ArticlePDF Available

Acute intranasal oxytocin improves positive self-perceptions of personality

Authors:
  • Bloom Psychology Clinic

Abstract and Figures

Research suggests the experimental manipulation of oxytocin facilitates positive interactions, cooperation, and trust. The mechanism by which oxytocin influences social behavior is not well understood. We explored the hypothesis that oxytocin alters how people perceive themselves, which could be one mechanism by which oxytocin promotes prosocial behavior. In a between-subject, randomized, and double-blind experiment, 100 university students received a 24 I.U. dose of intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and then completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and other self-report measures 90 min later. Intranasal oxytocin increased ratings of NEO-PI-R extraversion and openness to experiences [F(1,98) = 4.910, p = .025, partial η (2) = .05; F(1,98) = 6.021, p = .016, partial η (2) = .06], particularly for the following facets: positive emotions (d = 0.48, p < .05), warmth (d = 0.47, p < .05), openness to values (d = 0.45, p < .05) and ideas (d = 0.40, p < .05), trust (d = 0.44, p < .05), and altruism (d = 0.40, p < .05). Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, depression, worry, self-esteem, and perceived social support. The administration of oxytocin improved participants' self-perceptions of their personality, at least for certain traits important for social affiliation. Increased positive self-referential processing may be one mechanism by which oxytocin promotes positive social behaviors.
Content may be subject to copyright.
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION
Acute intranasal oxytocin improves positive self-perceptions
of personality
Christopher Cardoso &Mark A. Ellenbogen &
Anne-Marie Linnen
Received: 22 June 2011 / Accepted: 26 September 2011 / Published online: 20 October 2011
#Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract
Rationale Research suggests the experimental manipulation
of oxytocin facilitates positive interactions, cooperation,
and trust. The mechanism by which oxytocin influences
social behavior is not well understood.
Objective We explored the hypothesis that oxytocin alters
how people perceive themselves, which could be one
mechanism by which oxytocin promotes prosocial behavior.
Method In a between-subject, randomized, and double-
blind experiment, 100 university students received a 24 I.U.
dose of intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and then completed
the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and
other self-report measures 90 min later.
Results Intranasal oxytocin increased ratings of NEO-PI-R
extraversion and openness to experiences [F(1,98) = 4.910,
p=.025, partial η
2
=.05; F(1,98)=6.021, p=.016, partial
η
2
=.06], particularly for the following facets: positive
emotions (d=0.48, p<.05), warmth (d=0.47, p<.05),
openness to values (d=0.45, p<.05) and ideas (d= 0.40,
p<.05), trust (d=0.44, p<.05), and altruism (d=0.40,
p<.05). Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of negative
emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, depres-
sion, worry, self-esteem, and perceived social support.
Conclusion The administration of oxytocin improved par-
ticipantsself-perceptions of their personality, at least for
certain traits important for social affiliation. Increased
positive self-referential processing may be one mechanism
by which oxytocin promotes positive social behaviors.
Keywords Intranasal oxytocin .Personality .Trust .
Altruism .Openness .Extraversion .Positive emotion .
Self-perception
Introduction
The nonapeptide oxytocin is known for its role in
reproduction and maternal behavior (Gimpl and Fahrenholz
2001). In the last two decades, oxytocin has gained
recognition for its effects on social behavior in animals
(Carter 1998; Insel 2010). Since it was reported that the
intranasal administration of neuropeptides increases their
levels in cerebrospinal fluid (Born et al. 2002), there has
been an upsurge of interest in experimental manipulations
of central oxytocin in human populations (Bartz and
Hollander 2006; Campbell 2010; Heinrichs et al. 2009).
This body of research shows that oxytocin facilitates
positive interactions (Ditzen et al. 2009; Naber et al.
2010) and improves cooperation, altruism, and trust in a
variety of experimental contexts (Barraza et al. 2011;
Baumgartner et al. 2008; Declerck et al. 2010; Kosfeld et
al. 2005; Mikolajczak et al. 2010a,b).
While the mechanism by which oxytocin facilitates
prosocial behavior is unknown, a common view is that
oxytocin alters how social signals in the external environ-
ment are processed, encoded, and/or interpreted (Bartz et al.
2010a; Ellenbogen et al. 2011; Guastella et al. 2008; Marsh
et al. 2010; Theodoridou et al. 2009). More recently, a
hypothesis has been put forward that oxytocin alters
C. Cardoso :M. A. Ellenbogen (*):A.-M. Linnen
Centre for Research in Human Development,
Concordia University,
7141 Sherbrooke Street West,
Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
e-mail: mark.ellenbogen@concordia.ca
Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749
DOI 10.1007/s00213-011-2527-6
cognition by increasing the salience of social cues in the
environment (Bartz et al. 2011). One advantage of this
proposal is that it can explain why there are putative
negative behavioral effects of oxytocin (Bartz et al. 2010b;
De Dreu et al. 2010,2011; Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009).
The view that oxytocin increases attention to social cues is
consistent with recent evidence showing that oxytocin
influences the allocation of attentional resources to
biological motion (Perry et al. 2010) and strengthens the
orienting response to the eye region of the facean effect
that is associated with increased functional coupling of the
basal amygdaloid nucleus and the superior colliculi
(Gamer et al. 2010).
Past research on intranasal oxytocin has focused
primarily on how information in the external world is
processed or interpreted (i.e., emotional faces, laboratory
games, etc.). As an alternate or complimentary mecha-
nism explaining the effect of oxytocin on social
behavior, oxytocin may alter self-perceptions. That is,
oxytocin may elicit changes in a persons self-perceived
altruistic, accepting, and socially oriented traits, which
in turn could promote affiliative behavior. There is
some, albeit sparse, evidence consistent with this
proposal. For example, acute intranasal oxytocin improves
self-perceived coping style in humans (Cardoso et al. 2011)
and attachment security in adult males (Buchheim et al.
2009). To further explore this hypothesis, we examined
whether intranasal oxytocin influenced self-reported person-
alityontheRevisedNEOPersonalityInventory(NEO-
PI-R), an instrument with excellent psychometric prop-
erties (Costa and McCrae 1992) and temporal stability
across 69 years (Costa et al. 2000). Considering that
personality traits are deemed to be stable and enduring
(Caspi et al. 2005), this study represents an opportunity to
determine whether oxytocin alters core perceptions of the
self. In the context of personality, the tendency to
experience frequent positive emotions and to evoke and
enjoy social interactions characterizes extraversion, while
agreeableness is characterized by prosocial tendencies like
being empathetic, considerate, and helpful. Extraverted
and agreeable children are more socially competent in
their youth and later in adulthood, and these personality
traits are associated with more positive responses from
social partners (Asendorpf and van Aken 2003; Caspi et
al. 2005;Shiner2000). Thus, consistent with the prosocial
literature on oxytocin, oxytocin-induced changes in self-
perception would likely target extraversion and agreeable-
ness, rather than the other core personality factors such as
neuroticism.
