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Motivation, Goal Orientation, Coaching, and Training Habits of Women Ultrarunners
Abstract
Ultrarunners participate in running events that exceed the 26.2-mile marathon distance (e.g., 50k, 50-100 miles). Very little research exists on ultrarunners, especially women. This study is a descriptive study detailing the motivation, goal orientation, demographic characteristics (e.g., age, job demands, family structure), training habits (e.g., hours per week of training), and coach utilization of women ultrarunners. Participants (N = 344) were recruited via the Ultra List serve and 4 popular ultrarunning websites, and they completed a questionnaire on motivation, goal orientation, training, and coaching using Survey Monkey. General health orientation (mean ± SD) (4.71 ± 1.06) and psychological coping (4.71 ± 1.03) were the 2 strongest motivational factors. Participants were higher in task orientation (1.38 ± 0.68) (e.g., finishing the race or accomplishing various goals) than ego orientation (3.38 ± 1.01) (e.g., placing in the top 3 overall or beating an opponent). Women trained an average of 12.49 h·wk(-1) and spent 64% of their time training alone. Training information came from their own experience, blogs, websites, and the Ultra List Serve. Over three-fourths of the participants (80%) did not use a coach because of cost and a perceived lack of necessity. Women ultrarunners in this study were task oriented, internally motivated, health, and financially conscious individuals. With additional information about women ultrarunners, coaches will be better prepared to work with this population and ultrarunners can improve their performance by learning about current participants' practices.
... In the same study which is comparing performance and recreational athletes, it was determined that the motivations of male performance athletes were more based on recognition, competition and personal goal achievement, while the motivation of recreational male runners was general health orientation and weight control. Krouse (2011) found that the highest motivational source for female UM runners was personal goal achievement and health orientation, followed by self-confidence. In another study, it was reported that the most important source of motivation for both male and female UM runners was to push their limits rather than the desire to win. ...
... Therefore, participating in UM races becomes more important for them. Similarly, studies have generally found that weight concern, affiliation, self-esteem, psychological coping, and life meaning were more important motivators for females than males to participate in UM runs (Krouse et al., 2011;Malchrowicz-Mośko and Waśkiewicz, 2020;Thuany et al., 2021). ...
... But, most of the studies in the literature have examined the relationship between weekly training distance and race duration or competitive performance rather than factors that motivate runners to participate in a UM race (Billat et al., 2001;Gerasimuk et al., 2021;Knechtle et al., 2010;Rozmiarek et al., 2021). Therefore, it is difficult to make a judgment as there is limited studies examining the factors that motivate male and female to spend their free time doing long and strenuous training to participate in UM running (Frick, 2011;Krouse et al., 2011). ...
Although runners mostly start for health benefits and recreational purposes, there is a shift in the recent years from half-marathon to ultramarathon (UM) running that pushes the physio-logical and mental limits of human body. The aim of this study was to investigate the factors for motivation of recreational runners competing in the 119 km Cappadocia Ultramarathon Run. Data of 98 endurance runners was collected via The Ultra Marathon Motivation Scale (UMMS) and analyzed according to the independent variables gender, age, marital status, education level, weekly training frequency and running distance. Results of the study showed that the factors that motivate recreational runners, especially those over the age of 45, more likely to run UM are self-esteem, affiliation, personal goal achievement, health orientation, life meaning and competition with oneself. Moreover, it has been understood that the reason that motivates male runners to participate in UM runs more than female runners is the feeling of competition with other runners, and as the education level of runners increases, weight concern is the most effective factor in motivating them. However, it was determined that the runners' marital status, weekly training frequency and running distance did not have any effect on their motivation to participate in UM runs. It can be concluded that the motivation of recreational runners to participate in UM runs differed according to their age, gender and educational status. Since UM running is not considered a single sporting event and has various forms that vary depending on distance or time, it is of great importance to examine the motivational factors in several UM events with different characteristics.
... Among Japane ultra-marathoners, the sense of achievement and goal completion/challenge came out leading motivators [11]. Achievement motives and self-esteem, life coping and li meaning, followed by health motives were the top ones measured for female America ultra-runners [12]. Among Chinese UE and extreme sports athletes, the motives mastery, enjoyment, psychological and physical condition, affiliation, other expectations, competition/ego, but also vertigo and catharsis were found [13]. ...
... Despite these results, the literature has not landed on a true consens or fully grounded theoretical framework to explain the motivation of non-professional U athletes. Different methodologies were used to study the motivation of athletes: t Motivation of Marathon Runners Scale [7,8,9,10,12], semi-structured interviews [ ...
... Among Japanese ultra-marathoners, the sense of achievement and goal completion/challenge came out as leading motivators [11]. Achievement motives and self-esteem, life coping and life meaning, followed by health motives were the top ones measured for female American ultra-runners [12]. Among Chinese UE and extreme sports athletes, the motives of mastery, enjoyment, psychological and physical condition, affiliation, others' expectations, competition/ego, but also vertigo and catharsis were found [13]. ...
Sport psychology research of ultra-endurance (UE) athletes focused predominantly on their psychological characteristics, traits, and behaviors. However, their happiness and passion, as well as a unified framework for UE hobby phenomenon, were not sufficiently investigated. This study aims to: (1) identify the main contributors to happiness and passion of non-professional UE athletes; and (2) explore the possible relationships between types of sport passion, motivation, and athletic identity. During data collection, 116 non-professional UE athletes (mean age 43.66 years, SD = 8.97, 16.4% female) responded to an online questionnaire. Statistical analyses revealed that obsessive UE passion (p < 0.05) and amotivation (p < 0.05) predicted lower levels of happiness. A higher level of obsessive passion was predicted by extrinsic motivation (p < 0.005), amotivation (p < 0.05), and exclusivity identity (p < 0.001); a lower level was predicted by social identity (p < 0.05) and years in sports (p < 0.05). Weekly training hours and age correlated positively with passion strength, while amotivation was strongly negatively related to training volume. These results indicate that happiness of UE athletes depends on the type of sport passion formed and the quality of the underlying motivation: obsessive passion and amotivation seem to be the main enemies of happiness for UE athletes. This novel finding connecting passion, happiness, and motivation contributes to both a better understanding of the psychology of UE athletes and has practical implications for UE athletes, coaches, athletes’ social circles, and sport psychologists. Due to known maladaptive outcomes of obsessive passion, including its negative impact on overall well-being, health, and now also on happiness, its formation in UE athletes needs to be observed and prevented. While the study shows predictors of obsessive passion and high vs. low obsessive passion, future research should investigate how harmonious passion impacts athletes’ happiness, motivation, and identity. Likewise, research among the UE entourage would help to better understand the social impact of UE as a serious hobby and the formation of UE lifestyles. We also suggest our Temporal Framework for Progressive UE Engagement and Passion, which was further developed based on the results of this study, to be used and validated by sport psychologists.
... Indeed, about 20 % of ultra-marathon finishers are women (Knechtle, 2012), whereas almost 30 % of triathlon competitors are women (Poczta et al., 2021). Female ultramarathoners trained an average of 12.5 hours per week and spent 64 % of their training time alone (Krouse et al., 2011). Approximately 40 % of female ultra-runners had children and 75.7 % reported working full-time, averaging 41.0 hours per week (Krouse et al., 2011). ...
... Female ultramarathoners trained an average of 12.5 hours per week and spent 64 % of their training time alone (Krouse et al., 2011). Approximately 40 % of female ultra-runners had children and 75.7 % reported working full-time, averaging 41.0 hours per week (Krouse et al., 2011). Taken together, all of these characteristics can cause psychological demands on women that deserve to be investigated. ...
... On the other hand, the desire to maintain good physical condition and health was more important for men than for women (Malchrowicz-Mośko and Poczta, 2018). In female ultra-marathon runners, the main source of motivation was general health and personal achievement (Krouse et al., 2011). Furthermore, compared to male ultrarunners, women were more task-oriented than ego-oriented, most set goals for their events and coaches were rarely used (Krouse et al., 2011). ...
Participation in marathons has dramatically increased over the last few years. Marathon running has many proven beneficial effects, especially on cardiovascular health and fitness. Most research has focused on physiologic and pathophysiologic adaptations in connection with endurance exercise. Nevertheless, marathon running also has a major impact on psychological aspects and positively influences mental health, which has only recently attracted research interest. The present narrative review aimed to review the personality traits of marathon runners with an emphasis on recent literature. Marathon runners show a distinct personality and highly characteristic personality traits needed to successfully finish such a demanding race, i.e., a strong sense of vigor, self-sufficiency, and intelligence as well as low scores in anger, fatigue, tension, and depression. Furthermore, personality differences are detectable between runners of different sexes, ages, and performance level groups. This has significant clinical implications for athletes, coaches and competition organizers, as these groups show different patterns of personality traits. Future studies should focus on changes in cognition and mood states pre-, during, and post-endurance events, as well as during training periods. Large-scale studies comparing personality differences by sex, age, and performance are also important for better clinical guidance.
See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).
... Empirical research has further supported the notion that participants engaging with distance limited events (i.e., running events ranging from 5 km to ultramarathons where the aim of completing is to do so in the shortest possible time) hold a drive to improve upon their previous performances. In research focusing on female ultrarunners, it was reported a primary goal pursuit for participants revolved around personal achievement, more specifically finishing a distance within a given time (Krouse et al., 2011). For some women, a time goal meant making the cut-off time to complete the race, and for others, it was about completing a previously raced course in a faster time. ...
... Pride is defined as a feeling or deep pleasure or satisfaction derived from one's own achievement whilst shame as the direct opposing emotion can be described as a feeling of humiliation or distress caused by the consciousness of failure (Pekrun, 1992). When reflecting on previous literature that highlights the relevance of personal achievement and satisfaction for participants involved within the running community, it was expected these two emotions would be highly salient among our parkrunners (e.g., Krouse et al., 2011;Roebuck et al., 2018). Our first hypothesis (H 1a ) therefore, was that individuals in pursuit of a SAp goal, would run a faster time, as well as experiencing greater feelings of pride and less shame post-parkrun. ...
... For the first time in the sport-based AGA-SDT literature, the present study adopted a longitudinal prospective design to exclusively focus on self-based goals (approach and avoidance) as they have been previously ranked the most important goal for athletes participating in a running event (e.g., Krouse et al., 2011;Delrue et al., 2016;Roebuck et al., 2018). By utilizing the unique approach of a conditional process model within this achievement context, the present researchers examined the potential moderating role of self-determined reasons in explaining the indirect relationship of self-based goals predicting performance and emotions via stress appraisals. ...
Introduction
A temporal sequence of hypothesized relationships was tested between self-based goals and their underlying reasons → stress appraisals → performance and emotions, among UK parkrunners. A conditional process model was also examined to ascertain the potential moderating role of self-determined reasons in explaining the indirect relationship of self-based goals predicting performance and emotions via stress appraisals.
Methods
Utilizing a prospective design, 324 parkrunners (Mage = 45.27; SD = 10.73 years) completed online measures of self-based goals, their underlying reasons at 7 days (T1), and stress appraisals at 24 h (T2), prior to their next UK parkrun. Performance data and discrete emotions (pride and shame) were reported 24 h post-parkrun (T3).
Results
Structural Equation Modeling revealed partial support for the hypothesized model. More specifically, findings suggested that: (1) T1 self-determined reasons underpinning a self-approach goal positively predicted T2 challenge appraisals and T3 pride, (2) T1 self-determined reasons for pursuing a self-avoidance goal corresponded to reduced T3 performance and shame, (3) T2 challenge and threat appraisals were found to positively relate to T3 pride, and (4) the slower parkrunners ran, the more shame they felt post-event. T2 challenge and threat appraisals were found to mediate the relationship between T1 self-determined reasons underlying a self-approach goal and T3 pride. Further analysis failed to support a conditional process model.
Discussion
Our findings suggest the intensity of pursuing a self-based goal does not matter at all, but underlying self-determined reasons are a key driver influencing stress appraisals, performance and subsequent emotions among parkrunners.
... While all ultramarathoners tended to score high for being motivated by goal achievement, the categorical breakdown for each motivator between the sexes is not identical. In a study consisting entirely of women, some of the most substantial motivational factors reported were general health concerns and psychological coping [22]. Female marathon nishers exceeded men on the motivational scales for weight concern, social, coping, life meaning, and self-esteem [21]. ...
... This corroborates ndings that self-esteem, health, and nding life meaning were strong motivations in many runners, but especially in women [22]. On the opposite end of the scale, one of the lowest-scoring motivators was ego-ultramarathon women are not typically motivated by beating opponents or placing in the top three [21,22]. ...
