Detraining increases body fat and weight and decreases VO2peak and metabolic rate

Abstract

Competitive collegiate swimmers commonly take a month off from swim training after their last major competition. This abrupt cessation of intense physical training has not been well studied and may lead to physiopsychological decline. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of swim detraining (DT) on body composition, aerobic fitness, resting metabolism, mood state, and blood lipids in collegiate swimmers. Eight healthy endurance-trained swimmers (V(O2)peak, 46.7 ± 10.8 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)) performed 2 identical test days, 1 in the trained (TR) state and 1 in the detrained (~5 weeks) state (DT). Body composition and circumferences, maximal oxygen consumption (V(O2)peak), resting metabolism (RMR), blood lipids, and mood state were measured. After DT, body weight (TR, 68.9 ± 9.7 vs. DT, 69.8 ± 9.8 kg; p = 0.03), fat mass (TR, 14.7 ± 7.6 vs. DT, 16.5 ± 7.4 kg; p = 0.001), and waist circumference (TR, 72.7 ± 3.1 vs. DT, 73.8 ± 3.6 cm; p = 0.03) increased, whereas V(O2)peak (TR, 46.7 ± 10.8 vs. DT, 43.1 ± 10.3 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1); p = 0.02) and RMR (TR, 1.34 ± 0.2 vs. DT, 1.25 ± 0.17 kcal · min(-1); p = 0.008) decreased, and plasma triglycerides showed a trend to increase (p = 0.065). Our data suggest that DT after a competitive collegiate swim season adversely affects body composition, fitness, and metabolism. Athletes and coaches need to be aware of the negative consequences of detraining from swimming, and plan off-season training schedules accordingly to allow for adequate rest/recovery and prevent overuse injuries. It's equally important to mitigate the negative effects on body composition, aerobic fitness and metabolism so performance may continue to improve over the long term.

Full text

DETRAINING INCREASES BODY FAT AND WEIGHT AND
DECREASES
_
V
O
2
PEAK AND METABOLIC RATE
MICHAEL J. ORMSBEE
1
AND PAUL J. ARCIERO
2
1
Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, The Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida; and
2
Human Performance Laboratory, Health and Exercise Sciences Department, Skidmore College,
Saratoga Springs, New York
A
BSTRACT
Ormsbee, MJ and Arciero, PJ. Detraining increases body fat and
weight and decreases
_
V
O
2
peak and metabolic rate. JStrength
Cond Res 26(8): 2087–2095, 2012—Competitive collegiate swim-
mers commonly take a month off from swim training after their last
major competition. This abrupt cessation of intense physical training
has not been well studied and may lead to physiopsychological
decline. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the
effects of swim detraining (DT) on body composition, aerobic
fitness, resting metabolism, mood state, and blood lipids in
collegiate swimmers. Eight healthy endurance-trained swimmers
(
_
V
O
2
peak, 46.7 6 10.8 mlkg
21
min
21
) performed 2 identical test
days, 1 in the trained (TR) state and 1 in the detrained (;5 weeks)
state (DT). Body composition and circumferences, maximal oxygen
consumption (
_
V
O
2
peak), resting metabolism (RMR), blood lipids,
and mood state were measured. After DT, body weight (TR, 68.9 6
9.7 vs. DT, 69.8 6 9.8 kg; p = 0.03), fat mass (TR, 14.7 6 7.6 vs.
DT, 16.5 6 7.4 kg; p = 0.001), and waist circumference (TR,
72.76 3.1 vs. DT, 73.8 6 3.6 cm; p = 0.03) increased, whereas
_
V
O
2
peak (TR, 46.7 6 10.8 vs. DT, 43.1 6 10.3 mlkg
21
min
21
; p =
0.02)andRMR(TR,1.346 0.2 vs. DT, 1.25 6 0.17 kcalmin
21
;
p = 0.008) decreased, and plasma triglycerides showed a trend to
increase (p = 0.065). Our data suggest that DT after a competitive
collegiate swim season adversely affects body composition, fitness,
and metabolism. Athletes and coaches need to be aware of the
negative consequences of detraining from swimming, and plan off-
season training schedules accordingly to allow for adequate rest/
recovery and prevent overuse injuries. It’s equally important to
mitigate the negative effects on body composition, aerobic fitness
and metabolism so performance may continue to improve over the
long term.