We predicted that, relative to placebo, oxytocin would
elicit higher self-report ratings of extraversion and agree-
ableness because these traits are deemed to promote social
affiliation. Because there are no studies in this area, we
included all five factors of the NEO-PI-R in the data
analyses. We also conducted exploratory analyses on the
NEO-PI-R facets (subscales) to follow up significant
findings and to examine a priori predictions based on the
literature (i.e., oxytocin influences trust). To determine
whether oxytocin alters core perceptions of the social
self, via the assessment of personality traits, or whether it
alters self-perceptions, in general, we examined the influ-
ence of oxytocin and placebo on participantsself-report of
current depressive symptoms, trait worry, perceived social
support, rejection sensitivity, goal adjustment style, and
global self-esteem.
Method
Participants
A number of 100 healthy university students (50
women) between the age of 18 and 35 were recruited
to participate in this study. Exclusion criteria included
current medication use, presence of a medical illness or
of a current or past mental disorder, lifetime recrea-
tional drug use (with the exception of cannabis, which
required 1-year abstinence and no history of use more
than once every 6 months), smoking, pregnancy, and
poor English language fluency. Exclusion criteria were
assessed using an in-house structured interview proto-
col prior to participation. Participants were queried
about current or past substance use, mental disorders,
use of anti-depressants, anxiolytics, or any psychotropic
medications and psychological treatments. For female
participants, information regarding the menstrual cycle
(date of last menses, average length of cycle) was
collected.
We then randomized 48 (24 women) and 52 (26 women)
participants to an intranasal oxytocin and placebo condi-
tion, respectively. Participants randomized to the oxytocin
and placebo condition were 22.4 ± 3.47 and 21.7 ± 3.35
(mean±SD) years old, respectively. While 4 of 13 women
in the follicular phase and 5 of 13 women in the luteal
phase of their menstrual cycle were taking oral contra-
ceptives in the placebo condition, 5 of 13 women in the
follicular phase and 2 of 11 women in the luteal phase of
their menstrual cycle were taking oral contraceptives in the
oxytocin condition. Statistical tests revealed that the
following variables were balanced across drug condition:
sex [t(98)=0, p>.05], age [t(98)=0.924, p>.05], menstru-
al phase [t(48)=0.289, p>.05], and oral contraceptive use
[t(48)=1.230, p>.05]. The project was approved by the
Human Research Ethics Committee at Concordia University
(Montréal, Canada), and informed written consent was
obtained from all participants.
742 Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749
Measures
The NEO-PI-R (Costa and McCrae 1992) consists of 240
items that define five factors of personality. High internal
consistency has been reported for the NEO-PI-R, with
coefficients ranging from .89 to .95 (Costa and McCrae
1992), and temporal stability over 6 years (Costa et al.
2000;Herbstetal.2000). In the current sample, internal
consistencies for the neuroticism (α=.93), extraversion
(α=.90), openness to experiences (α=.89), agreeableness
(α=.90), and conscientiousness (α=.91) scales of the
NEO-PI-R ranged from good to excellent.
The Interpersonal support evaluation listcollege version
(ISEL; Cohen and Hoberman 1983) is a 48-item inventory
used to evaluate an individuals perceived social support.
The appraisal scale measures how comfortable an individual
feels discussing their problems with people they know. The
belonging scale measures an individualsaccesstopartners
for social activities (e.g., people to go to the movies with).
The self-esteem scale measures how positively an individual
compares themselves to people they know. The tangible
scale measures an individuals access to material resources
(e.g., people who can loan them money). Scores range from
0to12oneachscale,withhigherscoresreflectingstronger
endorsement of each category. The internal consistency for
the ISEL (α=.84) in the current sample was good.
The Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ; Downey
and Feldman 1996) is an 18-item inventory that measures
an individuals sensitivity to rejection during social
exchanges. Scores on this inventory range from 0 to 36,
with higher scores reflecting greater sensitivity to social
rejection. The internal consistency for the RSQ (α= .86) in
the current sample was good.
The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI; Beck et al.
1996) is a 21-item inventory that measures depressive
symptoms. Scores on this inventory range from 0 to 63,
with higher scores reflecting more depressive symptoms.
The internal consistency for the BDI (α=.89) in the current
sample was good.
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg 1965)is
a 10-item inventory that measures global self-esteem. Scores
on this inventory range from 10 to 40, with greater scores
reflecting higher global self-esteem. The internal consistency
for the RSE (α=.90) in the current sample was excellent.
The Penn-State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer et
al. 1990) is a 16-item inventory that measures trait worry.
Scores on this inventory range from 16 to 80, with greater
scores reflecting higher trait worry. The internal consistency
for the PSWQ (α=.94) in the current sample was excellent.
The Goal Adjustment Questionnaire (GAQ; Wrosch et al.
2003) is a 10-item inventory that measures ability to disengage
and reengage goals. Scores on goal disengagement range from
4 to 20, with higher scores reflecting a greater ability to
disengage from goal attainment. Scores on the goal
reengagement scale range from 6 to 30, with higher scores
reflecting a greater ability to reengage goals. Internal
consistencies for the goal disengagement (α=.86) and goal
reengagement scales (α=.84) were good in the current sample.
Procedure
Participants self-administered a 24 I.U. dose of intrana-
sal oxytocin (Syntocinon, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland)
or a placebo (saline) 50 min prior to participating in the
Yale Interpersonal Stressor, a standardized social rejec-
tion paradigm (Stroud et al. 2000,2002). The stressor
consisted of two staged conversation among three students
(two of them being confederates), where the participant
was increasingly excluded over time from the conversa-
tion. Findings associated with the stress manipulation are
reported elsewhere (Cardoso et al. 2011;Linnenetal.in
press). Both the participant and experimenter were blind to
the content of the nasal spray. Participantsmood was
measured using the profile of mood states (McNair et al.
1988) 10 min before drug administration, 50 min after
drug administration, 65 min after drug administration
(after the first staged conversation), and 80 min after drug
administration (after the second staged conversation). Mood
ratings did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo
conditions at any time point, and at 80 min post-drug
administration, mood ratings (higher scores=more positive
mood) were 136±36 and 139± 34 in the oxytocin and placebo
groups, respectively (Linnen et al. in press). At 90 min post-
administration, participants completed a battery of question-
naires. Participants were then debriefed and asked to rate (1)
how bad they felt in response to the social rejection paradigm
and (2) how stressful they perceived the interaction to be,
which were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(not at all) to 5 (extremely). Participants were then
remunerated Can$50 for their participation.
Statistical analyses
Separate drug × sex multivariate analyses of variance
(MANOVAs) were conducted on the five factors of
personality on the NEO-PI-R, the four scales of the ISEL,
and the two scales of the GAQ. Individual scales and
relevant facets were subsequently probed with univariate
tests to disambiguate statistically significant multivariate
effects or statistical trends. Separate drug × sex analyses of
variance (ANOVAs) were conducted on the ISEL, RSQ,
BDI-II, RSE, and PSWQ, all of which had single measures.
Planned comparisons on facets of the agreeableness factor
of the NEO-PI-R were conducted based on a priori
predictions supported by the literature (e.g., oxytocin
influences trust.)
Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749 743
All statistically significant multivariate effects were
explored for interactions with oral contraceptive use and
menstrual cycle phase in females using MANCOVAs to
determine if additional univariate tests should be
conducted to probe these interactions. Finally, we
examined whether exposure to the interpersonal stressor
prior to completing the battery of tests influenced the
relation between oxytocin and the aforementioned
outcome variables. To do this, we conducted t-tests to
determine if changes in personality paralleled changes in
participant ratings of their subjective stress and negative
affect following social rejection. We also conducted
mediation analysis using Sobelstestofmediation(1982)
to determine if the effects of oxytocin on the outcome
variables were mediated by the ratings of subjective stress
and negative affect.
Results
Effect of drug administration on personality
We detected a statistical trend for the association between drug
condition and scores on the NEO-PI-R, a statistically significant
effect of sex, and no interaction between drug and sex following
a drug (placebo, oxytocin) × sex MANOVA of the NEO-PI-R
five factors [drug: Wilks1=.896, F(5,92)= 2.146, p= .067; sex:
Wilks1= .845, F(5,92)=3.383, p=.008; drug × sex: Wilks1
=.986, F(5,92)=0.270, p=.928]. Women (116.70± 17.56)
scored higher than men (106.64 ± 20.39) on the agreeableness
factor of the NEO-PI-R [F(1,98)= 7.032, p= .009, partial η
2
=.07]. No significant sex differences were found on the
remaining scales of the NEO-PI-R (data not shown).
Participants reported higher extraversion and openness to
experiences following oxytocin administration (see Fig. 1),
but we did not detect a statistical association between drug
condition and neuroticism, agreeableness, or conscientious-
ness [extraversion: F(1,98)=4.910, p=.025, partial η
2
=.05;
openness to experiences: F(1,98)=6.021, p=.016, partial
η
2
=.06; neuroticism: F(1,98)=0.381, p=.539; agreeable-
ness: F(1,98)=0.397, p=.530; conscientiousness: F(1,98)=
0.001, p=.981)].
Oxytocin administration was associated with higher
ratings of positive emotions (d=0.48, p<.05) and warmth
(d=0.47, p<.05) on the extraversion scale, and openness to
values (d=0.45, p<.05) and ideas (d=0.40, p<.05) on the
openness to experience scale following planned compar-
isons on facets of the NEO-PI-R. Since the literature
indicates that oxytocin augments prosocial behavior, we
conducted additional analyses on facets of the agreeable-
ness factor. Ratings of trust (d=0.44, p< .05) and altruism
(d=0.40, p<.05) were higher following oxytocin adminis-
tration. Statistics describing the facets of the extraversion,
openness to experiences, and agreeableness factors can be
found in Table 1.
Examining potential confounds: oral contraceptives,
menstrual phase, and the impact of the interpersonal stressor
We investigated a possible confounding relation between
oxytocin, personality, oral contraceptive use, and menstrual
phase. We did not detect a statistical interaction between
oral contraceptive use and drug condition, or between
menstrual phase and drug condition on scores on the NEO-
PI-R following a drug × oral contraceptive use (no, yes)
MANCOVA, controlling for menstrual phase (follicular,
luteal), and a drug × menstrual phase MANCOVA,
controlling for oral contraceptive use [drug × contraceptive
use: Wilks1=.960, F(5,41) = 0.342, p=.884; drug ×
menstrual phase: Wilks1=.865, F(5,41) =1.280, p= .291].
For this reason, we did not conduct further univariate tests
to probe these interactions.
We investigated a possible confounding relation
between oxytocin, personality, and social rejection
(which preceded completion of the questionnaire bat-
tery). If such a relation existed, we anticipated that
ratings of stress and negative affect would parallel
changes in personality across drug condition, or mediate
the relation between oxytocin and personality. Ratings
of stress did not differ between those administered
oxytocin (1.93± 0.98) and those administered placebo
[2.14± 0.91; F(1,96) = 1.135, p= .289]. Ratings of negative
Fig. 1 Total scores on the five personality scales of the NEO-PI-R in
participants who self-administered intranasal oxytocin (n=48) or a
placebo (n=52). Error bars represent 1 standard error. *p<.05
744 Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749
affect (i.e., how bad did you feel?) did not differ between
participants administered oxytocin (2.02± .96) and those
administered placebo [2.19±1.05; F(1,96)=0.719, p=.399].
Furthermore, the effect of oxytocin on personality was not
mediated by stress or negative affect, respectively, using the
Sobels test of mediation (1982) [extraversion (z=1.041,
p=.297; z=0.574, p=.566); openness to experiences
(z=1.203, p=.229; z=0.759, p=.448); warmth (z=0.171,
p=.864; z=0.305, p= .760); positive emotions (z=0.771,
p=.440; z=0.397, p=.691); openness to ideas (z=0.182,
p=.855; z=0.573, p=.567);opennesstovalues(z=0.022,
p=.983; z=0.141, p=.888); trust (z=0.249, p= .803;
z=1.306, p=.191); altruism (z=0.267, p=.790; z=0.576,
p=.565)]. In summary, we found no evidence that oral
contraceptive use, phase of menstrual cycle, or stressor-related
effects influenced the relation between oxytocin and personality.
Effect of drug administration on clinical symptoms, social
support, and other questionnaires
Descriptive statistics for the measures to follow are
presented in Table 2. We detected no statistical relation
Table 1 Descriptive statistics
for subscales of the NEO-PI-R
by drug condition
*p<.05
a
N=48
b
N=52
Variable Oxytocin
a
Placebo
b
95% CI Cohen (d)
Mean SD Mean SD LL UL
Warmth (E1)* 23.15 4.17 21.06 4.45 0.37 3.80 0.47
Gregariousness (E2) 18.83 4.57 18.23 5.06 1.32 2.52 0.13
Assertiveness (E3) 17.58 5.31 15.81 5.30 0.33 3.88 0.33
Activity (E4) 18.33 3.80 18.06 3.08 1.09 1.66 0.08
Excitement-seeking (E5) 21.75 4.81 20.38 4.84 0.55 3.28 0.28
Positive emotions (E6)* 23.33 4.54 20.77 5.84 0.49 4.64 0.48
Openness to fantasy (O1) 22.29 4.59 20.61 4.79 0.19 3.54 0.35
Openness to aesthetics (O2) 21.54 5.95 20.14 5.34 0.83 3.65 0.25
Openness to feelings (O3) 23.15 4.82 22.04 3.71 0.59 2.81 0.26
Openness to actions (O4) 19.60 4.03 18.81 3.88 0.77 2.37 0.21
Openness to ideas (O5)* 24.42 4.92 22.04 6.56 0.06 4.69 0.40
Openness to values (O6)* 20.15 4.87 17.04 5.11 0.25 3.32 0.45
Trust (A1)* 20.15 4.87 17.89 5.11 0.28 4.25 0.44
Straightforwardness (A2) 17.04 5.55 17.13 5.13 2.21 2.03 0.02
Altruism (A3)* 23.56 3.63 21.94 4.30 0.03 3.21 0.40
Compliance (A4) 15.88 4.37 16.42 4.84 2.38 1.29 0.12
Modesty (A5) 15.90 5.28 16.90 5.49 3.15 1.13 0.19
Tendermindedness (A6) 20.44 3.91 20.19 4.33 1.40 1.89 0.06
Table 2 Descriptive statistics
for perceived social support,
global self-esteem, depressive
symptoms, trait worry,
rejection sensitivity, and goal
adjustment style
a
N=48
b
N=52
Oxytocin
a
Placebo
b
Variable Mean SD Mean SD
Interpersonal support evaluation list (ISEL)
Appraisal 10.71 1.99 10.40 2.47
Belonging 8.21 2.39 8.19 2.72
Self-esteem 8.79 1.98 8.48 2.26
Tangible 10.40 1.78 10.10 1.72
Rejection sensitivity (RSQ) 8.18 3.20 7.83 3.56
Rosenbergs self-esteem (RSE) 21.85 4.93 21.54 5.39
Beck depression inventory (BDI) 6.83 5.78 6.44 6.75
Penn-state worry (PSWQ) 42.54 13.12 43.90 13.82
Goal adjustment questionnaire (GAQ)
Goal disengagement 11.69 1.53 11.37 1.41
Goal reengagement 22.40 4.32 22.18 4.21
Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749 745
between drug condition and the four subscales of the ISEL
(social support), a statistical trend for the effect of sex, and
no interaction between drug condition and sex following a
drug × sex MANOVA [drug: Wilks1=.984, F(4,93) =
0.373, p=. 827; sex: Wilks1=.920, F(4,93) = 2.018,
p=.098; drug × sex Wilks1=.986, F(4,93)= 0.270,
p=.928]).