... This corroborates ndings that self-esteem, health, and nding life meaning were strong motivations in many runners, but especially in women [22]. On the opposite end of the scale, one of the lowest-scoring motivators was ego-ultramarathon women are not typically motivated by beating opponents or placing in the top three [21,22]. Conversely, men indicated higher motivation levels for competition and recognition [21]. ...
Ultrarunning has grown over 345% in the last ten years alone. During these events, which typically last between 6 hours and multiple days, athletes of varying experience and ability must cope with the psychological means of endurance while managing intense emotions and fatigue. Despite rapid growth in the sport, research on ultrarunners psychology has yet to be performed. No review has analyzed the psychological advantages indicating success in ultra-running. This review summarizes the current literature on the psychological indicators of ultrarunning success. Four databases were electronically searched between December 1, 2022, and January 1, 2023, to help coaches, physicians, sports therapists, athletes, and everyday people understand how to cope with and overcome psychological challenges amidst life and racing while identifying research gaps. Successful ultramarathoners had higher levels of self-e cacy, mental toughness, emotional intelligence, and lower mood variability. These ndings suggest that having cognitive strategies to maintain mood stability and a common total mood disturbance may be vital to success in ultra-running. Although existing literature investigates ultra-athletes' mindsets, further research, speci cally on psychological traits of success in endurance sports, is warranted to gain greater depth on each psychological indicator that constructs successful ultrarunners' great mindset.
... The number of people participating in competitive adventure sport tourism is increasing (Apollo, 2017;Apollo & Andreychouk, 2022;Apollo & Wengel, 2022;Farkić & Gebbels, 2022;Higham, 2021;Hoffman et al., 2010;Knechtle, 2012;Marek & Wieczorek, 2015;Pomfret and Doran, 2015). Nonetheless, there has been an overall gender disparity in participation in outdoor, adventure and extreme tourism activities (Clarke et al., 2022;Doran et al., 2018;Godtman Kling et al., 2020;Hall, 2018;Laurendeau & Sharara, 2008), with the overwhelming majority (80-90%) of participants traditionally having been men (Hoffman et al., 2010;Krouse et al., 2011;Marek & Wieczorek, 2015;Moraldo, 2013Moraldo, , 2020Moscoso-Sánchez, 2008;Suter et al., 2020). However, as Apollo (2021) notes in reference to mountaineering, once the percentage of male and female participants who achieve their competitive goals is considered, the gap is severely narrowed or is essentially non-existent. ...
... The results indicate that over 80% of all participants were men. That men have dominated competitive adventure sports has been observed by numerous authors (e.g., Hoffman et al., 2010;Krouse et al., 2011;Marek & Wieczorek, 2015;Moraldo, 2013Moraldo, , 2020Suter et al., 2020;Doran et al., 2018). However, the data clearly show that the male-to-female ratio has dropped significantly in recent years. ...
... Several studies have documented gender with regard to participation and results of competitive adventure sport tourism, with men traditionally dominating this market niche (Hoffman et al., 2010;Krouse et al., 2011;Marek & Wieczorek, 2015;Moraldo, 2013;Suter et al., 2020;Van Rheenen et al., 2021). In recent years, however, the number of women participating in running and climbing activities has gradually increased (Doran et al., 2018;Frick, 2011;Ochert, 1996). ...
Competitive adventure sports tourism, involving such activities as mountain climbing and ultramarathon running, has traditionally been dominated by men. Although women’s participation has grown, the gender gap is still pronounced in terms of quantitative engagement in these forms of sport tourism. Yet, when the percentage of people who reach the finish line is taken into account, women tend to be higher achievers, slightly more often than men. Based on data from selected mountain climbs and ultra-trail runs (124,508 participants), we argue that there is a clear gender disparity in terms of male-to-female participation ratios, but with a higher number of women than men meeting their intended objectives. Arguably, to gain insight into potential gender inequities or differences within the competitive adventure sport tourism sector, the quantitative and qualitative engagement of male and female participants, should be explored.
Management Implications
The "hypermasculine" age of competitive sports tourism is ending
Women's participation in competitive adventure sport tourism activities is gradually increasing
In competitive sport tourism, the success rate of females is currently higher than that of males
... Research has examined motivation of ultra-runners, with results suggesting personal goals and achievements, health outcomes, and self-esteem as primary reasons for participation (Roebuck et al. 2018;Doppelmayr and Molkenthin 2004;Hashimoto et al. 2006). Further work specific to female ultra-runners quantitatively identified motives for participation as a means to improve overall health (i.e., to lose weight or tone up) and to seek a sense of personal achievement (Krouse et al. 2011). Unfortunately, these investigations used retrospective survey data, thereby severely limiting in-depth understanding of motivation for participation. ...
... Currently, most of the work exploring ultra-running athletes has involved surveys and semi-structured interviews, which limits the scope of the lived experience of the individuals (Roebuck et al. 2018). While previous research has quantitatively explored motivational constructs of female ultra-runners (Krouse et al. 2011), a gap exists in developing a qualitative understanding of this knowledge through the perspective of the athlete. Further, with a limited population of female ultra-runners attempting events of this magnitude, the voice of the participant in this study should be amplified to develop an understanding of resilience and motivation in female ultra-runners and as a path to pave the way for others. ...
... Further, with a limited population of female ultra-runners attempting events of this magnitude, the voice of the participant in this study should be amplified to develop an understanding of resilience and motivation in female ultra-runners and as a path to pave the way for others. When examining psychological constructs such as motivation and self-efficacy, the nuances of the theoretical components among females are often left undetected or overlooked with quantitative research (Krouse et al. 2011;Ryan and Deci 2017;Sweet et al. 2012). Therefore, it is important to qualitatively examine these constructs in order to develop a rich understanding of how motivation and resilience impact the experiences of an ultramarathon runner as seen through observation, interpersonal discussion, and content analysis (Creswell 2013). ...
... For example, data covering 5,010,730 results from 15,451 ultra-marathon running events showed that runners were 15% slower compared to those from 1996 [4]. Previous studies indicated that morphological characteristics, such as body fat and body mass index [11], pacing strategy [12], training experience [13] and age [14] were associated with ultra-marathon performance, especially in distancebased events. ...
... Participation has been increasing since 2010, with a decrease in 2020 due to the pandemic situation caused by SARS-CoV-2 [21]. Similar results were previously shown [5,13]. Increases in ultra-mara- ...
... Participation has been increasing since 2010, with a decrease in 2020 due to the pandemic situation caused by SARS-CoV-2 [21]. Similar results were previously shown [5,13]. Increases in ultra-marathon participation are associated with a plethora of factors, such as increases in the number of ultra-marathon events; athletes' "migration" from marathon to ultra-marathon; an increase in participation of female runners, as well as of both younger and older runners [16]. ...
Background and Objectives: Increases in the number of participants in time-limited ultra-marathons have been reported. However, no information is available regarding the trends in participation, performance and age in 12 h and 24 h time-limited events. The aim of the study was to describe the trends in runners’ participation, performance and age in 12 h and 24 h ultra-marathons for both sexes and to identify the age of peak performance, taking into account the ranking position and age categories. Materials and Methods: The sample comprised 210,455 runners in time-limited ultra-marathons (female 12 h = 23,706; female 24 h = 28,585; male 12 h = 61,594; male 24 h = 96,570) competing between 1876 and 2020 and aged 18 to 86 years. The age of peak performance was tested according to their ranking position (first–third; fourth–tenth and >tenth position) and taking into account their running speed in different age categories (<30 years; 31–40 years; 41–50 years; 51–60 years; >60 years), using the Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by the Bonferroni adjustment. Results: An increase in the number of participants and a decrease in running speed were observed across the years. For both events, the sex differences in performance decreased over time. The sex differences showed that male runners performed better than female runners, but the lowest differences in recent years were observed in the 24 h ultra-marathons. A positive trend in age across the years was found with an increase in mean age (“before 1989” = 40.33 ± 10.07 years; “1990–1999” = 44.16 ± 10.37 years; “2000–2009” = 45.99 ± 10.33 years; “2010–2020” = 45.62 ± 10.80 years). Male runners in 24 h races were the oldest (46.13 ± 10.83 years), while female runners in 12 h races were the youngest (43.46 ± 10.16 years). Athletes ranked first–third position were the youngest (female 12 h = 41.19 ± 8.87 years; female 24 h = 42.19 ± 8.50 years; male 12 h = 42.03 ± 9.40 years; male 24 h = 43.55 ± 9.03 years). When age categories were considered, the best performance was found for athletes aged between 41 and 50 years (female 12 h 6.48 ± 1.74 km/h; female 24 h 5.64 ± 1.68 km/h; male 12 h 7.19 ± 1.90 km/h; male 24 h 6.03 ± 1.78 km/h). Conclusion: A positive trend in participation in 12 h and 24 h ultra-marathons was shown across the years; however, athletes were becoming slower and older. The fastest athletes were the youngest ones, but when age intervals were considered, the age of peak performance was between 41 and 50 years.
... Social and psychological reasons can most likely explain the overall lower participation of women in ultra-cycling events as for ultra-runners [47]. It can be challenging to balance training hours with work, relationships, and parenting [47]. ...
... Social and psychological reasons can most likely explain the overall lower participation of women in ultra-cycling events as for ultra-runners [47]. It can be challenging to balance training hours with work, relationships, and parenting [47]. The motivation of female ultra-runners was a personal achievement and general health, whereas social recognition played a subordinate role as a motive for running [47]. ...
... It can be challenging to balance training hours with work, relationships, and parenting [47]. The motivation of female ultra-runners was a personal achievement and general health, whereas social recognition played a subordinate role as a motive for running [47]. Another important reason for the sex difference in participation might be psychological motives. ...
Background and objective: Existing research shows that the sex differences in distance- limited ultra-cycling races decreased with both increasing race distance and increasing age. It is unknown, however, whether the sex differences in time-limited ultra-cycling races will equally decrease with increasing race distance and age. This study aimed to examine the sex differences regarding performance for time-limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h). Methods: Data were obtained from the online database of the Ultra-Cycling Marathon Association (UMCA) of time- limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h) from the years 1983–2019. A total of 18,241 race results were analyzed to compare cycling speed between men and women by calendar year, age group (<29; 30–39; 40–49; 50–59; 60–69; >70 years), and race duration. Results: The participation of both men (85.1%) and women (14.9%) increased between 1983 and 2019. The age of peak performance was between 40 and 59 years for men and between 30 and 59 years for women. Between 2000 and 2019, more men (63.1% of male participants and 52.2% of female participants) competed in 24 h races. In the 24 h races, the sex difference decreased significantly in all age groups. Men cycled 9.6% faster than women in the 12 h races and 4% faster in the 24 h races. Both women and men improved their performance significantly across the decades. Between 2000 and 2019, the improvement in the 24 h races were 15.6% for men and 21.9% for women. Conclusion: The sex differences in cycling speed decreased between men and women with increasing duration of ultra-cycling races and with increasing age. Women showed a greater performance improvement than men in the last 20 years. The average cycling speed of men and women started to converge in the 24 h races.
... The landscape is especially important in long-distance running. It has been proven that the ultimate goal is finishing an ultra-run, not the final position [45]. In addition, Watkins et al. [46] extended knowledge about the motivation of ultra-runners, pointing to aspects such as fun and care for competitors. ...
... The presence of asphalt surfaces on the route can sometimes negatively affect its assessment, as longdistance runners prefer natural surfaces [50]. The even distribution of ascents and descents brings it closer to Anglo-Saxon-style runs (running on the route "up-down-up-down"), which are especially preferred by ultramarathon runners [45]. At the same time, the altitude balance of the route makes it accessible also to runners with less sports skills. ...
Outdoor running has a positive impact on human health. Our study attempted to address the issue of what other aspects motivate people to take up running. We were particularly interested in the landscape and its significance at the stage of decision making regarding participation in races. Our goal was also to identify the landscape features of routes, which determine their popularity. We conducted surveys among running participants and spatial analyses using GIS tools. Great landscape values of running routes can contribute to the activation of a running society, especially those including women and city dwellers. The high diversity of the landscape of cross-country routes, especially in terms of their relief and land use, significantly affects their high landscape rating. Route profiles and running challenges are as important as landscape values. The landscape that runners observe during long-distance runs affects their regeneration and motivates them to finish competitions. Runs organised in mountain and foothill landscapes, characterised by a wide variety of landscapes, are particularly attractive for runners. This study illuminates how the enchanting tapestry of landscapes not only fuels the passion for outdoor running but also underscores the intricate relationship between humans and their surroundings. The results enable us to establish the key principles for designing new running routes that support runners during their exertion.
... They can be amateurs, recreational joggers, or professional athletes. Participation in such competitions is often motivated by the desire for personal achievements, general health, and psychological reasons (1). The age of participants varies greatly, but peak performances are often achieved at 35 or older (2). ...
