience were excluded from the study. MGC Diagnostics brand spirometry was used to measure forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), FEV1/FVC, forced vital capacity (FVC), slow vital capacity (SVC), inspiratory capacity and maximal volumetric capacity, maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), maximal expiratory pressure (MEP) and MicroRPM (Kent, UK) electronic respiratory pressure device. In our study, basketball players had higher respiratory muscle strength than opera singers (p<0.05). Differences were found in pulmonary function tests for forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in one second, slow vital capacity and maximal voluntary volume (p<0.05). It was observed that athletes had higher values in pulmonary function tests (FVC, FEV1, SVC, MVV) and maximal inspiratory MIP and MEP parameters than musicians (p<0.05). Therefore, exercise has a greater effect on the respiratory system than music.
Background:
This study explores whether listening to preferred music after a stressful situation affects putting and swinging performance, heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV), and anxiety among amateur golfers.
Methods:
Twenty healthy amateur collegiate golfers voluntarily participated in this study (age 20.1 ± 1.17 yrs., height = 173.8 ± 7.74 cm, body weight = 72.35 ± 12.67 kg). Pre- and post-intervention HR and HRV measurements were taken, along with a self-report of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S) and Triple Factor Anxiety Inventory (TFAI). Participants were exposed to a stressful situation through the Stroop Colour and Word Test (SCWT) and then instructed to perform three golf-practice sessions in a golf simulator, separated by 48–72 hours of recovery, under different conditions: control, pre-task music, and synchronised music.
Results:
No significant difference was identified between the experimental conditions for swinging (in terms of total distance ( p = 0.116), carry distance ( p = 0.608), speed of the ball ( p = 0.819), and launch angle ( p = 0.550) and putting performance (the number of successful putts on target ( p > 0.05) and distance error between the target and ball ( p = 0.122). No main effect for condition and time of intervention, as well as no interaction between these two factors was found for HR, HRV, and STAI-S ( p = 0.116). However, the pre and post-intervention percentages of physiological items of the TFAI indicated a large, significant difference in synchronised music trial ( p = 0.012, pre-task trial = −1.92% < control trial = 0% < synchronised trial = 4.58%).
Conclusions:
The results imply that following a stressful situation, listening to preferred music before and/or during golf has no immediate effect on golf performance, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses in collegiate golfers.
OBJECTIVE: For years, the effects of music on exercise performance have been researched. Recovery is extremely important for athletes, and therefore any factor that could affect it is of importance. BACKGROUND: To assess the influence of listening to music on recovery after an anaerobic-exercise. METHOD: 25 male athletes (age 21.76 ± 1.84 years) visited the laboratory on two occasions over a week. They performed the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) test on two identical conditions but recovery was conducted ‘with’ and ‘without’ listening to music. Blood Lactate concentration values were determined at 1, 5, 10 and 15 minutes during the recovery from the exercise. Heart Rate (HR) values were determined every minute of the 15 minutes of recovery. RESULTS: There was no difference in the mean blood lactate concentration and HR during the recovery with and without music (p> 0.05). Results showed no significant differences between 2 recovery conditions in heart rate or blood lactate. CONCLUSIONS: Music cannot improve recovery after anaerobic performance and it cannot be used as a mean to enhance recovery after an anaerobic-performance.
Listening to music during active recovery between exercise bouts has been found to help maintain high levels of exercise performance; however, the effect of listening to music alone with no exercise while resting passively has not been elucidated. We examined whether listening to music during static (passive) recovery affects subsequent repeated sprint performances and/or psychological and physiological responses in healthy young males. Twelve healthy young male athletes completed two consecutive sets of 7 × 7 second maximal cycling sprints with a 30-second rest interval between the sprints. During a 15-minute interval between the sets, the participants rested passively while listening to fast-tempo (Fast, 130 bpm), slow-tempo (Slow, 70 bpm) music, or no music (Con). We assessed affective valence and arousal using the Affect Grid. The valence and arousal scores immediately after listening to fast-tempo music were significantly higher than those in the no music condition. Mean and peak power outputs during the second set after listening to fast-tempo music were significantly higher compared to those after the Slow and Con conditions (both adjusted p < .05). Moreover, the changes in exercise performances between the first and second set were significantly associated with changes in the arousal score induced by the music conditions, but not with changes in the valence score. These results suggested that listening to fast-tempo songs during passive recovery between the exercises improved subsequent repeated sprint cycling performance in physically active males. This type of rapid exercise recovery might be useful for competitive athletes, such as judo, track and fields, and swimming races.
Background:
This study examined the effects of listening to different music tempos during warm-up on short-term maximal performance and psychological responses, as a function of Times of Day (TOD).
Methods:
Fifteen well trained subjects (93.75% were semi-professional soccer players) randomly performed the 30-s Continuous Jump test (CJ30) during three morning sessions (07h00) and three evening sessions (17h00), separated by 48h of recovery, each after a warmup under three different conditions: without music (NO-M), with music at 60 bpm (LOW-M), and with music at 120-140 bpm (HIGH-M). The maximal jump height (Hmax), mean jump height of all jumps (Hmean), and fatigue index (FI %) were measured during CJ30. Feeling states (FS) were determined after warm-up, and body temperature was controlled before/after warm-up, as well as after CJ30.
Results:
Data analysis showed that Hmax, Hmean, and body temperature were higher at 17h00 than 07h00 in all experimental conditions. Moreover, Hmax, Hmean and FS were better after warm-ups with LOW-M and HIGH-M compared to NO-M condition at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00. More importantly, Hmax, Hmean and FS were better after warm-up with HIGH-M than with LOW-M at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00.
Conclusions:
Although both music tempos were beneficial, warming-up with high music tempo (120-140 bpm) is better than warming-up with low music tempo (60 bpm) for improving short-term maximal performance and psychological responses whatever the TOD, especially in the morning hours.