KEY WORDS swimming, performance, blood lipids, resting
metabolic rate, mood state
INTRODUCTION
C
ompetitive swimming is an intense and demand-
ing sport that requires long hours of repetitive
movement patterns, sometimes performed twice
a day over the course of the season. At the high
school and collegiate levels, swim coaches prepare their
athletes to achieve peak swim fitness just before the end-of-
season competitions to optimize performance. In turn, it is
common for these athletes to intentionally take 4–6 weeks off
from training after the last major competition in an attempt to
promote optimal physiological and psychological recovery
and prevent overuse injuries (34). This postseason recovery
period is often referred to as the ÔtransitionÕ phase of an
athletes’ overall training schedule. The balancing of intense
training with strategically placed epochs of ‘‘recovery’’ is
known as periodization of sports performance training, and
the transition phase is instrumental in promoting continued
gains in performance of athletes (18). Indeed, given the
intense and repetitive nature of competitive swimming,
a month off ‘‘out-of-the-water’’ after the season has ended is
often recommended by coaches and trainers. Although this
practice of a break from training in swimmers is essential for
injury prevention, muscle recovery, and even psychological
rejuvenation, it may have deleterious effects on markers of
overall health such as body composition, cardiovascular
fitness, and metabolism.
It is well documented that exercise training promotes
positive adaptations to body composition (3,4), cardiovascu-
lar (3,35), and metabolic systems (3,4,9,16,27). Many of these
beneficial effects occur after an acute bout of exercise or after
a very short-term training period. For example, we have
previously shown that body weight and fat mass (FM)
decrease and insulin action increases significantly with as
little as 10 days of exercise training in obese men and women
(6), whereas a single acute bout of endurance exercise
significantly increases insulin sensitivity in healthy young
men and women (7). Recent evidence supports a mainte-
nance of Ômuscle memoryÕ in previously trained muscle fibers
that have undergone a period of inactivity with associated
disuse atrophy (8). Although this Ômuscle memoryÕ allows
a relatively rapid regain of strength, once training has
resumed (31), the abrupt cessation of physical training
Address correspondence to Dr. Paul J. Arciero, parciero@skidmore.edu.
26(8)/2087–2095
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association
VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 8 | AUGUST 2012 | 2087
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abolishes any previous muscle strength gains in both older
(11,16,17) and younger (16,19) individuals. In addition, we
have previously shown that 6–10 days of inactivity are
associated with reduced glucose tolerance, insulin action, and
GLUT-4 transporter levels (5,36). Others have reported
reductions in total aerobic capacity (10,14), deltoid muscle
respiratory capacity, and muscle glycogen content compared
with levels during peak season training (9). Still others have
reported significant increases in body weight (4.8 kg) and body
fat (BF; 4.3 kg) after 2 months of detraining (DT) in collegiate
female swimmers (
_
V
O
2
max, 54.9 6 5.8 mlkg
21
min
21
)(1).
However, the full spectrum of potential physical and
psychological changes that may occur from relatively brief
periods of DT are not well understood in collegiate level
swimmers, particularly with regard to body composition,
aerobic fitness, metabolism, blood lipids, and mood state.
Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the
effects of 35–42 days (;5 weeks) of swim DT on body
composition,
_
V
O
2
peak, resting metabolic rate (RMR), mood
state, and fasting lipid levels in collegiate level swimmers. We
hypothesized that this period of swim DT, although necessary
to help the body recover from the competitive swim season
and prevent overuse injury, will result in increased body
weight and BF and decreased
_
V
O
2
peak and resting metabolism
in these collegiate athletes. These deleterious changes may
make it harder for these athletes to regain their fitness and
negatively impact their long-term health. As such, it may be
more advantageous to devise transition phase schedules that
not only allow for sufficient rest, recovery, and overuse injury
prevention, but this also maintains cardiovascular and
metabolic health in these athletes.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that
approximately 5 weeks (35–42 days) of swim DT (Independent
variable) would result in significant decrements to body
composition, aerobic fitness, RMR, and fasting blood lipids
(dependent variables) in collegiate swimmers. Measurements
during this study were conducted during 2 distinct phases: (a)
during a habitually trained (TR) state approximately 48 hours
after a typical exercise bout (during the week before end-of-
season championships, mid-February) and (b) after 35–42 days
of DT (just over a month after the season ended, mid-March).