... Competitors derive satisfaction from covering such long distances. For example, an increase in their self-esteem has been noticed (1). However, ultramarathons can also cause stress and extreme strain on the body (4). ...
IntroductionMany studies concerning the diet of physically active people refer to individuals who run; however, the importance of nutrition in professional and amateur sports plays a different role. This study aimed to evaluate the nutritional behavior and knowledge of amateur ultrarunners. This study involved a group of 308 respondents (89 women and 219 men) aged 18 -65. It investigated the influence of the level of knowledge about nutrition, gender, education, and smoking on dietary food habits and eating frequency.Methods
The KomPAN questionnaire was used to determine the dietary habits, diet quality, lifestyle, and nutrition knowledge of ultramarathon runners. The nutrition knowledge influenced the eating habits and frequency of specific meals expressed as the Healthy Diet Index-10 (HDI-10) and Unhealthy Diet Index-14 (UDI-14).ResultsIn women with sufficient knowledge about nutrition, lower HDI-10 scores were observed compared to those with a good level of knowledge, while men did not show a similar relationship. However, the effect of smoking on the frequency of food intake in men was noted. Interestingly, male smokers had a lower UDI-14 score than non-smokers. Depending on the level of knowledge, female and male ultrarunners more often or less frequently used selected food products. In turn, no effect of education on the frequency of consumption of specific foods was observed.DiscussionSuch different results are most likely caused by the specificity of the study group, which consisted of amateur runners. Additionally, the study looked at general eating habits, not those employed when preparing for marathons. In the future, more respondents should be surveyed, also taking into account nutrition during training.
... Estudos apontam que ambas as motivações são importantes no processo treinamento e nas competições 5,18,19 . No entanto outros trabalhos encontraram a motivação intrínseca como maior predominância comparada com a extrínseca 13,17,20 ...
... . De modo similar, Mallet e Hanrahan 17 e Krous et al.20 também revelaram que os atletas eram mais motivados pelas metas e realizações pessoais do que por incentivos financeiros. Adicionalmente, Zaar e Balbinotti 13 e Souza et al.21 em estudo com atletas do atletismo, também encontraram a motivação intrínseca com maior predominância, ao comparar com a extrínseca, nesses atletas. ...
O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar as diferenças motivacionais entre corredores de rua recreacionais e de elite. Foram recrutados 97 corredores de rua (sendo 64 do sexo masculino), subdivido em dois grupos, elite (E) (tempo em corridas oficiais de 10km igual ou inferior a 32 minutos para os voluntários do sexo masculino e igual ou inferior a 37 minutos para as voluntárias do sexo feminino) e recreacionais (R) (treinavam pelo menos três vezes por semana e que competiam pelo menos em provas regionais). Para investigar a teoria da Autodeterminação foi utilizado o Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Os corredores de elite são mais motivados, tanto intrinsecamente (E: 17,98±2,40; R: 16,86±2,58; p=0,04) quanto extrinsecamente (E: 16,18±2,81; R: 14,53±3,35; p=0,01), contudo, em ambos os grupos a motivação intrínseca é maior do que a extrínseca (p=0,01). E ainda a motivação intrínseca para conhecer (p=0,01), a motivação extrínseca identificada (p=0,05) e a motivação extrínseca regulada externa (p=0,01) foi maior nos atletas de elite. Concluímos que as motivações intrínsecas são elevadas em ambos os grupos, o que possivelmente pode favorecer a manutenção desses atletas no processo de treino e competição, no entanto, provavelmente por questões de alta competitividade, a motivação extrínseca foi elevada nos atletas de elite.
... In this context, Krouse et al. investigated the motivational aspects related to women engagement in ultra-marathons, and they found that female athletes were task oriented, internally motivated, health and financially conscious individuals [15]. In addition, Knechtle et al. analyzed the participation and performance trends in 100-km ultra-marathoners from both sexes [16]. ...
... The increase in the number of participants was expected, as reported in previous studies [12,13,23,31]. Krouse et al. suggested that the number of ultra-marathons has tripled in the last 30 years [15]. These rises in participants are partially explained by an increase in the number of young runners [32,33], female runners [13,14], and ultramarathoners of very old ages [12]. ...
Background and Objectives: The 6-h ultra-marathon is the shortest time-limited ultra-marathon race, but little has been investigated regarding this race format. Previously, only the age of peak performance in the context of longer time-limited ultra-marathons was determined. The purpose of this study was to investigate the trends in 6-h ultra-marathon races from 1982 to 2020 for female and male ultra-runners, the participation and performance by countries, the age of peak performance, and the differences in performance regarding countries. Materials and Methods: The sample included 23,203 female ultra-runners, aged 18–83 years, and 87,264 male ultra-runners, aged 18–85 years, who were finishers in a 6-h ultra-marathon held between 1982 and 2020. The age of peak performance was tested using the Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by the Bonferroni Correction. The difference in performance by countries was verified using a linear regression model with the fastest runners from Russia in women, and Tunisia in men, used as reference. Results: Over the years, the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was 43.20 ± 9.30 years for female and 46.09 ± 10.17 years for male runners. Athletes in younger age groups were faster than athletes in older age groups. Most female and male participants originated from Germany. Women from Russia (10.01 ± 1.28 km/h) and men from Tunisia (12.16 ± 1.46 km/h) were the fastest. Conclusions: In summary, in 6-h ultra-marathons held between 1982 and 2020, the participation for both women and men increased, while the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was higher in men compared to women. Most female and male runners originated from Germany, but the fastest women were from Russia, and the fastest men from Tunisia. Future studies need to investigate whether Russian women and Tunisian men are also the best in other distance-limited ultra-marathon races, such as 12-h and 24-h.
... Though our study is larger than others [10] analyzing the prevalence of (self-reported) depression in ultramarathon runners, the sample size is still limited and lacks representativeness for all ultra-runners. Our sample predominantly consisted of highly educated German participants, which reflects the demographic trends observed in other studies on ultra-endurance athletes [36,58]. It appears that ultra-endurance events tend to attract participants with higher educational backgrounds, possibly due to the significant time, financial resources, and organizational skills required for training and participation [48]. ...
... The least meaningful sources of motivation for feminine ultrarunners are recognition and competition. 63,72 At the same time, Rozmiarek et al found no significant differences in any disciplines based on gender or marital status. 32 The findings of Malchrowicz-Mośko et al are in contrast with the results of the authors that demonstrate that passion for ultrarunning can pose a threat to relationships, especially in the case of athletes who value psychological coping, health orientation, and life meaning more than average. ...
This narrative review study seeks to consolidate the existing knowledge on motivational factors that influence marathon and ultramarathon runners. The primary aim is to collect and summarize the understanding of the factors that drive both marathon and ultramarathon runners. Furthermore the review seeks to explore how variables like gender, age and experience impact motivational drivers within these running communities to highlight the intricate nature of factors, in endurance running and stress the significance of tailored training approaches and community backing to enhance participation and achievement. The study aimed to thoroughly review research papers using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework. After the evaluation of 302 publications that could potentially be relevant, 61 papers were selected for inclusion in the review. The investigation uncovers unique motivating patterns within these endurance sports communities. The desire for good health, physical fitness, and social interaction drives marathon runners. Their motivations develop as they train and become more involved in the running community. On the other hand, ultramarathon runners are motivated by internal psychological variables like self-esteem and personal exploration, which are significantly shaped by the ultramarathon community’s impact on their identity and running approach. Additional research indicates that gender, age, and experience affect the motivational elements in both groups differently. Specifically, experienced ultramarathon runners prioritize personal achievements and health more than time. This review underscores the intricacy of motivating elements in endurance running, highlighting the necessity for tailored methodologies in training and communal assistance to cultivate involvement and achievement.
... This question is paramount in performance sports, especially considering the associated risks of injury, potential muscle soreness, overtraining, or even frustration when involving young athletes [15]. ...
Background and Study Aim. Volleyball requires high vertical jump skills for crucial actions like attacking and blocking, making jump training a focus for players, especially in youth categories. The main goal of the study was to highlight (with some specific data) the strengths and weaknesses of integrating sensory technology into the physical training program, during the entire competitive period. Material and Methods. The study included both an experimental and a control group, each consisting of 16 female athletes from the volleyball section of the Cetate Sports High School in Deva. During the competitive season of 2022/2023, both groups underwent daily training sessions from Monday to Saturday, totaling 120 minutes per day. The BlazePod Flash Reflex Training system was employed in this research. It integrates cognitive training to enhance thinking speed and clarity with physical exercises aimed at maximizing motor skills. Performance evaluations of the athletes utilized eight predefined tests from the OptoJump Next optical measuring system and the Myotest accelerometric system. To analyze the data, paired (dependent) sample t-tests were conducted to compare average parameters between matched samples. Repeated measures ANOVA was utilized to compare the average outcomes, ensuring the participants were consistent across the evaluated conditions. Results. The experimental group showed significant improvements in the height reached from the center of gravity and flight time for the following tests: Countermovement Jump, Countermovement Jump with Arm Swing, Squat Jump, Squat Jump with Arm Swing, and Drop Jump from 30 cm. All improvements reached statistical significance: p<0.05. Significant enhancements were also observed in average jump height, jump power, force of jumps, and ascensional speed, demonstrating statistical significance (p<0.05). Furthermore, the use of an arm swing during jumps notably improved performance compared to when jumps were performed with hands on hips. This indicates that an arm swing can significantly increase the height of the vertical jump (p<0.05). Conclusions. The study confirms that the integration of sensory technology into the training programs for junior volleyball teams is effective in enhancing training outcomes. This approach not only improves the vertical jump capabilities of young athletes but also positively affects their ability to perform technical moves that require elevation from the ground. It underscores the potential of innovative training methods in advancing athletic performance in youth sports.
... There is a lack of empirical studies looking specifically at positive affect towards running in women. Instead, concepts women deem important in regard with running (15,19,20) that are closely linked to positive affectlike affiliation, improving psychological coping and self-esteem (21-23)provide valuable indirect evidence. For example, a bi-directional link between self-esteem and running behavior was found, as women who engage in regular running behavior experience an improvement in self-esteem, which in turn increases their likelihood of maintaining their running behavior (24). ...
Empirical evidence demonstrates that high concordance and low discrepancy of implicit and explicit affective processes facilitate consistent exercise behavior. Novice runners often have difficulties implementing their running behavior on a regular basis resulting in irregular running behavior. To investigate the potential value of affective associations 89 young female runners (regular and irregular) and non-runners were recruited. Affective associations towards running were measured through a Single-Target Implicit Association Test on the implicit level and by self-report on the explicit level. Implicit-explicit interaction (IEI) scores (i.e., implicit-explicit concordance and discrepancy) were derived from principal component analysis. Fuzzy k-means cluster analysis was used to identify patterns of interacting implicit-explicit affective associations. The resulting clusters were assessed for differences in previous running experience, current running behavior, motivational and intentional aspects. Four meaningful overlapping clusters were found and labeled according to their prevalent IEI patterns (i.e., "positive non-discrepant", "positive discrepant", "negative discrepant", "negative non-discrepant"). Significant differences between clusters were found for past running experience, current running behavior, motivational and intentional aspects. The results indicate that running behavior varies between and within patterns of affective associations. In line with previous findings, positive non-discrepant implicit and explicit affective associations are linked to more consistent running behavior, while negative non-discrepant affect is associated with non-runners. However, the occurrence of discrepant implicit-explicit affective associations in young women differing in running behavior, motivation, and intention broadens the view of the complex relationship between affective processes and exercise behavior. In conclusion, individualized interventions that take into account the implicit-explicit interaction of affective associations besides well-known cognitive self-regulatory resources may prove more effective for individuals who struggle to run regularly.
... Yet, women are outnumbered by the men of this sport. In 2008, only 27% of ultramarathon runners were women (Krouse, Ransdell, Lucas, & Pritchard, 2011;Hanold, 2010). The reason for lack of women participating has not been investigated at this time. ...
... Evidence suggests that ultra-endurance runners are predominantly intrinsically motivated. The most important motivating factor appears to be the opportunity to achieve personal goals [158][159][160], with health-and self-esteemrelated reasons also significant (Table 1). It should be noted that the level of athlete ability is likely to influence the goalsetting process and that elite athletes with goals of attaining a finish position can have intense anxiety. ...