O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar a influência de estímulos motivacionais (encorajamento verbal – EV e estímulo motivacional competitivo - EMC) sobre o desempenho de atletas de futsal em testes de salto vertical. Para isso, foram incluídos neste estudo treze jogadores, do sexo masculino, de uma equipe de futsal Sub-17, com idade média de 16,91 ± 1,08 anos, altura de 1,73 ± 4,12 cm e peso de 71,25 ± 12,35 kg. Estes jogadores foram submetidos aos testes squat jump (SJ) e countermovement jump (CMJ), executados sem estímulos motivacionais (SM) em um primeiro momento, e executados com estímulos motivacionais (CM) em um segundo momento, respeitando um intervalo de 10 minutos entre os momentos. OS principais resultados encontrados foram que os jogadores apresentaram maior desempenho tanto no SJ (SM 32,11 ± 4,95; CM 35,35 ± 4,04; P<0,01) quanto no CMJ (SM 34,76 ± 5,25; CM 36,51 ± 4,48; P=0,04) quando foram realizados estímulos motivacionais. Sendo assim, pode-se concluir que os estímulos motivacionais, sendo eles EV e EMC, ocasionaram melhora no desempenho em testes de SJ e CMJ em jovens jogadores de futsal.
The authors investigated the effects of respite–active music (i.e., music used for active recovery in between high-intensity exercise bouts) on psychological and psychophysiological outcomes. Participants ( N = 24) made four laboratory visits for a habituation, medium- and fast-tempo music conditions, and a no-music control. A high-intensity interval-training protocol comprising 8 × 60-s exercise bouts at 100% W max with 90-s active recovery was administered. Measures were taken at the end of exercise bouts and recovery periods (rating of perceived exertion [RPE], state attention, and core affect) and then upon cessation of the protocol (enjoyment and remembered pleasure). Heart rate was measured throughout. Medium-tempo music enhanced affective valence during exercise and recovery, while both music conditions increased dissociation (only during recovery), enjoyment, and remembered pleasure relative to control. Medium-tempo music lowered RPE relative to control, but the heart rate results were inconclusive. As predicted, medium-tempo music, in particular, had a meaningful effect on a range of psychological outcomes.
O objetivo deste estudo foi verifi car a infl uência de estímulos motivacionais (encorajamento verbal– EV e estímulo motivacional competitivo - EMC) sobre o desempenho de atletas de futsal em testes de salto vertical. Para isso, foram incluídos neste estudo treze jogadores, do sexo masculino, de uma equipe de futsal Sub-17, com idade média de 16,91 ± 1,08 anos, altura de 1,73 ± 4,12 cm e peso de 71,25 ± 12,35 kg. Estes jogadores foram submetidos aos testes squat jump (SJ) e countermovement jump (CMJ), executados sem estímulos motivacionais (SM) em um primeiro momento, executados com estímulos motivacionais (CM) em um segundo momento, respeitando um intervalo de 10 minutos entre os momentos. OS principais resultados encontrados foram que os jogadores apresentaram maior desempenho tanto no SJ (SM 32,11 ± 4,95; CM 35,35 ± 4,04; P<0,01) quanto no CMJ (SM 34,76 ± 5,25; CM 36,51 ± 4,48; P=0,04) quando foram realizados estímulos motivacionais. Sendo assim, pode-se concluir que os estímulos motivacionais, sendo eles EV e EMC, ocasionaram melhora no desempenho em testes de SJ e CMJ em jovens jogadores de futsal.
Appropriately selected music can positively influence physical performance and psychophysical responses to exercise, yet little is known about the role of music during recovery between intermittent bouts of activity. In the present study, 45 anaerobically trained males completed two 30-s Wingate anaerobic tests (WAnTs) separated by 10 min of self-paced active recovery, for which they were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: stimulative music (STIM), sedative music, or a no-music control. Blood lactate was measured at baseline, immediately after the first WAnT, and at the end of the recovery period. Felt arousal, heart rate, and pedal cadence were measured immediately after the first WAnT, and at Minute 5 and Minute 10 of active recovery. WAnT performance was recorded in both trials. Data were analyzed using one-way and mixed-model analyses of variance. Participants in the STIM group showed a significant increase in peak power from Trial 1 to Trial 2, whereas participants in the sedative music and control groups showed decreased peak power from Trial 1 to Trial 2. Participants in the STIM group had a higher mean heart rate during the recovery period as well as higher levels of felt arousal, and a significant pre-post recovery drop in blood lactate that was not evident in the other groups (all p < .05). In conclusion, it appears that STIM respite music exerts a positive influence on self-paced exercise recovery, which can facilitate blood lactate clearance and improve subsequent exercise performance.
We identified exercise participants’ music preferences in three exercise sessions and clarified how preferred or randomly assigned music affects perceived psychological helpfulness of exercise. There were 292 fitness center members in Korea who were selected as participants. Participants’ preferred music was assessed using frequency analysis and participants were grouped by preferences. Similar percentages were observed for sedative (45.2%) and stimulative (54.8%) music during warm-up, whereas participants preferred stimulative (91.4%) and sedative (75.7%) music during workout and cooldown, respectively. During the warm-up session, sedative music was found to be more psychologically helpful for the sedative music preferred group (t = 4.86, p <.001), whereas stimulative music was found to be significantly more psychologically helpful than sedative music for the stimulative music–preferred group (t = –6.47, p <.001). During the workout sessions, the sedative music was found to be more helpful for the sedati...
Background:
It is unclear whether music preferences and perceptions in the operating room (OR) differ by demographic and professional factors and how an improved understanding of these potential differences can be leveraged to enhance team dynamics and the OR work environment. Currently, there is limited knowledge regarding the impact of music on OR team concentration and communication.
Methods:
This study was a multicenter, cross-sectional study of 282 preoperative patients and 390 providers-attending physicians, residents, and nurses in anesthesiology and surgery. Patient and provider responses were measured using a newly developed questionnaire.