We detected no statistical relation between drug condi-
tion and the two subscales of the GAQ (goal engagement),
no effect of sex, and no interaction between drug condition
and sex following a drug × sex MANOVA (drug: Wilks
1=.988, F(2,95)=0.575, p=.565; sex: Wilks1=.999,
F(2,95)=0.062, p=.940; drug × sex: Wilks1=.999,
F(4,93)=0.040, p=.961).
Women (46.02±13.51) scored higher on the PSWQ (trait
worry) than men [40.48±12.91; F(1,96) = 4.240, p= .042,
partial η
2
=.04], and our analyses revealed an interaction
between sex and drug condition on scores on the BDI
(depressive symptoms), as well as a statistical trend for the
interaction between sex and drug condition on scores on the
RSE [global self-esteem; BDI drug × sex: F(1,96) = 4.581,
p=.035; RSE drug × sex: F(1,96) = 3.072, p=.083)].
Follow-up analyses revealed no statistically significant
effect of drug on the RSE or BDI in men or women [RSE
men: t(48)=1.05, p=.299; women: t(48)= 1.420, p= .242);
BDI men: t(48)=1.924, p=.063; women: t(48)=1.185,
p=.242].We did not detect a statistical relation between
drug, sex, and the interaction between drug and sex
with any other variable [RSQ (rejection sensitivity)
drug: F(1,96)=0.265, p=.608; sex: F(1,96)=0.016,
p=.898; drug × sex: F(1,96)=0.237, p=.627); BDI drug:
F(1,96)=0.098, p=.754; sex: F(1,96)=0.018, p=.894,
RSE drug: F(1,96)=0.094, p=.760; sex: F(1,96)= 0.173,
p=.678, PSWQ drug: F(1,96)=0.261, p=.610; drug × sex:
F(1,96)= 0.246, p=.621].
Discussion
The results of the present experiment indicate that intrana-
sal oxytocin changes how participants perceive and report
self-referential information deemed to be enduring and
stable. Participants who self-administered intranasal oxyto-
cin reported higher ratings of extraversion and openness to
experiences than participants administered a placebo.
Specifically, personality traits characterized by positive
emotions, warmth, trust, altruism, and openness to values
and ideas were most sensitive to oxytocin administration.
The pattern of results was strikingly consistent with the
experimental literature (Ditzen et al. 2009; Kosfeld et al.
2005; Marsh et al. 2010)only scales related to social
behavior were altered by the administration of intranasal
oxytocin relative to a placebo, with the exception of
openness to experiences. The effects of oxytocin on self-
perceptions showed remarkable specificity. Oxytocin had
no effect on how participants perceived their trait negative
emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, worry,
self-esteem, symptoms of depression, or ability to disen-
gage from thwarted goals. Moreover, oxytocin had no
impact on participantsperceptions of their external social
environment, in that it had no measurable impact on any of
the perceived social support subscales assessed. Impor-
tantly, these findings cannot be attributed to mood change
or changes in the perceived stressfulness of the social
rejection paradigm, which all study participants experi-
enced prior to completing questionnaires. Neither the mood
(Linnen et al. in press) nor subjective stress ratings were
influenced by intranasal oxytocin. This is consistent with
other research that suggests oxytocin does not have an
appreciable effect on self-reported emotional states (Alvares
et al. 2010; Kirsch et al. 2005; Kosfeld et al. 2005). These
data suggest that oxytocin modulated self-perceived per-
sonality (i.e., core traits) without modulating how partic-
ipants responded to social rejection (i.e., current emotional
state).
These present results warrant consideration in the
broader context of the experimental work on oxytocin.
Recent evidence suggests intranasal oxytocin has differen-
tial effects on social behavior depending on contextual
factors (Bartz et al. 2011). For example, intranasal oxytocin
has been shown to improve altruism only for people
perceived to be part of an individuals group, and not for
people perceived to be part of an out-group (De Dreu et al.
2010,2011). Furthermore, oxytocin did not improve social
cooperation when social partners were perceived to be
untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al. 2010a,b), uncooperative
(Declerck et al. 2010), or antagonistic (Shamay-Tsoory et
al. 2009; but see Baumgartner et al. 2008 for an exception).
Other research suggests that the effect of oxytocin on
cooperative behavior depends on characteristics of the
individual (Andari et al. 2010; Bartz et al. 2010a,2011).
Taken together, there is a need to better understand the
context- and person-dependent effects of oxytocin on social
behavior, which now include changes in self-perception.
The findings have important implications regarding the
influence of oxytocin on human social behavior. We
contend that increased self-perception of positive trait
characteristics in response to oxytocin is consistent with a
frame of mind that is tailored to the acquisition of new
social relationships. This may occur, in part, via three
distinct changes in information processing: increased
salience of social stimuli (Bartz et al. 2011; Gamer et al.
2010; Perry et al. 2010), facilitated processing of positive
interpersonal stimuli in the environment (Marsh et al. 2010;
Unkelbach et al. 2008), and increased positive self-
referential processing. Changes in the processing of
746 Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749
external positive social stimuli may enable approach
behavior (i.e., identifying cues that signal potential social
interactions), while changes in positive self-referential
processing may facilitate and reinforce actual social
interactions (i.e., promoting reciprocal and affiliative social
behavior). In support of the latter contention, oxytocin
improves self-perceived attachment security (Buchheim et
al. 2009) and coping style (Cardoso et al. 2011).