Ultra-endurance running (UER) poses extreme mental and physical challenges that present many barriers to completion, let alone performance. Despite these challenges, participation in UER events continues to increase. With the relative paucity of research into UER training and racing compared with traditional endurance running distance (e.g., marathon), it follows that there are sizable improvements still to be made in UER if the limitations of the sport are sufficiently understood. The purpose of this review is to summarise our current understanding of the major limitations in UER. We begin with an evolutionary perspective that provides the critical background for understanding how our capacities, abilities and limitations have come to be. Although we show that humans display evolutionary adaptations that may bestow an advantage for covering large distances on a daily basis, these often far exceed the levels of our ancestors, which exposes relative limitations. From that framework, we explore the physiological and psychological systems required for running UER events. In each system, the factors that limit performance are highlighted and some guidance for practitioners and future research are shared. Examined systems include thermoregulation, oxygen delivery and utilisation, running economy and biomechanics, fatigue, the digestive system, nutritional and psychological strategies. We show that minimising the cost of running, damage to lower limb tissue and muscle fatigability may become crucial in UER events. Maintaining a sustainable core body temperature is critical to performance, and an even pacing strategy, strategic heat acclimation and individually calculated hydration all contribute to sustained performance. Gastrointestinal issues affect almost every UER participant and can be due to a variety of factors. We present nutritional strategies for different event lengths and types, such as personalised and evidence-based approaches for varying types of carbohydrate, protein and fat intake in fluid or solid form, and how to avoid flavour fatigue. Psychology plays a vital role in UER performance, and we highlight the need to be able to cope with complex situations, and that specific long and short-term goal setting improves performance. Fatigue in UER is multi-factorial, both physical and mental, and the perceived effort or level of fatigue have a major impact on the ability to continue at a given pace. Understanding the complex interplay of these limitations will help prepare UER competitors for the different scenarios they are likely to face. Therefore, this review takes an interdisciplinary approach to synthesising and illuminating limitations in UER performance to assist practitioners and scientists in making informed decisions in practice and applicable research.
... The landscape is especially important in long-distance running. It has been proven that the ultimate goal of nishing an ultra run, not the nal position (Krouse et al., 2011). In addition, Watkins et al. (2022) extended knowledge about the motivation of ultra runners, pointing to aspects such as fun and care for competitors. ...
Running outdoor has a positive impact on human health. Study attempted to address the issue of what are other aspects motivating to take up running. We were particularly interested in the landscape. Goal was also to determine the landscape values of the competition routes, which determine their popularity. We conducted surveys among the participants of the runs and spatial analyzes using GIS tools. Great landscape values of running routes can contribute to the activation of running society, especially women and city dwellers. The high diversity of the landscape of the cross-country routes, especially in terms of their relief and land use, significantly affects their high landscape rating. Route profile and running challenges are as important as landscape values. The landscape that runners observe during long-distance runs affects their regeneration and motivates them to finish the competition. People want to run in a visually beautiful mountain and foothill landscape. This study illuminates how the enchanting tapestry of landscapes not only fuels the passion for outdoor running but also underscores the intricate relationship between humans and their surroundings. The results enable us to establish the key principles for designing new running routes that support runners during their exertion.
... It has been proposed that ultrarunners have specific psychological characteristics, e.g., an important motivation to engage in such an arduous sport (Hanson et al., 2015;Krouse et al., 2011), a better pain tolerance with a lower pain perception (Freund et al., 2013) or higher self-reported mental toughness than other sports (Brace et al., 2020). ...
The psychological and psychopathological characteristics of ultra-runners have aroused growing interest in recent years. Indeed, although rare, ultramarathons may require hospitalisation, including to Intensive Care Unit (ICU). We aim to explore the relations between exercise addiction and personality traits in ultrarunners who went to ICU after a race. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) and the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) were filled out by ultrarunners hospitalised in ICU or dialysed following an ultra-marathon. We carried out a network analysis to highlight the most central EAI and TIPI criteria, providing centrality measures. Eleven out of 12 individuals had an EAI cut-off score between 13 and 23 (M = 18.8; SD = 2.93), and were thus considered as symptomatic individuals, whereas only one ultrarunner was considered as “at risk” of exercise addiction (cut-off score ≥ 24). The TIPI suggests high scores in emotional stability. Regarding the EAI network, the mood modification criteria was the most central criteria for the four centrality measures. The present results suggest that ultrarunners affected by serious medical complications are not dependent on exercise, although most are “at risk”. The presence of the mood modification as the first central criterion of the EAI, and of the high scores in emotional stability for the TIPI suggest the importance to consider these emotional constructs in the ultra-runner population.
... In contrast, the extrinsic motivational factor shows that the role of the University (40%) is the factor that contributes the most to student involvement. Ransdell, Lucas, and Pritchard (2011), in their study on Motivation, Goal Setting, Coaching, and Training Habits of Female Ultra Runners described general health orientation and psychological coping as the two most substantial motivational factors. Participants were higher in task orientation (e.g., finishing a race or achieving multiple goals) than ego orientation (e.g., top 3 overall or beating an opponent). ...
... [18][19][20] The studies showed an increase in runners' participation, especially for women, younger and older runners. [21][22][23] However, this increase in participation was related to a decrease in the performance 11,24 for both sexes, which reduced the performance gap between the sexes. 25,26 However, despite the tradition of this event in Brazil, no information is available regarding the participation, performance, and trend in sex differences in the São Silvestre race. ...
This study aimed to investigate the trends of finishers in the São Silvestre race in Brazil, taking into account sex, age, and performance levels. A total of 31 775 runners (women, n = 13 847; men, n = 17 928), aged (45.2 ± 16.8) years, finishers in the São Silvestre race between 2007 and 2021, were considered in the present analysis. Data (event year, date of birth, sex, and race times) were downloaded from the official race website. The man-Whitney U test, Spearman correlation, and robust regression model were computed. Participation increased over time for both sexes. Regarding age groups, “31–40 years” (women) and “> 60 years” (men) were those with the highest number of finishers. We found a decrease in performance across the years (β = 2.45; p < 0.005), as well as significant differences in race times for both sexes (U = 42.844; p < 0.001), with men presenting better performances than women. Over time, it was observed an increase in the performance gap between the sexes, but in general, the performance decreased (β = 1.76; p < 0.001). Stakeholders should consider improving the strategies to improve women and young people's participation in running events.
... enjoyable, empowering) compared to extrinsic motivation (e.g. baby needs a nap, dog needs a walk; Krouse et al. 2011). Reasons for physical activity engagement that are linked to personal fulfilment, such as enjoyment, are likely to be associated with greater physical activity engagement (Segar, Spruijt-Metz, and Nolen-Hoeksema 2006). ...
While much research sees physical activity as an intervention for the postpartum body, there is limited literature understanding how postpartum physical activity affects women’s mental health and physical well-being. Unpacking how physical activity affects postpartum women holistically is critical because of the negative physical and mental health consequences accompanying the postpartum period. Thus, the purpose of this study was to use digital photographs to explore women’s experiences engaging in physical activity during the first-year postpartum. Auto-photography was used as it allowed postpartum women to share a photograph illustrating their physical activity experiences. This method allowed for comprehension regarding how participants believed physical activity impacted their mental health and physical well-being. Fifty women (Mage = 31.82 years; Mage of infant = 6.22 months) submitted a photo with a short text description explaining the photo context and what it represented. A reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse the photos through a critical feminist lens. Study findings were organised into three themes. First, postpartum women engaging in physical activity experienced feelings of empowerment that helped heal the body and mind while reconnecting with their athletic identities. Second, doing so meant adapting their physical activity to motherhood or around motherhood. Third, postpartum women navigated many obstacles, including the COVID-19 pandemic, weather, and finding activewear that fit their changing bodies. Insights into these experiences may inform health promoters, healthcare professionals, recreation leaders, and women’s support networks to understand their needs when engaging in physical activity during the postpartum period.
... Rather, most of the research conducted to date has focused on the physical and physiological profiles of athletes. For instance, research conducted on elite endurance athletes (including distance runners) has highlighted physiological [63,64], biomechanical [65,66], and genetic factors [67][68][69], but relatively little is known about the various psychological traits (for exceptions see [70][71][72]). This could be due to a multitude of reasons, namely the potential difficulty in determining which 'softer' skills to investigate, and which of the various methods (and combination of methods) could and should be used to explore such skills (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, tests, etc.). ...
Talent identification and selection are critical components of competitive sport success. Despite the time, effort, and resources invested, the accuracy of selection decisions remains generally poor. While much of the scholarship in this area has focused on the factors discriminating skilled and less-skilled individuals, limited research exists on what information is used in the decision-making process for athlete selection. The current study seeks to gain a better understanding of the information used by elite distance running coaches when forming judgements for athlete selection. Ten semi-structured interviews with elite distance running coaches from across Canada were transcribed and analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. It was interpreted that coaches mainly gather information using their coach’s eye to determine an athlete’s ‘fit’ to the team. Coaches also use more objective information such as race times and movement analyses to assess performance and judge future ‘potential’. As well, the decisions were believed to be influenced by situational considerations at the time of the selection procedure. Specifically, these considerations affecting a coach’s selection included length of time to make a decision, personal limitations in decision-making abilities, and team circumstances. Interestingly, coaches recognized limitations in their selection practices and procedures and discussed some of their personal and system-level biases, highlighting their awareness of potential selection inefficiencies/inaccuracies. Overall, distance running coaches used a variety of techniques to gather information before a selection was made, relying on both subjective and objective information for crafting judgments. Findings are discussed in relation to implications for coaches, sport organizations, and talent identification and selection programs.
... In a study of female long-distance runners, particularly ultrarunners, the two most important motivators were general health orientation and psychological coping. Participants favoured task orientation such as finishing the race or achieving specific objectives above ego orientation (Krouse et al., 2011). Another study on ultrarunners by Frick (2011) found that, while competition has traditionally been more significant for males, it has also grown in prominence among women. ...
In recent years, the growing number of long-distance runners in Indonesia has raised questions about the factors that motivate them. This study aimed to analyse the motivations of long-distance runners according to their gender and running experience. This research used a quantitative approach and an internet-based study. A sample consisting of 130 participants (71% were males, and 29% were females) participated in this study and voluntarily completed the survey. The inclusion criterion required that the participants had at least six months of running training with at least three weekly training and had already completed at least one long-distance running race (10K, half marathon or full marathon). In this study, the Indonesian adapted version of Motivation of Marathoners Scales by Masters et al. was used to analyse runners' motivation. Descriptive analysis, t-test, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyse the data. The obtained results revealed that runners' gender, health orientation, and personal goal achievement affected the attainment of greater motivation scores. At the same time, recognition and competition showed to have the lowest motives among the runners. There was a significant difference between male and female runners in terms of competition motive (t = 0.26, p < 0.05). According to runners' running experience, there were also significant differences in two dimensions, i.e., personal goal achievement (F = 2.76, p < 0.05) and competition (F = 2.59, p < 0.05). The most significant motivations that were considered were general health orientation, personal goal achievement, life meaning, and self-esteem; these dimensions belong to runners' physical health, achievement, and psychological motives, respectively. In contrast, the recognition and competition factors always resulted in the lowest score, which indicated that runners did not need social recognition and had low competitive motive except for competing with themselves. Future studies require higher participant involvement and evaluation of other research variables that may contribute to Indonesia's long-distance runners' motivations.
... This result is similar to what Krouse et al. found in female ultrarunners who chose not to use coaches due to cost or their ability to rely on past experience in the sport. 25 The runners in this study utilized a variety of running terrains, but most preferred to train at least some of the time on the road. The treadmill was also a common mode for at least half the runners for some portion of their train-ing. ...
Background:
The number of masters females that choose long-distance running as a form of exercise is growing exponentially. As clinicians working with these athletes, it is important to understand their training habits and how these habits relate to running related injuries (RRI).
Purpose:
The primary aim of this study was to identify the training behaviors and cross training engagement in masters female runners. A secondary aim was to determine RRI rates and their relationship to training behaviors.
Methods:
A 31-question online survey was completed by 68 masters females aged 45 and older. Answers from 18 of the 31 questions were used to address the specific aims of the study. Descriptive variables and Chi Square analyses were used to synthesize the data.
Results:
The majority of the cohort ran less than 30 miles week distributed over three days/week. Most participated in cross-training activity that included strength training, cycling, and swimming. Injury was prevalent in this group of runners with many experiencing more than one RRI over their running history. The area of the hip and gluteal region was the most common site of injury.
Conclusion:
This cohort of runners trained in a relatively smart manner, with a moderate volume of running mileage, and utilization of cross-training. Many had experienced some form of injury that halted their running for a period of time.
Level of evidence:
Level 3 - Case Controlled, retrospective survey.
... this result is supported by previous study that 80% did not use a coach/trainer of 344 female study participants. 15 In addition, it was found that 90.9% finishers designed their resistance training program by themselves whereas 30.8% of non-finishers designed their resistance training program by themselves. The other 69.2% of non-finishers rely on others to design their resistance training program. ...