Results:
Patients who highly enjoyed music felt music alleviated stress and enhanced concentration and communication and favored use of music in the OR. The genres favored most by patients were rock music (32%), classical music (28%), and top 40 hits (26%). All providers reported a high frequency of use of music during the operation. Nurses and residents were more likely than attendings to report high enjoyment of music in the OR (P < .02). Surgeons and anesthesiologists had high median scores for enjoyment of music and low median scores for music as distraction. Anesthesiologists preferred classical and jazz/blues at lower volumes compared with surgeons, who favored top 40 music at higher noise pressure levels. Patients and providers perceived music to improve provider concentration and team communication; nurses held the most positive views.
Conclusion:
Musical preferences and perceptions of the effect of music in the OR differ by both professional status and specialty and provide insight into broader team dynamics that could be leveraged potentially to optimize the OR environment.
During the last decade, the combination of music and physical activity has receivedimportant consideration. This combination aimed to provide health benefits such asreducing the prevalence of inactivity and obesity. Accordingly, there has been a sharpincrease in the number of studies examining the psychophysical and ergogenic effects ofmusic on physical activity and athletic performance. Moreover, there has been a wave ofcommercial activity aimed to the development of walking programs that use synchronousmusic to get health benefits or as part of a cardiac rehabilitation program.For athletic performance, to date, researches have demonstrated the efficacy of musicfor submaximal endurance performance and most of them reported positive effects ofmusic on the athlete's perceived exertion and performance. This ergogenic effects couldbe linked to the synchronization between the rhythmic elements of music and therhythmic elements in movements during the physical task. Indeed, the use of synchronousmusic entails the conscious performance of repetitive movements in time with therhythmic elements of music such as beat or tempo. However, there has been a distinctlack of data about the effects of music on short - term maximal tasks. In fact, while somestudies suggested an enhancing music effect, others reported no beneficial outcomes forshort - term maximal performances. These discrepancies could be linked tomethodological differences as some studies used music during the exercise while othersresorted to music before the physical task (i.e., the warm-up period). However, thefindings of the studies that have measured the physiological responses to using musicwhile performing short - term maximal exercises are not applicable for athletes, since theycannot listen to music during competition. They can use music primarily during warm-upand/or recovery periods. Studies examining the effect of music during warm - up on athletes' short - term maximal performances found significant ergogenic effects. Themusic motivational effects have been linked to increases in individual perception of selfesteemand sense of confidence, enhanced arousal and facilitating motor coordination.Moreover, this auditory stimulus can be used as a tool to 'psych up' in preparation forperformance (arousal regulation), shift intentional focus (association/dissociation), boostself - efficacy and encourage psychological skills usage.In view of the above consideration, music could be used to get health benefits andimprove athletic performance.
The notion that a positive and negative affect can co-exist is described as affect complexity. According to the Dynamic Model of Affect, stressful events decrease affect complexity. This study examined whether disliked music acts on its listeners in a similar manner to stressful events. Young adults (N = 397), 191 non-fans of the heavy metal genre and 206 fans of this genre, were exposed to a popular heavy metal song. Positive and negative emotions were measured before and after the exposure. While the affect complexity of non-fans decreased after listening to the heavy metal song, it remained stable among the fans of this genre (β = −.42). Moreover, the level of negative emotions increased and the level of positive emotions decreased among non-fans, whereas among the fans the level of positive emotions increased. Furthermore, the increase in negative emotions occurred in high arousal emotions among the non-fans. The findings of this study provide evidence of the differential impact of music on the listeners’ affect complexity, and on how this impact is associated with music preference. Since affect complexity is an important asset strongly and positively associated with people’s well-being, these findings justify further exploration of the impact of music on the affect complexity of its consumers.
The use of music has been identified as a potential ergogenic aid that helps to improve performance in exercise. Music has been classified as a psychological ergogenic aid and has attracted interest mainly for its effects found in studies with a focus on performance during exercise, pre-task and post-task. In this context, the objective of this study was to review the literature about the main effects of music on performance and their possible mechanisms, covering new perspectives about the theme. The method consisted of search, selection and stratification of the original articles of major databases (Medline, Sport Discuss, Scopus, Web of Science and Scielo) using the descriptors music, exercise, performance and fatigue. We considered all models and types of exercise and music. These articles suggest that the use of music as an ergogenic aid could be efficient to improve performance; decrease rate perceived of exertion and is capable to bring better feelings to exercise, according to time of application, physical fitness of subjects, type of exercise and musical components,respecting some recommendations and orientations to insertion. The main proposed mechanisms of action for the music ergogenic effects are based on behavioral hypothesis and are still being discussed; also there are not enough evidences to discard any of them, demonstrating the need for future studies in attempt to clarify such effects in central nervous system. To sum it all up, we propose some orientations of use in submaximal and maximal exercise, allowing coaches and athletes apply this technique in their methods of training.
Abstract
There is evidence on the beneficial effects of music listening (ML) interventions on physiological post exercise recovery compared to silence conditions. However, it is not clear if these arise from acoustic distraction or specific elements of the selected music.
Description
Methods: We conducted a randomized controlled cross-over trial to compare the effects of listening to a sedative piece of music with listening to an audiobook (AB). 51 subjects (30 female; age: 22.49±2.61 yr; height: 174.9±9.06 cm; weight: 68.67±13.82 kg; BMI: 22.37±3.82 kg/m²) performed a progressive ergometer cycling task (2 minutes each: ET1 80W; ET2 100W; ET3 120W, with a minimum of 80 revolutions per minute). Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured within a 5 minute baseline (BL), the 6 minutes of the ergometer task (ET1, ET2, ET3) and during 5 minutes post-line (PL). Ratings of perceived exertion were assessed at the end of every phase (BL, ET1, ET2, ET3, and PL).