The participants were instructed to engage in no-swim training
but instead engage in other forms of physical exercise such as
light-moderate physical activity (,6.0 METS) and normal
activities of daily living for the entirety of the DTperiod. Some
of the activities that the participants engaged in during the
DT period included running, cycling, and weight training. In
addition, all the participants were instructed to maintain a food
and beverage intake pattern similar to that of their TR state to
avoid any confounding influence of nutritional intake during
the DT period. Compliance was verified via weekly phone,
email, and personal contact over the 35- to 42-day DTphase by
research personnel. All the measurements were made over
2 consecutive days (visit 1 and visit 2) during both the TR and
the DTphases of the study. The subjects were instructed to fast
for 12 hours before each test day but stay very well hydrated
before arriving at the laboratory. During visit 1 of both the TR
and the DT phases, total body mass (TBM), RMR, and body
composition were measured between 0600 and 0800 hours.
Fasting blood samples were also collected for analysis of
glucose and lipid concentrations immediately after the RMR
measurement. The participants were instructed to abstain from
caffeine, alcohol, and exercise for 24 hours before TR and DT
visit 1. The participants were then instructed to arrive back to
the laboratory that same day for visit 2 of each phase, at which
time
_
V
O
2
peak was measured between 1500 and 1700 hours. All
TABLE 1. Participant characteristics.*†
Total (n =8)
Age (y) 19.5 6 1.0
Weight (kg) 68.8 6 9.7
Height (cm) 170. 6 5.5
Lean mass (kg) 50.5 6 11.1
Fat mass (kg) 14.7 6 7.6
Body fat (%) 22.3 6 11.5
_
V
O
2
peak (Lmin
21
) 3.24 6 0.9
_
V
O
2
peak (mlkg
21
min
21
) 46.7 6 10.3
*
_
VO
2
peak = peak oxygen consumption.
†Values are mean 6 SD.
TABLE 2. Body weight and composition in the
TR state and after approximately 5 weeks of
swim DT.*†
TR DT
Weight (kg) 68.9 6 9.7 69.8 6 9.8
Exact p value 0.034
Lean mass (kg) 50.5 6 11.1 50.5 6 10.8
Exact p value 0.99
Body fat (kg) 14.7 6 7.6 16.5 6 7.4
Exact p value ,0.001
Body fat (%) 22.3 6 11.5 24.3 6 11.0
Exact p value ,0.001
Waist circumference
(cm)
72.7 6 3.1 73.8 6 3.6
Exact p value 0.029
Waist-hip ratio 0.76 6 0.04 0.77 6 0.03
Exact p value 0.10
*TR = trained; DT = detraining.
†Values are mean 6 SD.
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the participants were familiarized with all the testing procedures
before their first TR visit 1. All the participants were asked to
record all food and beverages for 2 days before TR visit 1 testing
and then asked to consume the same food and beverages for
2 days before the DT visit 1 to remove the effects of varying
nutrient and fluid intake on outcome variables.
Subjects
Eight healthy, Caucasian, Division I I I collegiate swimmers
(4 female: age 19.5 6 1.2 years, height 165 6 1.6 cm, mass
64.2 6 8.3 kg; 4 male: age 19.5 6 1.0 years, height 174 6
4.2, mass 73.5 6 9.7 kg)
participated in this study.
All the participants were in
excellent overall health; had
no history of cardiovascular,
metabolic, or hormonal dis-
orders; and used no medica-
tions other than birth control,
antidepressants, or occasional
over-the -counter aspirin or
ibuprofen. All the participants
were members of the Skid-
more College varsity swim
team and had been training
(.10 hwk
21
)andcompeting
for 5 months before study
participation. All the partic-
ipants had been involved
in competi tive swimming for
a minimum of 5 years before
this study and routinely
engaged in high-intensity
exercise including swimming and resistance exercise
training for the past 7 months. Participant characteristics
are given in Table 1. Because of the similar r esponse
between male and female participants, the genders were
averaged together (n = 8) for all the results reported in this
study. This study was approved by Skidmore Colleges’
human participants Institutional Review Board. All the
participants were informed as to the experimental procedures
and signed informed consent statements and medical history
forms in adherence with the human subjects’ guidelines of
Skidmore College and with the current national and
international laws and regula-
tions governing the use of
human subjects before any data
collection.