... However, few studies have been dedicated to motivations of ultramarathon runners. Frick (2011) examined motives of male and female ultramarathon runners, Krouse et al. (2011) evaluated motives of female ultramarathon participants, Malchrowicz-Mośko and Waśkiewicz (2020) and Thuany et al. (2021) analyzed motivation of an ultramarathoner in relation to their family life and marital status or socioeconomic status. They indicated that the most important motivations for running were related to personal goal achievement, health orientation, and selfesteem. ...
Aim: This study was aimed to investigate the influence of age on the motivations of various types of runners, namely, marathoners, ultra-marathoners, and non-starters.
Methods: A total of 1,537 runners including 380 women (24.7%) and 1,157 men (75.3%) took part in the diagnostic survey and completed the motivations of marathoners’ scales questionnaire (MOMS). The effect sizes were estimated.
Results: The article presents several statistically significant differences in the impact of age on the motivations of runners in different categories and compares the motivations of marathon runners, ultramarathon runners, and non-starters. The results show that young non-starters decide to run for personal goal achievement, and for both marathon and ultramarathon runners, recognition and competition are important. However, for older people in all groups (non-starters, marathoners, and ultramarathoners), personal goal achievement is of the least importance. Among the oldest runners, the most important motives were self-esteem for non-starters and health orientation for marathoners and ultramarathoners.
... Motivation is superficially measured once a conduct is made to come across outward demands to achieve a reward or evade punishment and is the smallest self-determined type of extrinsic motivation (Reynolds &Mcdonough, 2015;Mariani, Marcolongo, Melchiori, & Cassese, 2019;Rochniak et al.,2020). Motivation comprised of the need to display capability, achievement, and success (Krouse, Ransdell, Lucas, & Pritchard, 2011;Engan&Saether, 2018;Biino, Bertinato, Rossini, &Giuriato, 2020). According to theory of motivation (1964), a person has three stages of behavior: i) expectancy (effort); ii) instrumentality (performance); iii) valence (reward), however, a player has to go through within these to become successful (Vroom, 1964). ...
Purpose:The primary purpose of the existing research was to determine relationships of coaches, team cohesiveness, motivational intensity with players' performance of field hockey at national level. The secondary objective of the present study was to determine the regression effect on the performance of field hockey players and the role of mediators between independent construct and outcome variable.Material and Methods:The population (N-3207) was comprised of Pakistani national players of field hockey. The large sample size comprising 510 respondents was chosen for the purpose of data collection. Adapted and modified survey questionnaire with the permission of diverse original authors was employed as research instrument. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were utilized to evaluate the collected data. Results:The findings revealed medium and significant association of hockey coaches with performance of national players. Results indicated that team cohesiveness had better and significant association with Pakistani players' performance. Findings revealed significant and medium association between motivational intensity and players' performance. The results of multiple regression analysis revealed that all constructs had significant effect on outcome variable. Findings to test the path model revealed that mediating constructs along with independent variable contributed significantly to the performance of national hockey players. Conclusion:It was overall concluded that the thrust of good coaching structure, excellent team collaboration, and high motivation intensity is still required to boost players' performance of Pakistani field hockey at its national level. The sport authorities,sports federations, sports associations, and sport institutions of the field hockey should take serious steps to uplift the past statures and glories of their national game.
... While it might appear from the outside that runners are a motivated bunch of individuals, getting up at the crack of dawn to hammer out the miles, motivation is always a challenge, especially as training takes its toll on tired bodies or during the dark days of winter for those training for a spring marathon (Masters et al. 1993;Donohue et al. 2006;Krouse et al. 2011;Hammer and Podlog 2016). As such it is interesting to consider how technology might help to motivate runners for their next training session; see ). ...
Every year millions of people, from all walks of life, spend months training to run a traditional marathon. For some it is about becoming fit enough to complete the gruelling 26.2 mile (42.2 km) distance. For others, it is about improving their fitness, to achieve a new personal-best finish-time. In this paper, we argue that the complexities of training for a marathon, combined with the availability of real-time activity data, provide a unique and worthwhile opportunity for machine learning and for recommender systems techniques to support runners as they train, race, and recover. We present a number of case studies—a mix of original research plus some recent results—to highlight what can be achieved using the type of activity data that is routinely collected by the current generation of mobile fitness apps, smart watches, and wearable sensors.
... Ultra-marathon runners often first complete a marathon, then go on to focus on improving health (Krouse, Ransdell, Lucas, & Pritchard, 2011), which can influence life meaning, self-esteem and the broader pursuit of goals (Waśkiewicz, Nikolaidis, Chalabaev, Rosemann, & Knechtle, 2019). Accepting that MI will likely enable individuals to start adhering to healthy goals (Anshel & Kang, 2008;Köse & Yıldız, 2021), the aim of this study was to ascertain the effectiveness of FIT in comparison to MI for running an ultra-marathon. ...
Objectives
This study evaluates ultra-marathon runners’ use of goal-setting, self-talk, and imagery as strategies to help them through the challenge of long-distance running.
Methods
In stage one, thirty-one self-professed non-runners were recruited and received motivational interviewing (MI) in a group setting, examining their motivation to get healthy. In stage two, five months later, participants were asked if they would consider running an ultra-marathon, and fifteen ( M age =39.47, SD=5.84) agreed. At this point participants were randomly split into an MI or Functional Imagery Training (FIT) group. FIT teaches participants how to master goal centred imagery by controlling attention and elaboration. Groups received similar contact hours and completed four measures that assess grit, resilience, self-efficacy, and imagery ability at baseline and after the race.
Results
We found no significant differences between measures for finishers and non-finishers or between groups or over time. However, the likelihood of completing the ultra-marathon was five times as likely in the FIT group, than in MI (RR=5.25). Grit and resilience scores were strongly correlated. By receiving FIT, there was a significant association (p=0.04) to complete the ultra-marathon.
Conclusions
FIT is a relatively cost-effective method to increase exercise adherence through multi-sensory elaboration of goal setting and overcoming barriers or challenges.
Although the 50-mile ultramarathon is one of the most common race distances, it has received little scientific attention. The objective of this study was to assess how an athlete’s age group, sex, nationality, and the race location, affect race speed. Utilizing a dataset with ultramarathon races from 1863 to 2022, a machine learning model based on the XGBoost algorithm was developed to predict the race speed based on the aforementioned variables. Model explainability tools, including model features relative importances and prediction distribution plots were then used to investigate how each feature affects the predicted race speed. The most important features, with respect to the predictive power of the XGBoost model, were the location of the race and the athlete’s gender. The top 3 countries with the fastest predicted median race speeds were Slovenia, New Zealand, and Bulgaria for nationality and New Zealand, Croatia, and Serbia for the race location. The fastest median race speed was predicted for the age group 20–24 years, but a marked age-related performance decline only became apparent from the age group 40–44 years onward. Model predictions for male athletes were faster than for female athletes. This study offers insights into factors influencing race speed in 50-mile ultramarathons, which may be beneficial for athletes, coaches, and race organizers. The identification of nationalities and event countries with fast race speeds provides a foundation for further exploration in the field of ultramarathon events.
The Western States Endurance Run (WSER) is the premier 100 mile trail race in the United States. Due to requirements put in place by the United States Forest Service, there are only a limited number of participants allowed to compete in any given year. These participants are selected through a lottery for which they must first qualify by running a qualifying performance at another event. For these reasons, the WSER is a “bucket list” event for many ultramarathon runners. We exploit the randomness of the lottery to determine if winning the WSER lottery affects the training and travel behavior of lottery winners. We find that WSER lottery winners compete in more races, perform better in these races, and travel more in the short run (1–2 years). However, in the long run, lottery winners compete in fewer events, travel less, and compete in smaller events than lottery losers.
Background:
Despite the growing interest in trail running in several countries, few researchers have investigated why people practice trail running. Thus, this study aimed to identify the main motivational factors that determine adherence to trail running and their association with demographic characteristics and training habits among recreational runners.
Methods:
This cross-sectional research employed a questionnaire as its measurement instrument to gather data on demographic characteristics, trail running practices, motivation among trail runners.
Results:
The study examined 168 trail runners, with 66.7% being men. It verified significant differences in demographic characteristics and training habits only in the distance covered during races with sex (P=0.036). Additionally, the results showed that the primary motivations for trail runners to practice trail running were quality of life and leisure (86.3%), physical fitness (54.2%), and competition (34.5%). Motivation for quality of life and leisure was associated with marital status (P=0.033) and average distance travelled during training (P=0.011). Motivation for physical fitness was associated with the way trail running training is performed (P=0.012), while competitive motivation was associated with gender (P=0.001), race (P=0.028), and average distance travelled during training (P=0.015).
Conclusions:
The findings indicate that the majority of runners practice trail running as a means of improving quality of life and leisure, followed by physical fitness and competition. Furthermore, significant associations were found between motivations and demographic characteristics as well as training habits.
The aim of this study was to compare the impact of 8-weeks of power exercises compared to traditional strength exercises on motor abilities, muscle performance, and functional strength in children with ADHD. A total of 34 children with ADHD were randomized into two groups to receive functional power training (n = 17, M age: 121.2 ± 16.6 months) and traditional strength training (n = 17, M age: 116.1 ± 13.4 months). After the 8-week intervention, two-way ANOVA results with 95% confidence intervals showed no differences between the groups in motor skills, muscle power, or functional muscle strength. However, the functional power training group had larger effect sizes and greater increases in total motor composite score (10% vs 7%), body coordination (13.8% vs 4.9%) and bilateral coordination (38.8% vs 27.9%) than the traditional strength training group. The power training group also exhibited catch-up growth with typically developing peers. These findings suggest that power exercises may be more effective than strength exercises for rapid force generation in daily life, particularly for children with ADHD.
Aim:
To explore how plyometric-based hydro-kinesiotherapy (Plyo-HKT) would affect pain, muscle strength, postural stability, and functional performance in a convenience sample of children with hemophilic knee arthropathy (HKA).
Methods:
Forty-eight children with HKA (age: 8-16 years) were randomly allocated to the Plyo-HKT group (n = 24; underwent the Plyo-HKT for 45 min, twice/week over 12 wk in succession) or the comparison group (n = 24; performed the standard exercise rehabilitation at an equivalent frequency and duration). Pain, peak concentric torque of quadriceps and hamstring (produced at two angular velocities: 120 and 180 o/sec), dynamic limits of postural stability (DLPS), and functional performance [Functional Independence Score in Hemophilia (FISH) and 6-Minute Walk Test (6-MWT)] were assessed pre- and post-intervention.
Results:
In contrast with the comparison group, the Plyo-HKT group achieved more favorable pre-to-post changes in pain (p = .028, η2p = 0.10), peak torque of quadriceps [120°/sec (p = .007, η2P = 0.15); 180°/sec (p = .011, η2P = 0.13)] and hamstring [120°/sec (p = .024, η2P = 0.11); 180°/sec (p = .036, η2P = 0.09)], DLPSdirectional [forward (p = .007, η2P = 0.15); backward (p = .013, η2P = 0.12); affected side (p = .008, η2P = 0.14); non-affected side (p = .002, η2P = 0.20)], DLPSoverall (p < .001, η2P = 0.32), and functional performance [FISH (p < .001, η2p = 0.26); 6-MWT (p = .002, η2p = 0.19)].
Conclusion:
Plyo-HKT is likely helpful for reducing pain, improving strength, enhancing postural stability, and boosting functional capabilities in children with HKA. Physical rehabilitation practitioners should, therefore, consider this intervention strategy.