Results: Analysis of variance revealed statistically significant difference on RPE and different time- and frequency domain measures of HRV between periods. No significant differences between the interventions (ML vs. AB) were observed. RPE was significantly correlated with measures of HRV.
Conclusion: Beneficial effects of ML interventions might simply derive from acoustic distraction. Future studies comparing ML, AB and silence conditions are necessary to address the specificity and nature of the effects of ML interventions on post-task recovery.
The study of music and medicine is a rapidly growing field that in the past, has been largely focused on the use of music as a complementary therapy. Increasing interest has been centered on understanding the physiologic mechanisms underlying the effects of music and, more recently, the suggested role of music in modulating metabolic responses. Research has established a role for music in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, the sympathetic nervous system, and the immune system, which have key functions in the regulation of metabolism and energy balance. More recent findings have shown a role for music in the metabolic recovery from stress, the regulation of gastric and intestinal motility, the moderation of cancer-related gastrointestinal symptoms, and the increase of lipid metabolism and lactic acid clearance during exercise and postexercise recovery. The purpose of this article is to summarize the most current understanding of the mechanisms by which music affects the metabolic responses in the context of potential applications.
Objectives: To examine the effects of self-selected asynchronous (background) music on flow and netball shooting performance in three netball players. Based on the research of Karageorghis and Terry (1999) it was hypothesized that music would promote flow and would therefore have a positive impact on netball shooting performance. Design: An idiographic single-subject multiple baselines across-subjects design was employed (Wollman, 1986). The rationale centred upon the work of Patrick and Hrycaiko (1998) who indicated that single-subject designs were the most appropriate methodology for applied research. Methods: The participants comprised three collegiate netball players who were asked to complete 11 performance trials. Each trial involved taking 12 shots from lines located at three shooting positions. After each performance trial, flow and the internal experience of each player were assessed using the Flow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996) and Practical Assessment Questionnaire. Participants received the intervention of asynchronous music with the length of pre-intervention baseline increasing for each succeeding player. Results: Two of the participants experienced an increase in the perception of flow while all three participants improved their netball shooting performance. In addition, participants indicated that the intervention helped them to control both the emotions and cognitions that impacted upon their performance. Conclusions: Interventions comprising self-selected music and imagery can enhance athletic performance by triggering emotions and cognitions associated with flow.
This paper provides a narrative review of recent theory, research and applications pertaining to the psychophysical effects of music in the sport and exercise domains. A conceptual framework is presented, which emphasises that the principal benefits of music – improved mood, arousal control, reduced perceived exertion, enhanced work output, improved skill acquisition, flow states, dissociation from feelings of pain and fatigue – are determined by the four factors of rhythm response, musicality, cultural impact, and extra-musical associations. A simple example involves the tendency for humans to respond to the rhythmical qualities of music by synchronising movement patterns to tempo. Synchronous music has been reliably shown to produce an ergogenic effect. Therefore, if athletes or exercisers work in time to music, they will likely work harder for longer. Responses to asynchronous, or background, music are less predictable and beneficial effects are less reliable, although considerable potential remains if certain principles are followed. An example is that fast, upbeat music produces a stimulative effect whereas slow, soft music produces a sedative effect. Several evidence-based examples are presented of how music has been used effectively in our work as applied practitioners with groups ranging from exercise participants to elite athletes.
We examined the effects of listening to headphone music in ten well trained men (25.1 +/- 6 years) during treadmill running. Maximal oxygen consumption, determined by open circuit spirometry, was followed by two submaximal work bouts 72 hours apart. The work bouts consisted of a supine rest, a 15 minute run at 70% of maximal oxygen consumption, and a three minute active recovery period. Participants listened to music during one of the two trials. Hemodynamic variables and perceived exertion were recorded at three minute intervals during each trial. A venous blood sample, obtained prior to and following each trial, was assayed for norepinephrine and plasma lactate. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the no music versus the exercise with music trial for (aggregate data 3,6,9,12,15 minutes): heart rate 152.9 +/- 5.3 to 145.9 +/- 4.7 beats x min(-1); systolic blood pressure, 158.1 +/- 3.7 to 151.7 +/- 3.3 mmHg; rate-pressure product 242.2 +/- 11.5 to 222.1 +/- 11.4; exercise lactate 2.75 +/- 0.15 to 2.13 +/- 0.18 mmol x l(-1); and perceived exertion 14.4 +/- 0.4 to 12.9 +/- 0.4. A 17.5% lower level of norepinephrine (841.5 +/- 314.7 to 694.1 +/- 254.5 pg x ml[-1]) in the exercise and music trial was not statistically significant (p<0.05); however a moderate effect size (ES = 0.52) was calculated and may be of practical significance considering the variability of the sample. Higher values for hemodynamics and lactate in the no music trial is suggestive of a greater metabolic demand; however, oxygen consumption was not different. Perhaps the music allowed individuals to relax reducing muscle tension thereby increasing blood flow and lactate clearance while decreasing lactate production in working muscle. The combined results of this study suggest the introduction of music has a psychobiological impact on the exerciser demonstrated by changes in perceived effort, lactate and norepinephrine.
The main objective of the current study was to examine the impact of musically-induced emotions on athletes’ subsequent choice reaction time (CRT) performance. A random sample of 54 tennis players listened to researcher-selected music whose tempo and intensity were modified to yield six different music excerpts (three tempi x two intensities) before completing a CRT task. Affective responses, heart rate (HR), and RTs for each condition were contrasted with white noise and silence conditions. As predicted, faster music tempi elicited more pleasant and aroused emotional states; and higher music intensity yielded both higher arousal (p < .001) and faster subsequent CRT performance (p < .001). White noise was judged significantly less pleasant than all experimental conditions (p < .001); and silence was significantly less arousing than all but one experimental condition (p < .001). The implications for athletes’ use of music as part of a preevent routine when preparing for reactive tasks are discussed.