Procedures
Body Mass and Height. The TBM
was measured after an overnight
fast and urine void on the
morning of visit 1 testing in both
the TR and D T states. The
participants were clothed in
shorts and tee shirt and weighed
to the nearest 60.1kgon
a calibrated balance beam scale.
Heightwasassessedtothenear-
est0.10cmusingaslidingvertical
scale stadiometer . Waist, hip,
thigh, and arm circumferences
were also measured using a flexi-
ble measuring tape using stan-
dardized protocols (12).
Figure 1. Individual changes in body weight (BW) in the trained (TR) state and after approximately 5 weeks of swim
detraining (DT).
Figure 2. Individual changes in percent body fat (BF) in the trained (TR) state and after approximately 5 weeks of
swim detraining (DT).
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Resting Metabolic Rate. The participants were transported to
the Human Performance Laboratory immediately upon
waking in the morning by a research technician. Upon arrival,
height and weight were recorded, and the participants were
asked to lie down quietly in a supine position for 15 minutes
before the testing began. After the rest period, RMR was
measured between 0600 and 0730
AM for 30–45 minutes with
a computerized open-circuit indirect calorimeter (VacuMed,
Ventura, CA, USA). Briefly, the participants were positioned
supine and fitted with a facemask (model 7900; Hans-
Rudolph, Kansas City, MO, USA) connected to corrugated
tubing that was in turn attached to the metabolic cart. A
constant fraction of expired air was withdrawn, dried, and
delivered to a zirconium-cell O
2
analyzer (Ametek, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA) and an infrared
CO
2
analyzer (Ametek). Energy
expenditure (kilocalories per
minute) was calculated from
the equation of Weir (37). The
test-retest intraclass correlation
(r) for measurement of RMR in
our laboratory is 0.90.
Body Composition. Total body
composition was determined
by dual energy x-ray absorpti-
ometry (DXA; software version
4.1, model DPX; Lunar, Madi-
son, WI, USA) with subjects in
the supine position as previ-
ously described (3). Total body
adiposity is expressed as %BF.
The DXA test-retest intraclass correlation (r) and coefficient
of variation (CV) for whole-body composition analysis in our
laboratory with n =12isr = 0.99, CV = 0.64%, and r = 0.98,
CV = 2.2%, for fat-free mass (FFM) and FM, respectively.
Blood Lipids. Twelve-hour fasted blood samples were obtained
via a finger stick and subsequently analyzed for total cholesterol
(T C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycer-
ides (TRGs), and glucose (GLU) concentrations (milligrams per
deciliter) using the Cholestech LDX blood analysis system
(Hayward, CA, USA). Measured total blood cholesterol,
HDL-C, and TRG values were used to calculate low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (17). Test-retest intraclass
correlation (r) and CV in our
laboratory with n =15isr =
0.95, CV = 3.2%, r =0.94,CV=
2.5%, and r =0.97,CV=5.3%
for TC, GLU, and HDL-C (milli-
grams per deciliter), respectively.
Peak Oxygen Consumption and
Time to Exhaustion. Peak oxygen
consumption was determined
by a progressive and continuous
test to exhaustion on a cycle
ergometer (Monark ergometer
model 864) in a well-ventilated
facility at neutral room temper-
ature (18–2 0° C). Seat height
was adjusted to an optimal
height (;15° bend in the knee
with leg in the maximal down-
stroke of the pedal). The same
seat height was used for testing
_
V
O
2
peak in the both the TR
and DT states. The initial work
TABLE 3. Peak exercise testing in the TR state and after approximately 5 weeks of
swim DT.*†
TR DT
_
V
O
2
peak (mlkg
21
min
21
) 46.7 6 10.8 43.1 6 10.3
Exact p value 0.02
Maximum HR (bmin
21
) 188 6 7.3 189 6 8.5
Exact p value 0.27
Respiratory quotient 1.16 6 0.1 1.15 6 0.1
Exact p value 0.80
Perceived exertion 18.6 6 0.7 18.7 6 0.9
Exact p value 0.79
Time to exhaustion (min) 12.2 6 2.7 11.1 6 2.3
Exact p value 0.04
*TR = trained; DT = detraining; HR = heart rate.
†Values are mean 6 SD.