In contrast to the findings for extraversion, the effect of
oxytocin on openness to experiences was unexpected. The
factor is defined as the active seeking and appreciation of
experiences for their own sake (Caspi et al. 2005; Costa and
McCrae 1992) and could theoretically facilitate the devel-
opment of new relationships. Alternatively, the effect of
oxytocin on increasing openness to experiences may be
associated with a recent finding that oxytocin, relative to
placebo, increases suggestibility during hypnosis (referred
to as hypnotizeability;Bryant et al. 2011). Openness to
experiences and hypnotizeability are known to correlate
(Glisky et al. 1991). Thus, it is possible that oxytocin-
induced changes in self-perceived openness to experiences
parallel behavioral changes in suggestibility. Clearly, the
relation between openness to experiences, oxytocin, and
suggestibility warrants further investigation.
A number of study limitations warrant consideration.In the
current study, the battery of questionnaires was administered
to participants after a social rejection paradigm. It is possible
that the reported findings are the result of a combined effect of
social rejection and the drug manipulation. For example, it
could be argued that oxytocin preventedastress-induced
decline in extraversion and openness to experiences, as
opposed to increasing self-report ratings of these personality
factors. While we cannot definitively rule out this possibility,
it is unlikely for at least two reasons. If oxytocin prevented a
stress-induced decline in personality ratings, one would
expect to see similar changes in ratings of mood and
subjective stress, which are more sensitive to interpersonal
stress than trait measures of personality. Participantsratings
of negative mood (Linnen et al. in press) and subjective stress
did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo conditions.
Mediation analyses further supported our contention: ratings
of subjective stress failed to mediate the relation between
drug administration and personality. In addition, participants
scores on the NEO-PI-R were within the normal range and
were comparable to an age-matched sample that did not
undergo an interpersonal stress challenge or drug adminis-
tration. For example, 102 participants from a previous study
(Ellenbogen et al. 2011) who did not experience a social
rejection stressor scored 114.03 on extraversion, whereas
participants in the present sample during the placebo
condition scored 114.31.
History of mental illness was assessed using self-report,
and it is possible that some participants had undiagnosed
mental disorders that could have been screened using a
structured diagnostic interview. The placebo nasal spray
contained saline solution, but none of the pharmacologically
inactive compounds found in the oxytocin spray. Thus, it is
possible that the findings observed in the present study could
be due to the effects of a nonactive compound administered
with oxytocin. The present findings should be interpreted in
light of a number of methodological issues in the study of
intranasal oxytocin in humans including the absence of data
on doseresponse individual differences (i.e., absorption
rates). Timing issues also warrant some consideration. While
most studies examine the effects of oxytocin 45 min after
administration (Ditzen et al. 2009; Kosfeld et al. 2005), there
was a 90-min delay between testing and drug administration
in the present study. It is unlikely that the delay had any
impact on the results, as previous research has shown that
peptide concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid remain
relatively stable even 80 min after administration (Born et al.
2002). Furthermore, we have reported effects of oxytocin on
cognition that can still be detected at 85115 min post-
administration (Ellenbogen et al. 2011). Finally, it should be
noted that while we did not find an effect of menstrual cycle
or contraceptive use in the current study, self-report methods
are not entirely reliable, and more subtle hormonal inter-
actions may only become evident with use of better measures
(e.g., hormone assays).
An important implication of this research is that hormones,
which fluctuate abreast changing life events (i.e., getting
involved in intimate relationships, which putatively increases
endogenous oxytocin (Diamond 2004), can influence the
self-reporting of purportedly stable and enduring traits.
Furthermore, these data provide one explanation of how
contextual effects (DeLongis and Holtzman 2005)influence
the reporting of traits. In summary, the present study builds
on previous experimental work to show that intranasal
oxytocin influences how people perceive themselves, which
is pertinent to our understanding of the role of oxytocin in
affiliative behavior.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by grants to Dr.
Ellenbogen from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the
Canada Research Chair program (supported by the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada). Christopher Cardoso is
supported by a scholarship from the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada.
Conflict of Interest None
References
Alvares GA, Hickie IB, Guastella AJ (2010) Acute effects of
intranasal oxytocin on subjective and behavioral responses to
social rejection. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 18:316312.
doi:10.1037/a0019719
Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749 747
Andari E, Duhamel JR, Zalla T, Herbrecht E, Leboyer M, Sirigu A
(2010) Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in high-
functioning autism spectrum disorders. Proc Natl Acad Aci U S
A 107:43894394. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910249107
Asendorpf JB, van Aken MA (2003) Personalityrelationship transaction
in adolescence: core versus surface personality characteristics. J
Personal 71:629666
Barraza JA, McCullough ME, Ahmadi S, Zak PJ (2011) Oxytocin
infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary
resources. Horm Behav. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008
Bartz JA, Hollander E (2006) The neuroscience of affiliation: forging
links between basic and clinical research on neuropeptides and
social behavior. Horm Behav 50:518528. doi:10.1016/j.
yhbeh.2006.06.018
Bartz JA, Zaki J, Bolger N et al (2010a) Oxytocin selectively
improves empathic accuracy. Psychol Sci 21:14261428.
doi:10.1177/0956797610383439
Bartz JA, Zaki J, Ochsner KN, Bolger N, Kolevzon A, Ludwig N,
Lydon JE (2010b) Effects of oxytocin on recollections of
maternal care and closeness. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
107:2137121375. doi:10.1073/pnas.1012669107
Bartz JA, Zaki J, Bolger N, Ochsner KN (2011) Social effects of
oxytocin in humans: context and person matter. Trends Cogn Sci
15:301309. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.002
Baumgartner T, Heinrichs M, Vonlanthen A, Fischbacher U, Fehr E
(2008) Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust
adaptation in humans. Neuron 58:639650. doi:10.1016/j.neu
ron.2008.04.009
Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK (1996) Manual for the Beck
depression inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio
Born J, Lange T, Kern W, McGregor GP, Bickel U, Fehm HL (2002)
Sniffing neuropeptides: a transnasal approach to the human brain.
Nat Neurosci 5:514516. doi:10.1038/nn849
Bryant RA, Hung L, Guastella AJ, Mitchell PB (2011) Oxytocin as a
moderator of hypnotizability. Psychoneuroendocrinology.
doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.05.010
Buchheim A, Heinrichs M, George C et al (2009) Oxytocin enhances
the experience of attachment security. Psychoneuroendocrinology
34:14171422. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.04.002
Campbell A (2010) Oxytocin and human social behavior. Pers Soc
Psychol Rev 14:281295. doi:10.1177/1088868310363594
Cardoso C, Linnen AM, Joober R, Ellenbogen MA (2011) Coping
style moderates the effect of intranasal oxytocin on the mood
response to interpersonal stress. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol.
doi:10.1037/a0025763
Carter C (1998) Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment
and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:779818
Caspi A, Roberts BW, Shiner RL (2005) Personality development:
stability and change. Annu Rev Psychol 56:453484.
doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913
Cohen S, Hoberman H (1983) Positive events and social supports
as buffers of life change stress. J Appl Soc Psychol 58:304
309
Costa PTJ, McCrae RR (1992) The NEO personality inventory (NEO-
PI) and NEO five factor inventory (NEO-FFI) professional
manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa
Costa PTJ, Herbst JH, McCrae RR, Siegler IC (2000) Personality at
midlife: stability, intrinsic maturation, and response to life events.