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la interrelación de la dependencia al ejercicio físico (EF) con la motivación deportiva e identidad con el EF. La muestra (375) fue española, practicantes de EF de resistencia (correr, ciclismo, natación, triatlón y otros), el 32% mujeres y el 67,5 % hombres. La Escala de la Dependencia al Ejercicio Físico (EDS-R) fue utilizada para analizar el perfil de practica del EF de los participantes (dependiente; no dependiente sintomático y no dependiente asintomático), la Escala de la Motivación Deportiva fue utilizada para evaluar el nivel de cada tipo de motivación y la Escala de Identificación con el EF para evaluar el nivel de identidad de cada participante relacionado con el EF. Se realizaron los siguientes análisis de datos: Prueba de Kruskal- Wallis con corrección de Bonferroni; Rho de Spearman; regresión por pasos y modelos de mediación múltiple. El 20% de los participantes mostraron un perfil de dependientes con el EF, el 70,4% no dependientes sintomáticos y el 9,6% no dependientes asintomáticos. Los dependientes puntuaron más alto que los demás perfiles en todas las variables de estudio. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en todas las variables de estudio y la dependencia al EF correlaciono positiva y significativamente con la identificación con el EF y la motivación deportiva (MD). Asimismo, la MD fue mediadora entre la identidad con el EF y la dependencia al EF. Identificar y estudiar la MD y la identidad con el EF de cada sujeto sería de interés para el desarrollo de acciones preventivas para la aparición de la dependencia al EF. Palabras clave: Dependencia al ejercicio físico, motivación deportiva, identidad con el ejercicio físico, ejercicio físico de resistencia, prevención. Abstract. This study aimed to analyze the interrelation of physical exercise (PE) dependence, sport motivation and identity with PE. The sample (375) comprised Spanish, practitioners of endurance PE (running, cycling, swimming, triathlon and others), 32% women and 67.5% men. The Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS-R) was used to analyze the participants' PE practice profile (dependent; symptomatic non-dependent and asymptomatic non-dependent), the Sport Motivation Scale was used to evaluate the level of each type of motivation and the PE Identification Scale was used to evaluate the level of identity of each participant related to PE. The next data analysis were performed: Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni correction; Spearman's Rho; stepwise regression and multiple mediation models. 20% of the participants showed a dependent profile with the PE, 70.4% symptomatic non-dependents and 9.6% asymptomatic non-dependents. Dependents scored higher than the other profiles on all study variables. Significant differences were found in all the study variables, and dependence correlated positively and significantly with identification with the PE and sport motivation. Likewise, sport motivation was a mediator between identity with the PE and dependence on the PE. Identifying and studying the sport motivation and identity with the PE of each subject would be of interest for the development of preventive actions for the appearance of dependence on the PE. Key words: Exercise dependence, sport motivation, exercise identity, endurance exercise, prevention.
Despite the increasing scientific interest in the relationship between pacing and performance in endurance sports, little information is available about pacing and pacing variation in ultra-endurance events such as ultra-triathlons. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of pacing, pacing variation, the influence of age, sex, and performance level in ultra-triathlons of different distances. We analysed 969 finishers (849 men, 120 women) in 46 ultra-triathlons longer than the original Ironman® distance (e.g., Double-, Triple-, Quintuple- and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons) held from 2004 to 2015. Pacing speed was calculated for every cycling and running lap. Pacing variation was calculated as the coefficient of variation (%) between the average speed of each lap. Performance level (i.e., fast, moderate, slow) was defined according to the 33.3 and 66.6 percentile of the overall race time. A multivariate analysis (two-way ANOVA) was applied for the overall race time as the dependent variable with ‘sex’ and ‘age group’ as independent factors. Another multivariate model with ‘age’ and ‘sex’ as covariates (two-way ANCOVA) was applied with pacing variation (cycling and running) as the dependent variable with ‘race’ and ‘performance level’ as independent factors. Different pacing patterns were observed by event and performance level. The general pacing strategy applied was a positive pacing. In Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon, faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. There was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes in Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. Women had a slower overall performance than men. The best overall times were achieved at the age of 30–39 years. Successful ultra-triathlon athletes adapted a positive pacing strategy in all race distances. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. In shorter ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon), faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. In longer ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon), there was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes.
The aim of this study was to determine the psychological preparation in long and ultra-long distance runners. These running disciplines are categorized as very demanding athletic disciplines and it is necessary to include the psychological preparation of athletes, in addition to physical preparation. The method includes collecting adequate research, through electronic databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, SCIndeks), published in the past 20 years, their tabular display, showing information about the first author, year of publication, sample description (number and sex), interventional details, research results and the author's conclusions. In total 15 studies met the criteria for inclusion in the study which were systematically reviewed and analyzed. The results showed that runners who were psychologically better prepared were able to withstand physical exertion as a result of several hours of running and had better performances in competitions. Also, it can be concluded that imagination, goal setting, self-talk, self-confidence, self-belief, motivation and mental strength are psychological skills that have positive effects on improving performance in running on long and ultra-long distances.
Background
There is evidence of sex differences in the physiology of endurance exercise, yet most of the advice and guidelines on training, racing, nutrition, and recovery for ultramarathons are based on research that has largely excluded female athletes. The objective was therefore to review the current knowledge of sex differences in ultramarathon runners and determine if sufficient evidence exists for providing separate guidelines for males and females.
Methods
This systematic review was carried out in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Three databases were searched for studies investigating differences in elite and recreational male and female ultramarathon runners. Studies were included if they compared males and females and looked at outcomes relating to the performance or health of ultramarathon runners. The quality of the included studies was determined using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach.
Results
The search strategy identified 45 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Most studies were observational in design, with only three papers based on randomised controlled trials. The overall quality of the evidence was low. Sex differences in the predictors of ultramarathon performance; physiological responses to training, racing, and recovery; chronic and acute health issues; and pacing strategies were found. There were areas with contradictory findings, and very few studies examined specific interventions.
Conclusion
The results from this review suggest that the development of sex-specific guidelines for ultramarathon coaches and athletes could have a significant effect on the performance and health of female runners. At present, there is insufficient high-quality evidence on which to formulate these guidelines, and further research is required.
Objectives
This study aims to add to literature on the phenomenology of ultra-running, an extreme form of long distance running. Through application of reversal theory, the study seeks to extend knowledge of the motivations and experiences of ultra-runners as well as approaches to understanding ultra-endurance sport more generally.
Design
Post-positivist, qualitative, phenomenological.
Method
10 recreational ultra-runners participated in semi-structured interviews in which they were introduced to the eight metamotivational states of reversal theory and asked to discuss their running motivations and experiences.
Results
A thematic networks analysis revealed a propensity for participants to experience a diverse range of reversal theory states when running, embodying Apter’s (2007) concept of psychodiversity. Participants revealed an orientation to both states in each pair of the four metamotivational domains of reversal theory; serious/playful, conformity/rebellious, mastery/sympathy, and self/other. Participant accounts of experiencing playful (paratelic) and other-orientated (alloic-sympathy) metamotivational states were particularly important to ultra-running phenomenology and its differentiation from mainstream sport.
Conclusion
Reversal theory has proven to provide an effective framework for exploring and theorising ultra-running phenomenologies. The psychodiversity documented by participants suggests that ultra-running and other ultra-endurance sports necessitate a diverse and dynamic metamotivational orientation. Application of this thesis to other ultra-endurance activities is encouraged.
This study aims to investigate the fear or failure (FoF) in Brazilian runners of both sex, performance levels and age categories, as well as to verify the relationship between FoF and socioeconomic status (SES). Sample size as composed by 916. Age, sex, body height, body weight, SES, and running pace were self-reported. The Multidimensional Questionnaire of FoF was applied in an online platform. Running pace, and SES were categorized and processed through multivariate analysis and Spearman correlations, with the p-value set at 0.05. Female runners with better performance (2.13 ± 0.74) and younger (2.16 ± 0.80), as a well as male runners with worse performance (2.04 ± 0.69) and older (2.04 ± 0.89) presented the highest values of FoF. Among women, SES was negatively associated with FoF (r = -0.144; p = 0.006), while a positive association between running pace and SES was observed among men (r = 0.290; p < 0.001). Non-professional Brazilian runners presented low values of FoF.
Aims:
This scoping review aims to: 1) examine available literature regarding the effects of power training on gait speed, power, and function in ambulatory children with CP and 2) identify the variations in exercise dosage and rehabilitation recommendations for power training and plyometrics in children with CP.
Methods:
Four databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, and Cochrane) were searched for papers including power or plyometric training with outcome measures for gait, power or functional performance. ES was calculated for RCTs. Cohorts and case series/studies were evaluated qualitatively.
Results:
Ten articles fit search criteria: four RCTs, three cohort studies, one case series, and two case studies. Power training consistently demonstrated improvements in muscle power compared to its effects on gait and function. ES of mean MPST (W) ranged from 0.36-1.13. 1 MWT and SSGS ES were 1.31 and 1.15, respectively. TUG ES ranged from -0.33 to -2.42. ES for GMFM-66 was 0.13 and 1.11 for Dimension D and Dimension E, respectively.
Conclusions:
There is limited, but promising evidence to support that power training may improve gait speed, power, and function in children with CP. Future, more robust research is required to examine effects in a larger, diverse population, to determine long-term effects and exercise prescription.
Background:
Obesity contributes to the acquired flatfoot deformity which in turn impairs balance.
Aim:
The purpose of the current study was to compare the effect of plyometric exercises with flatfoot corrective exercises on balance, foot posture, and functional mobility in obese children with a flexible flatfoot.
Methods:
Forty-seven children participated in the study. Their age ranged from 7 to 11 years. Participants were randomly divided into 3 groups: experimental group I (EGI), experimental group II (EGII), and the control group (CG). The EGI received plyometric exercises and the EGII received corrective exercises, 2 sessions weekly for 10 weeks. The control group did not perform any planned physical activities. The Prokin system was used to assess balance, the timed up and go test (TUG) was used to assess functional mobility, and the navicular drop test (NDT) was used to assess foot posture.
Results:
EGI showed significant improvement in all balance parameters, foot posture, and TUG. EGII showed improvement in the ellipse area and perimeter in addition to foot posture and TUG.
Conclusion:
Plyometric exercises and foot correction exercises had a positive effect on foot posture, balance, and functional mobility in obese children with flatfeet.
This study was aimed to investigate the influence of age on the motivations of various types of runners: marathoners, ultra-marathoners, and non-starters.
A total of 1,537 runners including 380 women (24.7%) and 1,157 men (75.3%) took part in the diagnostic survey and completed the motivations of marathoners’ scales questionnaire (MOMS). The effect sizes were estimated.
The article presents several statistically significant differences in the impact of age on the motivations of runners in different categories and compares the motivations of marathon runners, ultramarathon runners, and non-starters. The results show that young non-starters decide to run for personal goal achievement, and for both marathon and ultramarathon runners, recognition and competition are important. However, for older people in all groups (non-starters, marathoners, and ultramarathoners), personal goal achievement is of the least importance. Among the oldest runners, the most important motives were self-esteem for non-starters and health orientation for marathoners and for ultramarathoners.
Background: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopment disorder with inappropriate levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity that emerge during preschool-age causing several impairement that should be supported. Objectives: The purpose of this research was to explore the repercussion of plyometric training protocol (PT) on disruptive behavior and executive control among children with ADHD. Methods: Executive functions and ADHD related behaviors are assessed by graded tests before and after a 12-week PT (plyometric training) or NPT (did not perform PT training). Results: Findings show that participation in PT enhances behavior reports by parents and teachers (P < 0.001) and level of executive function (P < 0.001). Conclusions: These findings suggest that PT may improve positively ADHD symptomatology.
Aim
To evaluate the effectiveness of a multimodal exercise program incorporating plyometric and balance training on muscle strength and postural stability in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy (SHCP).
Methods
A total of 57 children with SHCP were enrolled in the study and randomly allocated into three treatment-based groups: plyometric exercises (PLYO group; n = 19), balance exercises (BAL group, n = 19), and combined plyometric and balance exercises (PLYO-BAL group; n = 19). The maximum isometric muscle strength (IMSmax) and postural stability [anterior-posterior stability index (AP-SI), mediolateral stability index (ML-SI), and overall stability index (O-SI)] were measured pre- and post-intervention.
Results
By applying the intention-to-treat analysis, the PLYO-BAL group showed greater post-treatment IMSmax than the PLYO and BAL groups for the quadriceps (p=.03 and p=.0002 respectively), hamstrings (p=.018 and p<.0001 respectively), and dorsiflexors (p=.006 and p<.0001 respectively). Also, the PLYO-BAL group achieved better post-intervention stability scores as compared to PLYO and BAL groups regarding AP-SI (p<.0001 and p=.0001 respectively), ML-SI (p=.001 and p=.015 respectively), and O-SI (p=.011 and p=.04 respectively).
Conclusions
Incorporation of plyometric and balance exercises in a multimodal rehabilitation program could be an important consideration for enhancing muscle strength and boosting postural stability in children with SHCP.
This study explores the relationship between self-cognitions and running behavior in a group of female recreational runners. Consistent with theories of self-esteem and exerciser self-schemata, it aims to identify how running can impact on the self, and how self-cognitions can influence motivation and adherence to running. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 women of varying age, ability, and running experience who had entered a major women’s 10K race. Inductive data analysis revealed that there was a bi-directional relationship between running involvement and self-cognitions. Running provided experiences which led to enhanced self-esteem, notably through perceived improvements to the physical self, but also through increases in mastery/achievement and physical competence. These changes contributed to the value of running for the women, strengthened their exercise self-schema, and increased the likelihood of adherence to running. However, family responsibilities constrained the women in their ability to run, impacting on the exercise-self relationship outlined.