Figure 3. Individual changes in peak oxygen consumption (
_
VO
2
peak) in the trained (TR) state and after
approximately 5 weeks of swim detraining (DT).
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rate for each subject was set to 50 W for the first 3 minutes and
was increased 25 Wevery 2 minutes until volitional exhaustion
or until the participants were unable to maintain 60 rpm.
Expired gases were collected throughout the test, and O
2
and
CO
2
levels were determined on electrochemical O
2
(Ametek)
and infrared CO
2
analyzers (Ametek), respectively. The
_
V
O
2
peak was defined as the highest value obtained (60-second
average). Heart rate was recorded during testing using a Polar
heart rate chest strap and watch (Polar, Port Washington, NY,
USA). Perceived exertion was measured using the Borg
perceived exertion scale. The total time to exhaustion (TTE)
during the
_
V
O
2
peak test was
also recorded in both the TR
and DT states.
Mood State. Theprofileof
mood states (POMS) ques-
tionnaire (2 3), a standardized
test that is sensitive to envi-
ronmental stimuli (2), was
administered to each subject
in the TR and DT states. The
P OMS test consists of 65
adjectives that describe a per-
son’s mood state, based on
a Likert scale ranging from
0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely).
When these 65 adjec tives are
analyzed, 6 factors are derived:
tension-anxiety, depression-
dejection, anger-hostility, vig-
or-activity, fa tigue-inertia, and
confusion-bewilderment.
Statistical Analyses
Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 19.0 software
(Chicago, IL, USA). All outcome variables were analyzed
using a paired t-test to compare TR and DT values. All data
are expressed as mean 6 SD, unless noted otherwise.
Statistical significance was determined at p # 0.05.
RESULTS
Body Weight and Composition
Body weight increased significantly after 35–42 days of
swim DT (Table 2; Figure 1). This was entirely because of
a 12% increase in body F M
and percent (p , 0.001 ), as
lean mass was unchanged (p =
0.99). In fact, in all 8 subjects,
there was an increase in
B F (Figure 2). Waist circum-
ference was significantly in-
creased (p =0.03;Table2)
though there were no changes
in hip, thigh, or arm circum-
ferences (data not shown).
Peak Oxygen Consumption
There was a significant 7.7%
decrease in
_
V
O
2
peak during
the 35- to 42-day DT period
(p =0.02;Table3;Figure3).
Maximum heart rate (p =
0.27), respiratory quotient
(p = 0.8), and perceived exer-
tion (p = 0.79) did not differ
between TR and DT. Time to
Figure 4. Individual changes in time to exhaustion (TTE) in the trained (TR) state and after approximately 5 weeks of
swim detraining (DT).
Figure 5. Resting metabolic rate when trained and after approximately 5 weeks of swim detraining. Values are
mean 6 SD. *Significantly different from trained bar, p , 0.05.
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exhaustion was significantly lower in DT than in TR (p =
0.04; Table 3; Figure 4).
Resting Metabolic Rate
The R MR was significantly lower (7%) in the DT compared
with that in the TR state (p = 0.008; Figure 5).
Blood Lipids
Total cholesterol, HDL-C, and LDL-C remained unchanged,
and TRGs showed a trend to increase after DT (p = 0.06;
Table 4).
Mood State
Psychological mood state remained unchanged after the
5 weeks of DT (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
The primary goal of the current
investigation was to examine
the effects of 35–42 days of DT,
after a competitive swim sea-
son, on body composition, rest-
ing metabolism, plasma lipid
concentrations, peak oxygen
uptake (
_
V
O
2
peak), and psycho-
logical mood state in collegiate
swimmers. The main findings
of this study were that 35–42
days of swim DT involving
light-moderate physical exer-
cise after a competitive swim
season in healthy college-aged
men and women resulted in
a significant (a) 1.3% increase in
body weight; (b) 12.2% increase
in BF; (c) 7.7% decrease in peak oxygen consumption; (d) 7%
decrease in RMR despite preservation of lean mass; and (e)
no change in blood lipids or mood state. The implications
from these findings strongly suggest that competitive
collegiate swimmers and their coaches should devise
transition, off-season periodization training programs that
provide adequate rest and recovery from the demanding
competitive season but that also allow these athletes to
maintain healthy body composition and cardiovascular
fitness during this time. Undoubtedly, competitive swimmers
need time off after their season to recover and prevent
overuse injuries. However, it is equally important that
significant DT does not ensue during this off-season period
that negatively impacts cardiovascular, metabolic and body
composition health, making subsequent performance gains
more difficult. Our findings stress the importance of devising
specific transition phase training practices that enhance
physiopsychological recovery after the intense swim season
but that also provide opportunities to maintain overall health
and well-being and promote future performance gains.