This study examined regular exercisers' perceptions of specific components of music during circuit training. Twenty-four men (38.8 years, s = 11.8 years) and 31 women (32.4 years, s = 9.6 years) completed two questionnaires immediately after a circuit training class. Participants rated the importance of 13 components of music (rhythm, melody, etc.) in relation to exercise enjoyment, and each completed the "Affect Intensity Measure" (Larsen, 1984, Dissertation Abstracts International, 5, 2297B. (University microfilms No. 84-22112)) to measure emotional reactivity. Independent t-tests were used to evaluate gender differences in perceptions of musical importance. Pearson correlations were computed to evaluate the relationships between affect intensity, age and importance of musical components. Consistent with previous research and theoretical predictions, rhythm response components (rhythm, tempo, beat) were rated as most important. Women rated the importance of melody significantly higher than did men, whereas men gave more importance to music associated with sport. Affect intensity was found to be positively and significantly related to the perceived importance of melody, lyrical content, musical style, personal associations and emotional content. Results suggest that exercise leaders need to be sensitive to personal factors when choosing music to accompany exercise. Qualitative research that focuses on the personal meaning of music is encouraged.
Although athletes frequently report using music while training or before an event, laboratory studies have not detected a beneficial effect, so the influence of positive and negative music on performance of a selected karate drill was investigated in this double-blind study using 14 volunteers from two Shotokan karate schools. Each subject performed a preselected drill three times following positive and negative music and white noise in a random order. Performance of the drill was rated on a 7-item, 5-point scale by 2 rates. Differences among conditions were assessed via a with-in-subject t test for paired scores. The subjects' self-evaluation of their performance was also examined. Enhancement of performance for both types of music over white noise was significant.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of stimulative (energizing) and sedative (relaxing) music on grip strength. A 2 x 3 (gender x condition) repeated-measures analysis of variance and post hoc tests showed that participants (N = 50) evidenced higher grip strength after listening to stimulative music (M = 43.94 kg.force) than after sedative music or a white noise control condition. Sedative music yielded lower scores than white noise. Men evidenced higher grip strength than women, but there was no interaction between gender and music condition. It was concluded that a simple motoric task such as grip strength provides a sensitive measure of psychophysical responses to music.
While several studies have investigated the effects of music on cardiovascular endurance performance and perceived exertion during exercise of moderate intensity, few studies have investigated such effects on supramaximal exercise bouts. The purpose of the present study was to assess whether music affects performance on the Wingate Anaerobic Test. Each of the 12 men and 3 women were required to report to the laboratory on two occasions, once for tests in the music condition and once for tests in the nonmusic condition. Conditions were randomly ordered. All music selections were set at the same tempo. On each test day subjects performed a series of three Wingate Anaerobic Tests with 30-sec. rests in between. On Test 3 subjects were asked to continue pedaling until fatigued. Mean Power Output, Maximum Power Output, Minimum Power Output, and Fatigue Index were compared between conditions for each test using a repeated-measures analysis of variance. Time to fatigue on Trial 3 compared by analysis of variance gave no significant differences between conditions for any measures.
Equivocal results of the psychophysical effects of music have been explained in part by the insensitivity of researchers to important personal and situational variables when selecting music. The aim of the present study was to operationalize a conceptual framework for the prediction of psychophysical responses to music into a music rating inventory to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments. An initial item pool was developed and administered to 334 aerobics instructors. Exploratory factor analysis produced a 13-item, four-factor structure (association, musicality, cultural impact and rhythm response), which accounted for 59.2% of the variance. This model demonstrated acceptable fit indices when tested using confirmatory factor analysis on 314 exercise-to-music participants, and was better than an alternative two-factor model. When cross-validated using multisample confirmatory factor analysis, the model also showed an acceptable fit overall, although some invariance in the rhythm response factor was evident that can be attributed to the exclusive use of synchronous music by aerobics instructors. The Brunel Music Rating Inventory appears to be a valid and reliable tool for both researchers and practitioners to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments.
To investigate, based on the parallel information processing model and arousal hypothesis, whether musical tempo and its manipulation during exercise affect the maximal workload (watts) achieved during progressive cycling.
Design: repeated measures experiment that involved one control and four treatment conditions. Settings: the experiment was performed in a controlled laboratory environment. Participants: twenty-four male and female volunteers, recruited from among a University population, were tested. Intervention: the data collection proceeded in five counterbalanced test-sessions that included control (C), slow music (SM), fast music (FM) slow to fast music (SFM) and fast to slow music (FSM) interventions. In the last two conditions, musical tempo was changed when the participant's maximal HR reserve has reached 70%. In all test-sessions, participants started to cycle at 50 watts and then the workload was increased in increments of 25 watts every minute until self-declared exhaustion. Maximal ergometer cycling was defined as the workload at the last completed minute of exercise. Measures: workload, HR, and postexperimental ratings of test-session preferences were the dependent measures.
Significantly higher workload was accomplished in the SFM condition. No between-session differences were seen in HR. The results also yielded significantly better "efficiency", in terms of workload/HR reserve ratio, in the SFM session. Participants preferred the FM and SFM sessions more than the other sessions.
Switching to FM during progressive exercise results in the accomplishment of more work without proportional changes in HR. These effects may be due to distraction from fatigue and are, apparently, dependent on the attention capturing strength of the distracting stimulus.
This study evaluated the effect of music on the mood of women during exercise. 16 middle-aged women, aged 49.9 +/- 7.53 yr., performed 60-min. bench stepping exercise while listening to Japanese traditional folk song, aerobic dance music, or nonmusic. The subjects reported significantly less fatigue with aerobic dance music and Japanese traditional folk song than with nonmusic. Aerobic dance music was associated with significantly more vigor and less confusion than nonmusic.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the exercise setting on perceived exertion during sustained low and high intensity cycling exercise.