This article examines the ways in which high-performance female ultrarunning bodies are created by and understood through the discourses of the normative running body, the ideal female body and pain. Using a Foucauldian framework, this paper shows how the ultrarunning body becomes a desired body beyond the marathon and how these same desires produce multiple and complex subjectivities for female ultrarunners. In-depth interviews were conducted with 8 high performance female ultrarunners. Findings suggest that ultrarunning is a sporting space which gives rise to more diverse subjectivities than previously found in distance running literature. Simultaneously, this discourse produces disciplined bodies through the mode of desire and "unquestioned"social norms, paralleling the constructs of extreme sports and (re)producing middle-classness.
The purpose of this study was to examine the sport-specific cognitions of 112 ultramarathoners competing in a 100-mile trail run. Subjects completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire, the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory, the Commitment to Running Scale, and a questionnaire designed by the investigators to assess goals, cognitive strategies, perceptions of “runner’s high,” and feelings that occur when subjects are unable to run. Ultramarathoners were more confident, more committed to running, slightly higher in competitiveness, lower on win orientation, and higher on goal orientation in comparison to other athletes. Ultramarathoners also rated importance of and commitment to time goals very high; importance of and commitment to place goals were rated low. No significant differences in cognitive orientations were found between finishers and nonfinishers or between males and females. Responses to open-ended questions revealed that most ultramarathoners reported predominately external thoughts during races, had feelings of psychological well-being and strength as a result of ultramarathoning, never or rarely experienced runner’s high, and experienced negative psychological states when unable to run. Overall, these results demonstrate the unique sport-specific cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 9 months of plyometric jump training on bone mineral content (BMC), lower extremity performance, and static balance in adolescent girls (aged 14.6 +/- 0.5 yr; 22.7 +/- 14.0 months past menarche).
Exercisers (N = 25) trained 30-45 min, three times per week, performing various exercises using weighted vests (squats, lunges, calf raises) and plyometrics (hopping, jumping, bounding, and box depth jumps). The program was designed to load the lower extremities. Controls (N = 28), matched to exercisers for age and months past menarche, maintained their usual activities. The following were assessed at baseline and 9 months: BMC, strength by isokinetic dynamometry, power (Wingate), and static balance.
Repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant differences between groups for BMC, nor were the changes in anthropometric or performance variables, analyzed by MANOVA, significant. In follow-up analyses, t-tests for independent samples revealed that both groups experienced a significant (P < 0.01) increase in percent change in bone mass compared to zero, for the whole body (mean: 3.7% exercisers, 3.6% controls), femoral neck (4.5% vs 2.4%), lumbar spine (L2-4) (6.6% vs 5.3%), and femoral shaft (3.4% vs 2.3%), but only the exercisers improved BMC of the greater trochanter (3.1% vs 1.9%). Furthermore, the exercise group significantly improved knee extensor strength (14.7% vs 7.3%) and medial/lateral balance (38.1% vs 9.5%), whereas the control group demonstrated no changes. The variety of lateral movement activities performed by the exercise group may have contributed to the differences observed between groups for greater trochanter bone mineral density (BMD), leg strength, and medial/lateral balance.
The trends observed in bone mass between groups suggest that plyometric jump training continued over a longer period of time during adolescent growth may increase peak bone mass.
This study examined the association between goal orientations and mental toughness and its influence on performance outcomes in competition. Wushu athletes (n = 40) competing in Intervarsity championships in Malaysia completed Task and Ego Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI). Using cluster analysis techniques including hierarchical methods and the non-hierarchical method (k-means cluster) to examine goal profiles, a three cluster solution emerged viz. cluster 1 - high task and moderate ego (HT/ME), cluster 2 - moderate task and low ego (MT/LE) and, cluster 3 - moderate task and moderate ego (MT/ME). Analysis of the fundamental areas of mental toughness based on goal profiles revealed that athletes in cluster 1 scored significantly higher on negative energy control than athletes in cluster 2. Further, athletes in cluster 1 also scored significantly higher on positive energy control than athletes in cluster 3. Chi-square (χ(2)) test revealed no significant differences among athletes with different goal profiles on performance outcomes in the competition. However, significant differences were observed between athletes (medallist and non medallist) in self- confidence (p = 0.001) and negative energy control (p = 0.042). Medallist's scored significantly higher on self-confidence (mean = 21.82 ± 2.72) and negative energy control (mean = 19.59 ± 2.32) than the non-medallists (self confidence-mean = 18.76 ± 2.49; negative energy control mean = 18.14 ± 1.91). Key pointsMental toughness can be influenced by certain goal profile combination.Athletes with successful outcomes in performance (medallist) displayed greater mental toughness.
Leisure activities claiming to promote health and fitness have been an increasing feature of contemporary society. The impact of such activities on social inequality is an important area of study for both theoretical and policy reasons. This paper adopts an embodied approach to explore the development of long‐distance running and the gendered, aged and classed nature of it. It is based upon part of a study which involved analysing a running magazine which was first entitled Jogging Magazine, quickly became Running and is now known as Runner's World, and ten interviews with runners. The paper illustrates connections between the knowledges, practices, organization and values promoted through running (from 1979–1998) and the growing popularity of a particular bodily type and style. The popularity of the slender muscular body has developed with the growth of leisure‐sports like running. It has become the ideal for men and women of all ages, but has been particularly related to the middle‐classes. Participation is thought to bring both health and aesthetic benefits for individuals. From the realist perspective adopted, the necessary mechanisms of running culture and the forms of embodiment promoted can be viewed as important in constituting class, gender and age processes. I suggest that viewing the emergent powers of sports like running utilising embodied approaches is important because they raise issues around the promotion of leisure activities that are viewed as unproblematically ‘healthy’. In the case of running it is found that it promotes an embodiment of middle‐classness that naturalizes gender and age inequalities whilst also individualising responsibility for them.
This investigation compared cluster analysis with the mean-split procedure for examining goal-orientation profiles and examined whether the goal-profile groups revealed differences in athletes' perceptions of their physical abilities. 257 rugby players (14–39 yrs) completed a questionnaire assessing goal orientation, perceived rugby ability and competence, and self-concept of physical ability. Unlike the mean-split procedure, in which scores are forced into high/high, high/low, low/high, or low/low groups, cluster analysis revealed groups that varied in low-, moderate-, and high-task and -ego goals. Moreover, no extreme group profiles (high-ego/high-task or low-ego/low-task) emerged when cluster analysis was used. Multivariate results from the cluster analysis revealed that Cluster 4 (low-ego/moderate-task) reported significantly lower levels of perceived rugby ability/competence than did Cluster 3 (high-ego/moderate-task), indicating that ego might be the determining orientation in adaptive or maladaptive goal profiles. The Cluster 3 goal-profile group (high-ego/moderate-task) scored highest on all 3 dependent measures related to perception of physical abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Objectives. To examine the relationship of the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and dispositional goal orientations of elite female handball players' (a) perceived individual and team improvement in different facets of the game; (b) satisfaction with their own and the team's game; and (c) ratings of the coach. A second aim was to study whether the dependent variables were best predicted by the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and/or the players' dispositional goal orientations.Design. Cross-sectional.Methods: Elite female handball players (n=181) from 14 teams participating in a national handball competition in Spain completed the Spanish measures of goal orientations and climate and items assessing the dependent variables of interest.Results: When a stronger task-involving climate was perceived, players reported greater performance improvement and satisfaction with performance and held more positive views regarding the coach. Task orientation added a significant proportion of the variance for perceptions of one's own performance improvement. Perceptions of an ego-involving climate were negatively related to overall coach ratings but were positively related to satisfaction with the team's competitive results.Conclusions: The findings are consistent with the tenets of achievement goal theory and provide evidence for the adaptive implications of a task-involving climate in high-level sport. The superior predictive ability of climate over individual goals suggests that interventions targeted at the coach should have an important impact on individual and team motivation.
The coach can have a profound impact on athlete satisfaction, regardless of the level of sport involvement. Previous research has identified differences between coaching behavior preferences in team and individual sport athletes. The present study examined the moderating effect that an athlete's sport type (i.e., individual or team) may have on the relationships among seven coaching behaviors (mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, physical training, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport) for predicting coaching satisfaction. Moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that each of the seven coaching behaviors were significant main effect predictors of coaching satisfaction. However, sport type (i.e., team or individual sports) was found to moderate six of the seven relationships: mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport in predicting satisfaction with the coach. These findings indicate that high coaching satisfaction for athletes in team sports is influenced to a greater extent by the demonstration of these behaviors than it is for individual sport athletes.
In soccer, explosive actions such as jumping, sprinting, and changes of direction are essential to optimal performance not only in adults, but also in children's games. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the influence of a short-term plyometric training within regular soccer practice on explosive actions of early pubertal soccer players during the in-season. Fourteen children (13.3 +/- 0.6 years) were selected as the training group (TG) and 11 children (13.1 +/- 0.6 years) were defined as the control group (CG). All children were playing in the same league and trained twice per week for 90 minutes with the same soccer drills. The TG followed an 8-week plyometric program (i.e., jumping, hurdling, bouncing, skipping, and footwork) implemented as a substitute for some soccer drills to obtain the same session duration as CG. At baseline and after training, explosive actions were assessed with the following 6 tests: 10-meter sprint, agility test, 3 vertical jump tests (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], contact test [CT] and multiple 5 bounds test [MB5]). Plyometric training was associated with significant decreases in 10-m sprint time (-2.1%) and agility test time (-9.6%) and significant increases in jump height for the CMJ (+7.9%) and CT (+10.9%). No significant changes in explosive actions after the 8-week period were recorded for the CG. The current study demonstrated that a plyometric program within regular soccer practice improved explosive actions of young players compared to conventional soccer training only. Therefore, the short-term plyometric program had a beneficial impact on explosive actions, such as sprinting, change of direction, and jumping, which are important determinants of match-winning actions in soccer performance.
Physical therapists often treat children with low motor competence. Earlier studies have demonstrated poor physical fitness outcomes and a reduced level of physical activity for these children compared with their peers with normal motor skills.
The aim of this study was to examine how physical fitness developed over time in 2 groups of children: those with a low level of competence in motor skills (low motor competence [LMC]), and those with a high level of competence in motor skills (high motor competence [HMC]).
From an initial sample of 67 children, a group of 18 was identified as having HMC or LMC on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children and was selected for the present study. Eight children (3 girls and 5 boys) comprised the LMC group, and 10 children (4 girls and 6 boys) made up the HMC group. A longitudinal design was implemented, and physical fitness in the 2 groups was evaluated by measuring different fitness components over a period of 32 months.
A mixed-effects analysis of variance revealed significant main effects for group and for time but no group x time interaction effect. The LMC group performed less well on all physical fitness measures than the HMC group, and both groups scored significantly higher on the physical fitness test after a period of 32 months. The lack of a significant interaction effect indicated that the relative differences in physical fitness outcomes between the groups were relatively constant over time.
This study was limited by the small sample size and lack of assessment of anthropometric variables and children's perceived self-efficacy.
Children with LMC are likely to have poor physical fitness compared with children with HMC. The differences in physical fitness outcomes between the groups were relatively constant over time. Given that various physical fitness components are linked to different health outcomes, these consequences are matters of concern for both current health status and later health status in children with LMC.
This study examined the association between goal orientations and mental toughness and its influence on performance outcomes in competition. Wushu athletes (n = 40) competing in Intervarsity championships in Malaysia completed Task and Ego Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI). Using cluster analysis techniques including hierarchical methods and the non-hierarchical method (k-means cluster) to examine goal profiles, a three cluster solution emerged viz. cluster 1 - high task and moderate ego (HT/ME), cluster 2 - moderate task and low ego (MT/LE) and, cluster 3 - moderate task and moderate ego (MT/ME). Analysis of the fundamental areas of mental toughness based on goal profiles revealed that athletes in cluster 1 scored significantly higher on negative energy control than athletes in cluster 2. Further, athletes in cluster 1 also scored significantly higher on positive energy control than athletes in cluster 3. Chi-square (χ2) test revealed no significant differences among athletes with different goal profiles on performance outcomes in the competition. However, significant differences were observed between athletes (medallist and non medallist) in self- confidence (p = 0.001) and negative energy control (p = 0.042). Medallist's scored significantly higher on self-confidence (mean = 21.82 ± 2.72) and negative energy control (mean = 19.59 ± 2.32) than the non-medallists (self confidence-mean = 18.76 ± 2.49; negative energy control mean = 18.14 ± 1.91).