In only 35–42 days of nonstructured exercise training after
a competitive swim season, the average body weight of our
swimmers increased from 68.9 6 9.7 to 69.8 6 9.8 kg. This was
entirely because of a gain in the FM as evidenced by a 2%
increase (TR, 22.3 6 11.5 vs. DT, 24.3 6 11.0, p , 0.001) in
%BF (Table 1). To the authors’ knowledge, there has only been
one other study that followed swimmers after a competitive
season and measured changes in body composition. Almeras
et al. (1) studied 6 female collegiate swimmers for 2 months
while they detrained after an intensive 13-month training
season. The fat gain in these women was 4.1 kg, an average fat
gain of 0.51 kgwk
21
, an amount the authors hypothesized was
largely attributable to the swimmers’ previous energy cost of
training. Our swimmers gained 0.9 kg over 5 weeks, averaging
approximately 0.18-kg fat gain per week. This difference is
TABLE 4. Blood lipids in the TR state and after approximately 5 weeks of swim DT.*†
TR DT
Total cholesterol (mgdl
21
) 176.6 6 40.4 176.4 6 60.1
Exact p value 0.21
Triglycerides (mgdl
21
)836 31 92.7 6 39.7
Exact p value 0.065
HDL-cholesterol (mgdl
21
) 52.2 6 18.7 48.8 6 9.0
Exact p value 0.42
LDL-cholesterol (mgdl
21
) 105.8 6 45.2 108 6 53.6
Exact p value 0.39
*TR = trained; DT = detraining; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; LDL = low-density
lipoprotein.
†Values are mean 6 SD.
TABLE 5. Profile of mood states in the TR state and
after approximately 5 weeks of swim DT.*†
Trained Detrained
Tension 4.3 6 2.8 3.6 6 2.1
Exact p value 0.32
Depression 2.6 6 5.2 1.0 6 1.8
Exact p value 0.25
Anger 2.6 6 4.1 2.4 6 3.5
Exact p value 0.45
Vigor 7.1 6 5.6 4.7 6 3.4
Exact p value 0.16
Fatigue 8.7 6 4.4 10.3 6 4.3
Exact p value 0.23
Confusion 4.9 6 1.7 4.7 6 2.1
Exact p value 0.44
*TR = trained; DT = detraining.
†Values are mean 6 SD.
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likely because of the length of the in-season training period
(13 vs. 5 months) and fitness levels of the swimmers. Almeras
et al (1) reported a mean weekly training time of 18.8 hwk
21
and a
_
VO
2
max of 54.9 6 5.8 mlkg
21
min
21
, whereas
swimmers in this study trained approximately 10 hwk
21
and had a
_
VO
2
peak of 46.7 6 10.8 mlkg
21
min
21
. Our results
are also in agreement with those of previous work from our
laboratory and others documenting significant increases in BF
and other deleterious health outcomes after DT from
endurance sports (5,16,28,36). In fact, we previously demon-
strated that with just 7–10 days of inactivity there are
significant decrements in glucose tolerance and RMR (4%) in
highly trained endurance athletes (2). This study reported a 7%
decrease in RMR. The decrease in RMR, despite maintenance
of FFM and an increase in body mass is an interesting finding.
As Fukagawa et al. have previously described, FFM is not the
sole predictor for RMR (13). In fact, these authors report that
alterations to the metabolic activity of FFM may change
RMR, particularly as people age, indicating that RMR
differences cannot only be attributed to FFM. More recently,
Krems et al. (21) agreed with our findings in that differences in
RMR between individuals may also be based upon the
metabolic rate per unit of tissue mass. It is possible that the
cessation of intense exercise training, as in this study, results in
a lowering of the metabolic rate per unit of tissue mass and
effectively decreases RMR, which may negatively impact body
composition. Although we did not measure mitochondrial
density changes or sympathetic nervous system activity, it is
likely that reductions in these factors may have contributed to
the decrease in metabolic rate after DT for 5 weeks as has been
reported as a result of aging (13,21).