Thirteen untrained males completed 4 15-min cycling sessions at 50% VO(2peak) and at 80% VO(2peak) under each of the following conditions: control, sensory deprived, video, and music. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) from Borg's 6-20 scale and heart rate (HR) were recorded at 5 min intervals during all sessions.
RPE increased with exercise duration at both intensities and, as expected, was substantially higher at the harder workload. Exercising to music resulted in significantly lower RPE when compared to all other conditions at both the low and high workloads, while RPE was higher in the sensory deprived condition when compared to the other 3 conditions. However, RPE was similar for the control and video conditions at both workloads. A significant ordinal interaction existed between conditions and exercise duration during the low but not the high workload. While HR was higher for the harder workload and increased during each workload as a function of exercise duration, it was not different among the 4 conditions at either workload.
Varying the type of sensory information available to the exercising individual did influence perceptual responses to the exercise with the degree of influence dependent on the intensity and duration of the exercise. These results are consistent with information processing models that suggest a limited capacity to attend to the information available. The type of information available, the work intensity, and the work duration were important elements influencing perceptual responses to exercise.
In the present study, a measure to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise was redesigned, extending previous research efforts (Karageorghis et al., 1999). The original measure, the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI), had shown limitations in its factor structure and its applicability to non-experts in music selection. Redesign of the BMRI used in-depth interviews with eight participants (mean age 31.9 years, s = 8.9 years) to establish the initial item pool, which was examined using a series of confirmatory factor analyses. A single-factor model provided a good fit across three musical selections with different motivational qualities (comparative fit index, CFI: 0.95-0.98; standardized root mean residual, SRMR: 0.03-0.05). The single-factor model also demonstrated acceptable fit across two independent samples and both sexes using one piece of music (CFI: 0.86-1.00; SRMR: 0.04-0.07). The BMRI was designed for experts in selecting music for exercise (e.g. dance aerobic instructors), whereas the BMRI-2 can be used both by exercise instructors and participants. The psychometric properties of the BMRI-2 are stronger than those of the BMRI and it is easier to use. The BMRI-2 provides a valid and internally consistent tool by which music can be selected to accompany a bout of exercise or a training session. Furthermore, the BMRI-2 enables researchers to standardize music in experimental protocols involving exercise-related tasks.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the influence of music on RPE during sub-maximal exercise and on the autonomic nervous system before and after sub-maximal exercise.
Heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV) and rates of physical fatigue (RPE) during exercise at 60% and at 40% VO2max with and without music were measured. The exercise protocol consisted of a 30-min seated rest (control) period followed by a 30-min submaximal cycling exercise and a 35-min recovery period. Autonomic-nervous activity was measured before and after exercise. During exercise, RPE was recorded every 3 min and HR was recorded for every minute.
Although RPE did not differ during exercise at 60% VO2max, this value was lower during exercise at 40% VO2max in the presence, than in the absence of a favorite piece music (P < 0.05). HR, HFA and LFA/HFA of HRV significantly differed with exercise intensity in the absence (P < 0.05), but not in the presence of music.
These findings suggested that music evokes a ''distraction effect'' during low intensity exercise, but might not influence the autonomic nervous system. Therefore, when jogging or walking at comparatively low exercise intensity, listening to a favorite piece of music might decrease the influence of stress caused by fatigue, thus increasing the ''comfort'' level of performing the exercise.
Subjective estimates of physical work intensity are considered of major importance to those concerned with prescription of exercise. This article reviews major theoretical models which might guide research on the antecedents for ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). It is argued that an active rather than passive view of perception is warranted in future research, and a parallel-processing model is emphasized as providing the needed structure for such reconceptualization. Moreover, existing exercise research is reviewed as support for this latter approach and several suggestions are offered with regard to needed empirical study.
A group of 16 healthy older adults participated in a movement with music program to enhance physical flexibility, balance, and gait speed. The program, designed by a Laban Movement Analyst, consisted of 14 movement sequences set to music composed to reflect the dynamics, rhythm, timing, and phrasing of the movements. After 5 weeks, individuals showed statistically significant increases in measures of one-foot stance balance, gait speed, and functional reach. From the 5th to the 14th week, improvements continued in all measures but were not statistically significant.
Objectives: To examine the effects of self-selected asynchronous (background) music on flow and netball shooting performance in three netball players. Based on the research of Karageorghis and Terry (1999) it was hypothesized that music would promote flow and would therefore have a positive impact on netball shooting performance.Design: An idiographic single-subject multiple baselines across-subjects design was employed (Wollman, 1986). The rationale centred upon the work of Patrick and Hrycaiko (1998) who indicated that single-subject designs were the most appropriate methodology for applied research.Methods: The participants comprised three collegiate netball players who were asked to complete 11 performance trials. Each trial involved taking 12 shots from lines located at three shooting positions. After each performance trial, flow and the internal experience of each player were assessed using the Flow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996) and Practical Assessment Questionnaire. Participants received the intervention of asynchronous music with the length of pre-intervention baseline increasing for each succeeding player.Results: Two of the participants experienced an increase in the perception of flow while all three participants improved their netball shooting performance. In addition, participants indicated that the intervention helped them to control both the emotions and cognitions that impacted upon their performance.Conclusions: Interventions comprising self-selected music and imagery can enhance athletic performance by triggering emotions and cognitions associated with flow.
Objectives. To examine: (a) the effect of music type on running time and on sensations and thoughts experienced by the runners under high physical exertion, and (b) the role that music plays in the use of two distinct self-regulation techniques during high exertion, namely dissociative and motivational.Design and procedure. Three studies were conducted. In Study 1 and Study 2, performed in the laboratory, participants ran at 90% of their maximal oxygen uptake on a motorized treadmill four times, once each with rock, dance, and inspirational music, and once without attending to music. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were monitored during the run, and discomfort symptoms and music-specific questions were examined. In Study 3, performed in the field, participants ran a hilly course eight times, four under a competitive-pair condition, and four under a single-mode condition. Running time was the dependent variable.Results. Music failed to influence HR, RPE, and sensations of exertion in the three studies. However, about 30% of the participants indicated that the music helped them at the beginning of the run. The participants stated that music both directed their attention to the music and motivated them to continue. Despite the heavy workload reported by the runners, running with music was perceived as beneficial by many.Conclusions: People engaged in high intensity running may benefit from listening to music, but may not increase their ability to sustain that effort longer than they could without music. Further research that incorporates personal music type and rhythm preferences should be carried out in order to advance this line of inquiry.