Assessment 7:365378
De Dreu CK, Greer LL, Handgraaf MJ et al (2010) The neuropeptide
oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among
humans. Science 328:14081411. doi:10.1126/science.1189047
De Dreu CK, Greer LL, Van Kleef GA, Shalvi S, Handgraaf MJ
(2011) Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism. Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A 108:12621266. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015316108
Declerck CH, Boone C, Kiyonari T (2010) Oxytocin and cooperation
under conditions of uncertainty: the modulating role of incentives
and social information. Horm Behav 57:368374. doi:10.1016/j.
yhbeh.2010.01.006
DeLongis A, Holtzman S (2005) Coping in context: the role of stress,
social support, and personality in coping. J Pers 73:16331656.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00361.x
Diamond LM (2004) Emerging perspectives on distinctions between
romantic love and sexual desire. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 13:116
119. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x
Ditzen B, Schaer M, Gabriel B, Bodenmann G, Ehlert U, Heinrichs M
(2009) Intranasal oxytocin increases positive communication and
reduces cortisol levels during couple conflict. Biol Psychiatry
65:728731. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.011
Downey G, Feldman SI (1996) Implications of rejection sensitivity for
intimate relationships. J Pers Soc Psychol 70:13271343.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327
Ellenbogen MA, Linnen AM, Grumet R, Cardoso C, Joober R (2011)
The acute effects of intranasal oxytocin on automatic and
effortful attentional shifting. Psychophysiology. doi:10.1111/
j.1469-8986.2011.01278.x
Gamer M, Zurowski B, Büchel C (2010) Different amygdala
subregions mediate valence-related and attentional effects of
oxytocin in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:94009405.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1000985107
Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F (2001) The oxytocin receptor system:
structure, function and regulation. Physiol Rev 81:629683
Glisky ML, Tataryn DJ, Tobias BA, Kihlstrom JF, McConkey KM
(1991) Absorption, openness to experience, and hypnotizability. J
Pers Soc Psychol 60:263272
Guastella AJ, Mitchell PB, Dadds MR (2008) Oxytocin increases gaze
to the eye region of human faces. Biol Psychiatry 63:35.
doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.026
Heinrichs M, von Dawans B, Domes G (2009) Oxytocin, vasopressin,
and human social behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 30:548557.
doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.05.005
Herbst JH, McCrae RR, Costa PT, Feaganes JR, Siegler IC (2000)
Self-perceptions of stability and change in personality at midlife:
the UNC alumni heart study. Assessment 7:379388
Insel TR (2010) The challenge of translation in social neuroscience: a
review of oxytocin, vasopressin, and affiliative behavior. Neuron
65:768779. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.005
Kirsch P, Esslinger C, Chen Q et al (2005) Oxytocin modulates neural
circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. J Neurosci
25:1148911493. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3984-05.2005
Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PK, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (2005)
Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673676.
doi:10.1038/nature03701
Linnen AM, Ellenbogen MA, Cardoso C, Joober R (in press)
Intranasal oxytocin and salivary cortisol concentration during
social rejection in university students. Stress
Marsh AA, Yu HH, Pine DS, Blair RJ (2010) Oxytocin improves
specific recognition of positive facial expressions. Psychophar-
macology 209:225232. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4
McNair DM, Lorr M, Droppleman LF (1988) Manual for the profile
of mood states. Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San
Diego
Meyer TJ, Miller ML, Metzger RL, Borkovec TD (1990) Develop-
ment and validation of the Penn state worry questionnaire. Behav
Res Ther 28:487495
Mikolajczak M, Gross JJ, Lane A, Corneille O, de Timary P, Luminet
O (2010a) Oxytocin makes people trusting, not gullible. Psychol
Sci 21:10721074. doi:10.1177/0956797610377343
Mikolajczak M, Pinon N, Lane A, de Timary P, Luminet O (2010b)
Oxytocin not only increases trust when money is at stake, but
748 Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749
also when confidential information is in the balance. Biol
Psychol 85:182184. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.05.010
Naber F, van Ijzendoorn MH, Deschamps P, van Engeland H,
Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ (2010) Intranasal oxytocin
increases fathers' observed responsiveness during play with
their children: a double-blind within-subject experiment. Psy-
choneuroendocrinology 35:15831586. doi:10.1016/j.psy-
neuen.2010.04.007
Perry A, Bentin S, Shalev I et al (2010) Intranasal oxytocin modulates
EEG mu/alpha and beta rhythms during perception of biological
motion. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:14461453. doi:10.1016/
j.psyneuen.2010.04.011
Rosenberg (1965) Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton
Univ. Press, New Jersey
Shamay-Tsoory SG, Fischer M, Dvash J, Harari H, Perach-Bloom N,
Levkovitz Y (2009) Intranasal administration of oxytocin
increases envy and schadenfreude (gloating). Biol Psychiatry
66:864870. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.009
Shiner RL (2000) Linking childhood personality with adaptation:
evidence for continuity and change across time into late
adolescence. J Personal Soc Psychol 78:310325
Sobel ME (1982) Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural
equations models. In: Leinhart S (ed) Sociological methodology.
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 290312
Stroud LR, Tanofsky-Kraff M, Wilfley DE, Salovey P (2000) The
Yale interpersonal stressor (YIPS): affective, physiological, and
behavioural responses to a novel interpersonal rejection para-
digm. Ann Behav Med 22:204213
Stroud LR, Salovey P, Epel ES (2002) Sex differences in stress
responses: social rejection versus achievement stress. Biol
Psychiatry 52:318327
Theodoridou A, Rowe AC, Penton-Voak IS, Rogers PJ (2009)
Oxytocin and social perception: oxytocin increases perceived
facial trustworthiness and attractiveness. Horm Behav 56:128
132. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.019
Unkelbach C, Guastella AJ, Forgas JP (2008) Oxytocin selectively
facilitates recognition of positive sex and relationship words.