The rapidity and magnitude of fat gain after cessation of
exercise suggests that athletes do not spontaneously reduce
caloric intake in response to reduced training. Studies in which
short-term energy expenditure is manipulated support this
observation. In a recent study in which participants resided for
7 days in a whole-body indirect calorimeter, Stubbs et al.
reported that the imposition of sedentary behavior (compared
with moderate exercise) does not cause a compensatory
decrease in ad libitum energy intake (32). Because the
participants failed to decrease energy intake during the
sedentary trial, by day 7, they had accrued an energy surplus
of approximately 6,200 kcal, resulting in a 0.9-kg weight gain.
Using a 2-day whole-body calorimeter protocol, Murgatroyd
et al. have also shown that ad libitum food intake does not
differ in participants with and without imposed physical
activity, despite a caloric expenditure difference of approxi-
mately 700 kcals (24).
Because our measurements of body composition were only
taken at baseline and follow-up, it is impossible for us to
determine if FM steadily increased over the 6-week DTperiod
or, if after an initial period of excess caloric intake, energy
intake was reduced to levels similar to energy expenditure.
Despite the consistent response among the participants
studied in the short term to overeat during periods of reduced
physical activity (24,32), it is unlikely that a large difference
between energy intake and expenditure continues indefi-
nitely. Although 3 long-term (15–20 years) follow-up studies
of former elite athletes report that athletes who stop training
have unfavorable body composition changes compared with
those that continue training, the data also suggest that the
amount of fat gain is similar to that of sedentary controls and
is on the order of ,0.5 kgy
21
(22,30,33). Taken together,
these data suggest that cessation of training may cause
a short-term energy surplus and lead to weight gain,
specifically FM, though in the long term, differences between
energy intake and expenditure become smaller. We were
unable to ascertain the types and amounts of foods consumed
by the study participants throughout the DT phase that likely
led to the unfavorable physiological alterations observed as
a result of DT. The lack of a well-controlled nutritional intake
measure during both the TR and DT periods is certainly
a limitation, and future research in this area must account for
the specific role of nutritional intake during a DT protocol.
Just by analyzing the metabolic data, however, we estimate
that the participants were in a positive energy balance by
approximately 5,000 kcal over the 5-week period which
would indicate approximately 0.64 kg of weight gain without
accounting for any other component of total daily energy
expenditure. This estimation is very close to the actual
amount of weight (0.9 kg) gained by the participants. A
limitation of note is that the menstrual status of our female
participants was not accounted for and the ovarian cycle may
influence some of our changes in body mass. Nevertheless,
the body composition, blood, and performance data were all
carefully regulated and physical activity was tightly con-
trolled by the research team. Therefore, the results of this
study clearly indicate that legitimate health perturbations
occur within a very short period of time, whereas DT and
effort should be focused on how to prevent these changes
even during the off-season. This is not to say that competitive
athletes should be in peak fitness and race-ready shape all
year. Instead, our findings highlight the need to stress healthy
nutritional intake patterns in combination with time-efficient,
low-injury risk exercise regimens to enhance rest and
recovery and maintain cardiometabolic and body composi-
tion health in competitive athletes during the off-season.
Body circumference measurements suggest that the fat
accumulation during DT in our swimmers was predominantly
in the abdominal region. Circumference measures of the arms,
hips, and thighs were unchanged after DT (p = 0.63, 0.37,
0.13, respectively). In contrast, there was a significant
increase in waist circumference (p = 0.029; Table 2). Because
our swimmers were young and healthy and well within the
healthy range of waist-hip ratios, even after DT, this slight
increase in waist circumference may not have immediate
health ramifications. However, given the association between
abdominal fat accumulation and a variety of morbidities (29)
athletes should be cognizant of their weight gain during DT
and after their time as a competitive athlete.
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From an exercise performance standpoint, it is quite logical
that 35–42 days of DT would result in a decrement in
performance capabilities. Indeed, from our data, we conclude
that peak oxygen consumption (27.7%) and TTE on a cycle
ergometer (29.0%) were significantly reduced after DT.