The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationships between musical cadence and the physiologic adaptations to basic head-out aquatic exercises. Fifteen young and clinically healthy women performed, immersed to the breast, a cardiovascular aquatic exercise called the "rocking horse." The study design included an intermittent and progressive protocol starting at a 90 b.min(-1) rhythm and increasing every 6 minutes, by 15 b.min(-1), up to 195 b.min(-1) or exhaustion. The rating of perceived effort (RPE) at the maximal heart rate achieved during each bout (HRmax), the percentage of the maximal theoretical heart rate estimated (%HRmax), and the blood lactate concentration ([La-]) were evaluated. The musical cadence was also calculated at 4 mmol.L(-1) of blood lactate (R4), the RPE at R4 (RPE@R4), the HR at R4 (HR@R4), and the %HRmax at R4 (%HRmax@R4). Strong relationships were verified between the musical cadence and the RPE (R2 = 0.85; p < 0.01), the HRmax (R2 = 0.66; p < 0.01), the %HRmax (R = 0.61; p < 0.01), and the [La-] (R2 = 0.54; p < 0.01). The R4 was 148.13 +/- 17.53 b.min, the RPE@R4 was 14.53 +/- 2.53, the HR@R4 was 169.33 +/- 12.06 b.min, and the %HRmax@R4 was 85.53 +/- 5.72%. The main conclusion is that increasing musical cadence created an increase in the physiologic response. Therefore, instructors must choose musical cadences according to the goals of the session they are conducting to achieve the desired intensity.
The effects of different types of music on heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and time to exhaustion during treadmill work were determined on 24 volunteer college students (Ss). The Ss participated in three randomly assigned multistaged treadmill walk/run to exhaustion while wearing a head-set. The three treatments were: loud, fast, exciting, popular music (Type A); soft, slow, easy-listening, popular music (Type B); and no music (control). HR was recorded at 0:30 of each minute until voluntary exhaustion. RPE was obtained after the test for five different points during the test. Differences (p less than 0.10) among experimental treatments were determined by a one-way ANOVA and Newman-Keuls. HR was lower with Type B music in minutes one and six. The peak HR and the HR in the minute preceding max were higher with Type B music. Time to exhaustion was longer during the Type B music treatment than during the control treatment. RPE was lower for Type B music than control during moderate work. This study provided some support for the hypothesis that soft, slow music reduces physiological and psychological arousal during submaximal exercise and increases endurance performance.
Blood lactate concentration (LA) was measured in 4 female and 3 male well-trained subjects before and during 30 min of continuous treadmill running at 4 different speeds, demanding about 30, 60, 70 and 80% of the individuals' maximal oxygen uptake (Vo2 max). The same subjects also performed in another series of experiments where maximal intermittent exercise preceded 30 min of running at the same 4 speeds, or resting in a chair. During continuous running, starting from resting conditions, the blood LA increased only slightly up to a critical Ievel (i.e. 60—80%) of Vo2-max. From then on, a pronounced lactate production may occur. During the maximal intermittent exercise, blood LA increased to 130—220 mg/100 ml. In the recovery period, i.e. continuous running at the same 4 speeds, or resting in a chair, blood LA decreased towards resting values. The lactate removal rate was calculated from the rectilinear part of the curves describing the changes in LA with time, and expressed as mg/100 ml X min. The lactate removal rate was higher during exercise than during rest, and increased with increasing work load up to the same critical level (i.e. 60—80% of Vo2 max), beyond which a reduction was observed. The highest removal rate was 8 mg lactate/100 ml x min at 63% of Vo2 max (average values). These results indicate that human skeletal muscle possesses a pronounced capacity to oxidize lactate. Therefore, a production of lactate is possible even with no increase in the blood LA. These results also indicate that the skeletal muscle, rather than the liver, may be regarded as the main site for lactate removal during exercise.
Numerous studies have reported that following intense exercise the rate of blood lactate (La) disappearance is greater during continuous aerobic work than during passive recovery. Recent work indicates that a combination of high- and low-intensity work may be optimal in reducing blood La. We tested this hypothesis by measuring the changes in blood La levels following maximal exercise during four different recovery patterns. Immediately following 50 S of maximal work, subjects (n = 7) performed one of the following recovery treatments for 40 min: 1) passive recovery (PR); 2) cycling at 35% maximal O2 uptake (VO2 max) (35% R); 3) cycling at 65% VO2 max (65% R); 4) cycling at 65% for 7 min followed by cycling at 35% for 33 min (CR). The treatment order was counterbalanced with each subject performing all treatments. Serial blood samples were obtained throughout recovery treatments and analyzed for La. The rate of blood La disappearance was significantly greater (P less than 0.05) in both the 35% R and CR when compared with either the 65% R or PR. No significant difference (P greater than 0.05) existed in the rate of blood La disappearance between the 35% R and CR. These data do not support the hypothesis that exercise recovery at a combination of intensities is superior to a recovery involving continuous submaximal exercise in lowering blood La following maximal work.
There is a great demand for perceptual effort ratings in order to better understand man at work. Such ratings are important complements to behavioral and physiological measurements of physical performance and work capacity. This is true for both theoretical analysis and application in medicine, human factors, and sports. Perceptual estimates, obtained by psychophysical ratio-scaling methods, are valid when describing general perceptual variation, but category methods are more useful in several applied situations when differences between individuals are described. A presentation is made of ratio-scaling methods, category methods, especially the Borg Scale for ratings of perceived exertion, and a new method that combines the category method with ratio properties. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods are discussed in both theoretical-psychophysical and psychophysiological frames of reference.