Psychol Sci 19:10921094. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02206.x
Wrosch C, Scheier MF, Miller GE, Schulz R, Carver CS (2003) Adaptive
self-regulation of unattainable goals: goal disengagement, goal
reengagement, and subjective well-being. Pers Soc Psychol Bull
29:14941508. doi:10.1177/0146167203256921
Psychopharmacology (2012) 220:741749 749
... Interaction with animals can also affect the endocrine system. Oxytocin levels have been found to increase in the presence of a pet [19] and in turn can stimulate social interaction, increase social skills, increase positive selfperception, and decrease depressive symptoms [20,21]. Oxytocin also has an anxiolytic effect for social anxiety [22] and social fear [23]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Research into the impact of social relationships on childhood and adolescent health and wellbeing has been largely limited to children’s relationships with other humans, while studies into the impact of pet ownership are sparse and have generally not adjusted for potential confounders. This study aimed to investigate the association between pet ownership and a range of developmental outcomes in childhood and adolescence. Methods Data were self-reports and direct assessments of approx. 14,000 children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Multivariable regression models adjusting for confounding factors examined associations between developmental outcome measures (emotional health, behavioural development, cognitive development, language development, educational attainment) and concurrent pet ownership, including species, and also longitudinal pet ownership history and pet-interaction where possible. Analyses model numbers using multiple imputation varied from n = 393–8963. Results In cross-sectional analyses, owning a dog (b = 0.24, [0.06–0.41], p = .004) and owning other/miscellaneous pets (b = 0.18, [0.03–0.33], p = .021) at age 3 were associated with higher prosocial behaviour score. Owning a pet was associated with a higher non-verbal communication score at age 2 (cross-sectional, b = 0.18, [0.04–0.32], p = .014), and a higher language development score at age 5 (cross-sectional, b = 1.01, [0.18–1.83], p = .017). However, pet ownership was associated with lower educational attainment across a number of academic subjects and timepoints, in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. It was also cross-sectionally linked to hyperactivity at age 3 and conduct problems at age 3 and 11. Furthermore, at age 8, cross-sectional analysis showed that children who owned any pets (OR [95% CI]: 0.85 [0.73–0.98], p= ·026) or cats (0.83, [0.73–0.95], p= ·006) had lower odds of high self-esteem (scholastic competence). Conclusions Using a large, well-designed longitudinal study and adjusting for key confounders, we found little evidence of cross-sectional or longitudinal associations between pet ownership and emotional health or cognitive outcomes in children. There may, however, be some cross-sectional and longitudinal association with poorer educational attainment and a positive impact on social interactions as seen through associations with enhanced language development and prosocial behaviour. This study demonstrates the importance of adjustment for confounding variables and suggests that, contrary to popular belief, positive impacts of pet ownership on childhood development may be mainly limited to social behaviour and language development.
... For this reason, we recommend that the findings here are further tested using experimental mediation designs rather than statistical models [81]. While experimental manipulation is challenging in the study of individual differences such as psychopathic personality traits, recent studies have demonstrated that some individual difference variables can be influenced [83] and certainly there is extensive evidence that one's perceptions of another's attributes or even one's own personality can also be manipulated [84,85]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Psychopathy in managers is often measured on global scales and associated with detrimental outcomes for subordinates, such as bullying and reduced well-being. Yet some features of psychopathy, like boldness, appear to have beneficial outcomes. Using the triarchic model of psychopathy, we differentiate between adaptive and maladaptive traits in managers and model their effects on employee engagement and burnout. In addition, we test the extent to which authenticity, known to ameliorate the effect of some negative experiences on well-being, might mediate the influence of managers’ perceived psychopathic traits on employee well-being. Methods In a two-wave study, full-time employees (N = 246) reported on their manager’s psychopathic traits (boldness, meanness, disinhibition), their own authenticity and, six weeks later, their engagement and burnout. Results In support of our hypotheses, manager boldness enhanced engagement and reduced burnout while meanness and disinhibition reduced engagement and increased burnout. Additionally, employee authenticity was a partial mediator of the effect of managerial psychopathy on engagement and burnout. Conclusions Perceived psychopathic traits in managers have the potential to influence whether employees feel able to be their authentic selves at work, which consequently affects their well-being. A work culture that values authenticity can directly improve well-being and help employees to deal with managerial behaviour that stems from maladaptive psychopathic traits. We also highlight the importance of discriminating between constituent psychopathic traits to identify the potentially adaptive nature of the boldness element of psychopathy.
... Numerous studies have investigated how oxytocin could be utilized as a therapeutic (CJ Liu et al., 2012;De Cagna et al., 2019). Administered intranasally, oxytocin improved anxiety symptoms (Kou et al., 2021;Voncken et al., 2021), self-perception (Cardoso et al., 2012), and attentional bias (Domes et al., 2016) in men and women, and postnatal depression in mothers (Baron-Cohen et al., 2022). Oxytocin has been successfully used as an adjunct to pharmacotherapeutics in treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (Scantamburlo et al., 2011;Scantamburlo et al., 2015) and as an aid to psychotherapy in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Guastella et al., 2009). ...
Article
Full-text available
Anxiety and depression are highly prevalent psychiatric disorders, affecting approximately 18% of the United States population. Evidence indicates that central oxytocin mediates social cognition, social bonding, and social anxiety. Although it is well-established that oxytocin ameliorates social deficits, less is known about the therapeutic effects of oxytocin in non-social contexts. We hypothesized that positive effects of oxytocin in social contexts are attributable to intrinsic effects of oxytocin on neural systems that are related to emotion regulation. The present study investigated the effect of intracerebroventricular (ICV) oxytocin administration (i.e., central action) on anxiety- and depression-like behavior in C57Bl/6J mice using non-social tests. Male and female mice received an ICV infusion of vehicle or oxytocin (100, 200, or 500 ng), then were tested in the elevated zero maze (for anxiety-like behavior) and the tail suspension test (for depression-like behavior). Oxytocin dose-dependently increased open zone occupancy and entries in the elevated zero maze and reduced immobility duration in the tail suspension test in both sexes. Oxytocin decreased anxiety and depression-like behavior in male and female mice. The observed effect of oxytocin on anxiolytic-like behavior appeared to be driven by the males. Given the smaller anxiolytic-like effect of oxytocin in the female mice and the established interaction between oxytocin and reproductive hormones (estrogen and progesterone), we also explored whether oxytocin sensitivity in females varies across estrous cycle phases and in ovariectomized females that were or were not supplemented with estrogen or progesterone. Oxytocin reduced anxiety-like behavior in female mice in proestrus/estrus, ovariectomized females (supplemented or not with estrogen or progesterone), but not females in metestrus/diestrus. Additionally, oxytocin reduced depression-like behavior in all groups tested with slight differences across the various hormonal statuses. These results suggest that the effect of oxytocin in depression- and anxiety-like behavior in mice can be influenced by sex and hormonal status.
... In addition, research in neuroscience has noted that when stress drains energy, the hormone oxytocin is released to reduce stress and fatigue (Olff, 2012). Oxytocin increases a self-perception of openness to new experiences (Cardoso et al., 2012). Relatedly, people with higher levels of fatigue are more likely to expend effort to maintain interpersonal relationships (Halbesleben and Bowler, 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
We examined openness to alternative viewpoints as an unexplored consequence of trait self-control. We conducted three studies to investigate the relationship between trait self-control and openness to alternative viewpoints during situations with different opinions and to explore various emotions as potential mediators of this relationship. Our results demonstrated a positive relationship between trait self-control and openness, and this relationship was mediated by decreased anger and increased emotions with positive valence, including attentiveness and serenity. In addition, trait self-control was negatively related to fatigue, but the relationship between fatigue and openness was not consistently significant across the studies. These findings clarify the relationships between trait self-control and emotions and elucidate why individuals consider others’ different perspectives.
... These findings, taken together, suggest that OXT can minimize situations of social stress, either through direct effects on anxiety, social cognition, negative beliefs/perceptions or in physiological parameters such as cortisol, which can impact on social facilitation. Additionally, previous studies indicate the effects of OXT on self-confidence (Kosfeld et al., 2005), positive perception of personality traits (Cardoso et al., 2012), and selfview (Colonnello and Heinrichs, 2014), factors that can mediate and favorably modulate these social effects. ...