These results agree with those of Garcı
´
a-Pallare
´
s et al. who
reported a significant 11.3% reduction in maximal aerobic
power (15) and a 10.1% decrease in maximal oxygen uptake
(
_
V
O
2
max) and a significant 3.3% decrease in paddling speed
at
_
V
O
2
max (14) after 5 weeks of training cessation in world-
class kayakers. In general, a significant reduction in
_
V
O
2
peak
is consistent in the literature after a cessation of exercise
training for 3–12 weeks (10,14,16,28,35). This consistent
decrement in aerobic performance is likely the reason for the
decreased TTE in this study as has been reported previously
(35). Given our findings and those reported by others, it is
prudent to recommend that coaches and competitive
swimmers incorporate off-season training workouts that
include low-impact, high-intensity training sessions 1–23 per
week to prevent the decline in
_
V
O
2
peak. This type of training
will significantly reduce training volume to help aid in
recovery and prevent overuse injury during the off-season
transition phase.
Blood concentrations of TC, TRGs, HDL, and LDL in this
study were unaffected by 35–42 days of DT. Alternatively,
Giada et al. reported significant increases in TRGs, very low–
density lipoproteins, and the LDL/HDL ratio with concur-
rent decreases in HDL cholesterol in both older and younger
adult male cyclists after 8 weeks DT (16). These unfavorable
alterations to the blood lipid profile have been reported by
others in endurance athletes after a prolonged (52 weeks) DT
(28). Taken together, these findings suggest an increase in the
atherogenic profile in the detrained athlete in a relatively
short period of time. Indeed, this study may not have had
a long-enough cessation from training for the full blood lipid
profile changes to take place.
Mood state was not affected by 35–42 days of DT (Table 5).
This result was surprising because an increase in the volume
of swim training (26) and other types of exercise (25) have
been demonstrated to improve overall mood state. In
addition, Koutedakis et al. (20) evaluated the psychological
mood state of underperforming Olympic athletes after
allowing for 3–5 weeks of physical rest and reported
significant reductions in fatigue and an increase in vigor.
Although we cannot explain why our mood results differ
from those of others, it is possible that mood was unaffected
because our athletes were likely not overtrained to begin with
(;10 hours of swim training per week), therefore minimizing
any decrease in fatigue, increase in vigor, or change to overall
mood profile score that may have been expected. Another
plausible explanation for the lack of change in mood state
may have been because of timing of when the tests were
administered. The TR state occurred at the end of the
competitive swim season and in close proximity to the start
of the spring academic semester, whereas the DT testing
occurred during the midsemester examination period. The
lack of difference in mood states may simply be a function of
the similar influence that both increased physiological stress
(TR state) and increased mental stress (DT state) have on
psychological mood state.
In summary, 5 weeks of swim DT after a competitive swim
season in healthy young collegiate athletes significantly
increases body weight, BF, and waist circumference and
decreases aerobic fitness and resting metabolism. Although
an off-season is a useful and often beneficial time period for
athletes to rejuvenate and recover from a strenuous season,
many may experience deleterious physiological changes that
may affect swim performance and overall health in the long
term. Thus, it is important that coaches and athletes are
cognizant of these pitfalls and incorporate nutritional and
exercise training practices that are effective at maintaining
cardiovascular, metabolic, and body composition health
during the transition phase of the periodization schedule.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Detraining for 35–4 2 days after a competitive swim season is
not recommended for athletes. Athletes and coaches need to
be aware of the rapid onset of negative consequences to DT
and plan off-season training and nutritional practices
accordingly so as not to suffer health and performance
decrements. It seems logical to incorporate an appropriate off-
season rest period and ‘‘active’’ rest periodization. However,
specific guidelines regarding exercise frequency, intensity, and
duration along with healthy nutritional strategies need to be
followed by these athletes to maximize recovery, prevent
overuse injuries, and maintain cardiovascular fitness and
metabolic and body composition health during the transition
period. These strategies may include performing low-
volume/impact, high-intensity interval training 1–23 per
week and frequent consumption of protein-rich, nutrient-
dense foods, which have been shown to enhance cardiovas-
cular fitness and body composition and metabolic health.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the members of the
Skidmore College men’s and women’s varsity swim team for
their dedication to the DT protocol. The authors are also
grateful to Sara Sloper and Karissa Ercolani for their hard
work with the subject recruitment, testing, and data analysis.
The results of this study do not constitute endorsement by the
authors or the National Strength and Conditioning
Association.
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