The influence of music on physiological and affective exercise responses was studied in 8 trained and 8 untrained runners under three music conditions ("no", "sedative", and "fast") during low, moderate, and high intensity exercise. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed increased respiratory frequency (FR) during fast music as compared to the no music and sedative music conditions (p < 0.01). Plasma cortisol levels did not differ at baseline across the music conditions; however, following high intensity exercise, higher cortisol levels were associated with fast music as compared to no music and sedative music (music x intensity interaction, p < 0.01). Affective measures during exercise (FEELING scale) showed no overall training group differences; however, there was a music x group x intensity interaction (p < 0.05) in which untrained subjects reported more positive affect compared to trained subjects while listening to fast music during low and high intensity exercise. Data collected at voluntary exhaustion revealed significantly more positive affect and higher skin temperature (p values < 0.01) in untrained compared to trained subjects. Collectively, these results suggest listening to fast, upbeat music during exercise may be beneficial for untrained runners but counterproductive for trained runners.
Previous research has yielded a contradictory picture of the effects of music on athletic performance. While athletes frequently report using music while training or during or before an event, laboratory studies have generally not detected a beneficial effect of music. The influence of music, judged mellow and frenetic, played before exercise was assessed by measuring stationary bicycle mileage. 60 volunteers from three age groups (child, adult, and senior) and with two levels of prior activity (high and low) were subjects. Each participant received three randomized 2-min. exercise trials, each preceded by 1-min. exposure to mellow music, frenetic music, or white noise. Mileage in both music conditions was significantly higher than that during the white-noise control trial except among the senior subjects. No significant differences between frenetic and mellow music were noted.
The effects of different types of music on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during 20 min. of moderate intensity exercise were examined. 27 physically active subjects (age 18-30 yr.) performed a graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer to establish peak aerobic power (VO2peak). Four 20-min. exercise sessions were performed at a power output equal to 70% of VO2peak in a soundproof visually sterile room. The sessions were randomly assigned from the conditions of fast upbeat music, classical music, self-selected music, and no music. Heart rate, peripheral RPE, central RPE, and overall RPE were measured every 5 min. during exercise. No significant differences were found in heart rate among the four conditions indicating similar exercise intensity during each condition. Each type of music resulted in a reduced peripheral, central, and overall RPE when compared with the no-music condition. The data indicate that different types of music can act as an effective passive distractor during exercise and are associated with lower ratings of perceived exertion.
This study tested the effects of exposure to self-selected motivational music both prior to and during performance of a muscular endurance task. 27 male undergraduate students in sports science completed an isometric weight-holding task on two separate occasions while listening either to self-selected motivational music or white noise. Participants were assigned to one of three groups on the basis of scores on a familiarization trial. The three groups were Prior Exposure, music or white noise played immediately before task commencement; Half Exposure, conditions initiated simultaneously with task commencement but terminated approximately half-way through the trial; and Full Exposure, conditions initiated simultaneously with trial commencement and continuing until voluntary cessation. A two-way mixed-model analysis of variance yielded a significant interaction and a main effect for condition. Participants held the weight suspended significantly longer when listening to music than with white noise. For the interaction, analysis of gain scores indicated participants' performance increased more for exposure to music during the entire session, than for exposure to music prior to the session. These results suggest that exposure to music during muscular endurance trials can yield significantly longer endurance times, but that exposure to music prior to task commencement may not carry over to influence performance.
To assess effects of familiarity of music on treadmill endurance, 15 female undergraduates in sports science performed an incremental treadmill walking task on three separate occasions while listening to Familiar Music, Unfamiliar Music, and White Noise. A repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that participants walked for significantly longer when accompanied by Familiar and Unfamiliar Music in comparison to White Noise (p<.01). Although participants rated Familiar Music as significantly more motivating than Unfamiliar music (p<.05), no significant differences were found between the two music conditions for treadmill endurance. Heart rates did not appear to be influenced by music during treadmill walking or on completion of the task.
In this study, we examined participants' responses to motivational asynchronous music by isolating rhythmical properties and exploring personality correlates. Fifty-eight physically active participants (41 men and 17 women) aged 22.3 +/- 6.4 years performed an isometric weight-holding task on three occasions while being randomly exposed to no music, rhythm and motivational music. The rhythm and music conditions were edited portions of the same musical selection and had identical fast tempi, although the rhythm condition contained no melody, harmonies or lyrics. Participants each completed a copy of Cattell's 16PF following the third and final trial. A repeated-measures analysis of variance found the participants held the weight suspended for significantly longer when listening to motivational music in comparison to rhythm or no music. When listening to rhythm, participants endured the task for significantly longer than when listening to no music. The response to music was found to be significantly related to liveliness, while sensitivity correlated with responses to music factors (harmony, melody, lyrics, etc.) not present in the rhythm condition. These results suggest that responses to motivational music are subtle in nature and are determined by both musical factors and individual characteristics, and potentially an interaction between the two.
Music is believed to improve athletic performance. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of arousing music during warm-up on anaerobic performance in elite national level adolescent volleyball players. Twenty-four players (12 males and 12 females) performed the Wingate Anaerobic Test following a 10-minute warm-up with and without music (two separate occasions, random order). During warm-up with music, mean heart rate was significantly higher. Following the warm-up with music, peak anaerobic power was significantly higher in all volleyball players (10.7 +/- 0.3 vs. 11.1 +/- 0.3 Watts/kg, p < 0.05, without and with music, respectively). Gender did not influence the effect of music on peak anaerobic power. Music had no significant effect on mean anaerobic output or fatigue index in both genders. Music affects warm-up and may have a transient beneficial effect on anaerobic performance.