Article
Full-text available
Professional musicians experience intense social exposure and high levels of preoccupation with their performance and potential negative reactions from the audience, which favor anxiety. Considering that oxytocin (OXT) has a potential therapeutic effect on anxiety, cognitive processes, and decreased psychosocial stress, this study’s objective was to assess the effects of a single dose of 24 UI of intranasal OXT among professional singers, during a public singing simulation test, on self-rated performance and mood. This crossover, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial addressed 54 male singers with different levels of musical performance anxiety (42% high). The participants took part in different phases of a simulated public singing performance and completed instruments rating their performances (Self Statements During Public Performance- State version) and mood (Visual Analogue Mood Scale). Data were analyzed using ANOVA 2 × 2 for crossover trials. The results show that the use of OXT during the performance and immediate post-stress favored more positive (effect size: d > 1.04) and less negative assessments of musical performance (effect size: d > 1.86) than when placebo was used. No treatment effects were found in any VAMS subscales, indicating no direct anxiolytic effects. The conclusion is that OXT can minimizes social stress, especially during performances. This finding is exploratory and, if confirmed in future studies, may have relevance for musicians, especially those who constantly experience and recognize the impact of negative and catastrophic thoughts on performance and professional activities. Clinical Trial Registration [https://ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-5r5sc5], identifier [RBR-5r5sc5].
Article
Full-text available
Animal-assisted therapy is a new and upcoming form of therapy that has shown multifarious benefits to participants. It is a goal-oriented therapeutic process with the incorporation of a qualified therapy animal in the therapeutic activities and conversations. This paper explores these benefits from a psychoneuroimmunological lens, wherein the interplay of and impact on an individual's psychological, neurological and immune systems are discussed. Positive physical interaction with therapy animals reduces undesirable symptoms and ailments such as stress, anxiety, depressive symptoms, aggressive tendencies, harmful behaviours, cardiovascular issues and unhealthy tendencies amongst others. It further promotes a healthier lifestyle, promoting quality of life, better heart health, cognitive functioning and overall well-being. The biological basis of these benefits is discussed.
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: The mere presence of a dog in a therapeutic setup is known to bring about more positive outcomes when incorporated in therapy, dogs can bring about multifarious benefits which are not entirely tapped upon. Aim: This research aimed to study the effect of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), with therapy dogs, on depressive symptoms, emotional regulation, memory and attention of individuals. Method: A pretest-posttest quasi-experimental research design was used. Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) for memory and attention, Difficulty in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) were used for pre and post-testing 1 week before and post the intervention. Results: The findings reveal a positive impact of AAT on the given domains of memory, attention, emotion regulation and depressive symptoms, in the experimental group. No significant changes were obtained for the control group. Discussion: The results help validate the module of AAT to improve an individual’s cognitive functioning and alleviate depressive and emotional dysregulations. Further implications are discussed.
Article
Trust is essential for establishing and maintaining cooperative behaviors between individuals and institutions in a wide variety of social, economic, and political contexts. This book explores trust through the lens of neurobiology, focusing on empirical, methodological, and theoretical aspects. Written by a distinguished group of researchers from economics, psychology, human factors, neuroscience, and psychiatry, the chapters shed light on the neurobiological underpinnings of trust as applied in a variety of domains. Researchers and students will discover a refined understanding of trust by delving into the essential topics in this area of study outlined by leading experts.
Chapter
The neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) has been linked to interpersonal trust. While initial behavioral studies demonstrated a facilitating effect of OXT on trusting behavior, more recently these findings have been challenged. In this chapter we review the literature reporting two approaches that are used to evaluate OXT’s effects: exogenous OXT administration and the investigation of the endogenous OXT system. With respect to trust, we report results from studies investigating trusting behavior, mostly using economic games, and studies looking on the intention to trust other individuals. Overall, clear evidence for a direct trust-promoting effect of OXT as proposed by early studies cannot be found. Instead, there is evidence that the relationship between OXT and trust is modulated by manifold contextual factors that are closely interrelated, e.g., social affiliation, personality traits, gender, mental disorders, and genetic disposition. Furthermore, it could be argued that the effect of OXT on trust is not a specific one but only a subphenomenon of the more general prosocial effect of the neuropeptide. Future research should aim to conceive models of the OXT–trust connection considering the interactions between genes, brain functioning, and the environment, advancing the knowledge of understanding interpersonal trust.
Article
Although sexual desire and romantic love are a often experienced in concert, they are fundamentally distinct subjective experiences with distinct neurobiological substrates. The basis for these distinctions is the evolutionary origin of each type of experience. The processes underlying sexual desire evolved in the context of sexual mating, whereas the processes underlying romantic love-or pair bonding-origin ally evolved in the context of infant-caregiver attachment. Consequently, riot only can humans experience these feelings separately, but an individual's sexual predisposition for the same sex, the other sex, or both sexes may not circumscribe his or her capacity to fall in love with partners of either gender. Also, the role of oxytocin in both love and desire may contribute to the widely observed phenomenon that women report experiencing greater interconnections between love and desire than do men. Because most research on the neurobiological substrates of sexual desire and affectional bonding has been conducted with animals, a key priority for future research is systematic investigation of the coordinated biological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional processes that shape experiences of love and desire in humans.
Article
A perceived availability of social support measure (the ISEL) was designed with independent subscales measuring four separate support functions. In a sample of college students, both perceived availability of social support and number of positive events moderated the relationship between negative life stress and depressive and physical symptomatology. In the case of depressive symptoms, the data fit a “buffering” hypothesis pattern, i.e., they suggest that both social support and positive events protect one from the pathogenic effects of high levels of life stress but are relatively unimportant for those with low levels of stress. In the case of physical symptoms, the data only partially support the buffering hypothesis. Particularly, the data suggest that both social support and positive events protect one from the pathogenic effects of high levels of stress but harm those (i.e., are associated with increased symptomatology) with low levels of stress. Further analyses suggest that self-esteem and appraisal support were primarily responsible for the reported interactions between negative life stress and social support. In contrast, frequency of past social support was not an effective life stress buffer in either the case of depressive or physical symptomatology. Moreover, past support frequency was positively related to physical symptoms and unrelated to depressive symptoms, while perceived availability of support was negatively related to depressive symptoms and unrelated to physical symptoms.
Article
Given links between interpersonal functioning and health as well as the dearth of truly interpersonal laboratory stressors, we present a live rejection paradigm, the Yale Interpersonal Stressor (YIPS), and examine its effects on mood, eating behavior, blood pressure, and cortisol in two experiments. The YIPS involves one or more interaction(s) between the participant and two same-sex confederates in which the participant is made to feel excluded and isolated. In Experiment 1, 50 female undergraduates were randomly assigned to the YIPS or a control condition. Participants in the YIPS condition experienced greater negative affect and less positive affect than did those in the control condition. Further, restrained eaters ate more following the YIPS than did nonrestrained eaters. In Experiment 2, 25 male and female undergraduates completed the YIPS. The YIPS induced significant increases in tension, systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) from baseline, while significantly decreasing positive affect. The YIPS appeared particularly relevant for women, resulting in significantly greater increases in cortisol and SBP for women compared to men. The YIPS, then, provides an alternative to traditional, achievement-oriented laboratory stressors and may allow for the identification of individuals most vulnerable to interpersonal stress.
Book
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.