This study reports the development of an instrument to assess the motives of marathon runners. The Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) contains 56 items distributed across nine scales. Content areas covered included health orientation, weight concern, self-esteem, life meaning, psychological coping, affiliation, recognition, competition, and personal goal achievement. Adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha range .80 to .93), retest reliability (intraclass Rs range .71 to .90), and factorial validity of the scales were demonstrated. Assessment of the relationship between individual MOMS scales and other variables of conceptual relevance documents early evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of the instrument. Future uses of the MOMS are discussed in light of theoretical, empirical, and practical considerations.
In this study, we examined the relationships between self-efficacy, pre-competition imagery use and performance. A modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire was used to assess both the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery used by 51 varsity golfers during the hour before a Provincial University Golf Championship. In line with Martin and co-workers' model of imagery use in sport, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would be positively related to motivational general-mastery imagery use and motivational general-mastery imagery use would be predictive of golf performance. Also, consistent with theorizing by Bandura, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would predict golf performance, but that the relationship between self-efficacy and performance would be mediated by imagery use. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that pre-competition motivational general-mastery imagery accounted for significant variance in both self-efficacy (adjusted R2 = 0.26, P < 0.01) and performance (adjusted R2 = 0.31, P < 0.01). The results also indicated that self-efficacy was predictive of golf performance and that motivational general-mastery imagery use mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. The results are discussed in relation to athletes' pre-competition preparation and intervention.
Adolescence, defined as the period between puberty and maturity, provides a 'window of opportunity' for positive skeletal adaptations to mechanical loading unlike any other period in life. Age-related bone loss highlights the importance of accumulating sufficient bone mass during formative years. Adolescents who regularly engage in weight-bearing mechanical loading appear advantaged in site-specific markers of bone mass. The positive influence of physical activity on bone mineral accrual during growth has been extensively studied; however, few studies have examined skeletal responses to mechanical loading during adolescence. Weight-bearing physical activity, particularly high-impact sports such as gymnastics, is recognised as being more osteogenic than weight-supported activities. Unilateral loading activities such as tennis or squash provide a direct comparison of skeletal response without sampling bias or genetic confounding. Intervention and longitudinal studies show evidence of positive skeletal adaptations; however, sustainability of skeletal advantages remains unclear. Limitations inherent with single-plane dual x-ray absorptiometry technology are well recognised. The integration of densitometric data with structural responses to mechanical loading using 3-dimensional imaging technologies such as peripheral quantitative computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging appears vital to enhancing our understanding of adolescent musculoskeletal health.
Youth with better motor abilities may find it easier to be physically active and may be more likely to engage in physical activity compared with peers with poorer motor competence. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity in 8- to 10-year-old children. Self-efficacy toward physical activity was also assessed.
Sixty-five children (34 girls and 31 boys) were studied. Children's physical activity was assessed by the Manufacturing Technologies Incorporated/Computer Science and Applications Incorporated model 7164 accelerometer, and their motor proficiency was determined by the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. The Children's Self-Perceptions of Adequacy in and Predilection for Physical Activity scale measured children's self-perceptions of adequacy in performing and desire to participate in physical activities.
Children's motor proficiency was positively associated with activity counts and percentage of time in moderate and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity and inversely related to percentage of time in sedentary activity. Children in the greatest quartile of motor proficiency were the most physically active compared with children with lower levels of motor proficiency who had similar levels of physical activity. Children with greater standardized BMI were less physically active, more sedentary, and had poorer motor proficiency compared with children with a lower standardized BMI. Children's Self-Perceptions of Adequacy in and Predilection for Physical Activity scores were positively associated with Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency standard score for boys. Children's motor proficiency explained an additional 8.7% of the variance in physical activity in multiple linear regression after controlling for factors that may influence physical activity.
Motor proficiency is positively associated with physical activity and inversely associated with sedentary activity in children, but there may be a threshold of motor proficiency above which children may be the most physically active. Children's motor proficiency may be an appropriate target for increasing physical activity in youth.
Grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and the self-concordance model (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), this study examined the motivational processes underlying goal striving in sport as well as the role of perceived coach autonomy support in the goal process. Structural equation modeling with a sample of 210 British athletes showed that autonomous goal motives positively predicted effort, which, in turn, predicted goal attainment. Goal attainment was positively linked to need satisfaction, which, in turn, predicted psychological well-being. Effort and need satisfaction were found to mediate the associations between autonomous motives and goal attainment and between attainment and well-being, respectively. Controlled motives negatively predicted well-being, and coach autonomy support positively predicted both autonomous motives and need satisfaction. Associations of autonomous motives with effort were not reducible to goal difficulty, goal specificity, or goal efficacy. These findings support the self-concordance model as a framework for further research on goal setting in sport.
Using a qualitative design, the purpose of this study was to investigate the personal meaning of competition to the female mountain bike racer. Interviews were conducted with nine female mountain bike racers of varying levels of experience, and were designed to elicit information relevant to the athlete’s understanding of her experience of competition, as well as, the personal meaning she attached to that experience. The codification of participant responses resulted in the identification of eight main themes including self-fulfillment, perceived competence, social support and camaraderie, health and fitness, joy of the experience, focus and self-control, external benefits derived from racing, and goal-direction. The findings of the study were, in general, supportive of the components of meaning posited by Personal Investment Theory (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986). Practical implications from this study include developing strategies for increasing the meaningfulness of the competitive experience for females in o...
This article examines the importance of "identity work" for the maintenance of athletic identity in the face of prolonged injury, and the part that type of work played in successful athletic rehabilitation. It is based on collaborative autoethnographic research undertaken by two middle/long distance runners during a 2-year period of injury and rehabilitation. The narrative delineates the various kinds of identity work that were crucial to the process of rehabilitation, focusing in turn on routines and settings, appearance and embodiment, identity talk, and differential association. The article concludes by conceptualizing identity work as a strategy that can play a vital part in the recovery process of injured athletes.
Objectives: To examine the relationship between task and ego orientations and the use of stress-coping strategies among athletes participating in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. We expected that athletes who were high on task and low on ego orientation would employ more problem-solving strategies than athletes with other ego and task profiles. We also expected that athletes high in ego and low in task orientation would employ more emotion-focused strategies than other athletes with other ego and task profiles. Gender differences were also investigated.Design: Cross-sectional, retrospective. Data were collected immediately after the closing of the Olympic Games.Methods: Norwegian athletes (N=69, 50 males and 20 females, mean age=25.2 years) participated in the study. Goal orientations and coping strategies were assessed using questionnaires.Results: After a median split on the task and the ego orientation scales to determine the athletes who were high/low, high/high, low/high or low/low in task and ego orientation respectively, 54 athletes remained in the final analysis. Several separate univariate 2×2 analyses of variance were conducted. High task/low ego orientation was related to the use of active coping and social emotional support, while low task/high ego orientation was related to the use of positive redefinition and growth strategies. High ego orientation was associated with less use of active coping and planning strategies among female athletes, but not among male athletes. Furthermore, high ego orientation in female athletes was related to the use of denial as a coping strategy.Conclusions: The relative strength of high and/or low task and ego orientation has an impact on elite athletes' use of coping strategies in competition. Being high in ego orientation seems to be more influential among female than male elite athletes in their use of coping strategies.
ObjectiveThis study examined the collective relationships amongst achievement goals, social goals and motivational correlates in Masters sport.MethodThe participants were 373 (184 females; 189 males) Masters athletes from six sports. Ages ranged from 29 years to 77 years (mean=48 years). Cluster analysis was employed to identify ‘goal profiles’ of two achievement goals (task and ego) and three social goals (affiliation, recognition, status). MANOVA was employed to examine the goal profiles for differences on self-perceptions, affect, and motivation.ResultsFive goal profiles were identified and labeled as follows: Cluster 1 (Lo-Aff) low affiliation, moderate task, ego, status, and recognition; Cluster 2 (Lo-Val) low ego, status, and recognition, moderate task and affiliation; Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) high affiliation and status, moderate recognition and task, and low ego; Cluster 4 (Lo-Ach) low task and ego, moderate affiliation, status, and recognition; and Cluster 5 (Hi-Ach) high task, ego, and recognition, moderate affiliation and status. MANOVA revealed that Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) was highest on enjoyment and perceived belonging, while Clusters 3 and 5 (Hi-Ach) were highest on intrinsic motivation, commitment, and perceived ability. Clusters 1 (Lo-Aff) and 4 (Lo-Ach) had lower levels of enjoyment and commitment.ConclusionIn general, these Masters athletes enjoyed their participation, they were committed, they had high perceptions of ability and belonging, and they were predominantly intrinsically motivated. The implications of these motivational profiles for Masters athletes are discussed from both theoretical and applied perspectives.
Objectives: To examine the influence of (a) proposed sources of efficacy information on dimensions of coaching efficacy and (b) coaching efficacy on coaching behavior and team variables.Design: A field correlational design tested relationships at two time points: near the beginning and at three-fourths of the way through a season of competition.Method: At Time 1, head coaches (n=135) completed a questionnaire containing the Coaching Efficacy Scale, measures of sources, and demographic items. At Time 2, participants were a subset of coaches from Time 1 (n=101) and 1618 athletes. Coaches completed questionnaires on their perceived frequency of their efficacy-enhancing behaviors with their athletes. Athletes provided information on their satisfaction with their head coach.Results: For female coaches, social support was a stronger source of efficacy information compared to male coaches. Total coaching efficacy predicted coaching behavior, team satisfaction, and winning percentage for men’s teams. Total coaching efficacy predicted only coaching behavior across women’s teams. Within women’s teams, gender of the coach moderated the relationship between character building efficacy and team satisfaction. Character building efficacy was negatively related to team satisfaction in women’s teams with male coaches. Motivation efficacy was positively related to team satisfaction in women’s teams with female coaches.Conclusion: Findings provide novel corroborations to the coaching efficacy model proposed by Feltz, Chase, Moritz and Sullivan (1999: Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 765–776) and offer some support to broader models of coaching effectiveness.
Plyometric exercises are frequently used in strength and conditioning and rehabilitation programs because the landing phase of these exercises requires dynamic stabilization. This study examined the differences in landing stability of a variety of plyometric exercises by assessing time to stabilization (TTS), its reliability, and sex differences therein. Forty-nine men and women performed a variety of plyometric exercises thought to represent a continuum of difficulty of dynamic stabilization during landing. Plyometric exercises included line hops, cone hops, squat jumps, tuck jumps, countermovement jumps, dumbbell countermovement jumps, and single leg countermovement jumps, each performed for 3 repetitions on a force platform. A 2-way mixed analysis of covariance with repeated measures for plyometric exercise type was used to evaluate the main effects for plyometric exercise type and the interaction between plyometric exercise type and sex for TTS. Subject jumping ability was evaluated as a covariate. Results revealed significant main effects for plyometric exercise type (p < or = 0.001) and for the interaction between plyometric exercise type and sex (p = 0.002). Bonferroni adjusted post hoc analysis demonstrated differences in TTS between a number of plyometric exercises for men and women. Reliability analysis revealed intraclass correlation coefficients ranging from 0.51 to 0.86 with no significant difference between trials (p > 0.05). Practitioners who use plyometrics to train dynamic stability should create programs that progress the intensity of the exercises based on the results of this study. This study also demonstrated that TTS is moderately to highly reliable for a variety of jumping conditions for both men and women.
Implementing an injury prevention program to athletes under age 12 years may reduce injury rates. There is limited knowledge regarding whether these young athletes will be able to modify balance and performance measures after completing a traditional program that has been effective with older athletes or whether they require a specialized program for their age. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a pediatric program, which was designed specifically for young athletes, and a traditional program with no program in the ability to change balance and performance measures in youth athletes. We used a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of the programs before and after a 9-week intervention period. Sixty-five youth soccer athletes (males: n = 37 mass = 34.16 +/- 5.36 kg, height = 143.07 +/- 6.27 cm, age = 10 +/- 1 yr; females: n = 28 mass = 33.82 +/- 5.37 kg, height = 141.02 +/- 6.59 cm) volunteered to participate and attended 2 testing sessions in a research laboratory. Teams were cluster-randomized to either a pediatric or traditional injury prevention program or a control group. Change scores for anterior-posterior and medial-lateral time-to-stabilization measures and maximum vertical jump height and power were calculated from pretest and post-test sessions. Contrary with our original hypotheses, the traditional program resulted in positive changes, whereas the pediatric program did not result in any improvements. Anterior-posterior time-to-stabilization decreased after the traditional program (mean change +/- SD = -0.92 +/- 0.49 s) compared with the control group (-0.49 +/- 0.59 s) (p = 0.003). The traditional program also increased vertical jump height (1.70 +/- 2.80 cm) compared with the control group (0.20 +/- 0.20 cm) (p = 0.04). There were no significant differences between control and pediatric programs. Youth athletes can improve balance ability and vertical jump height after completing an injury prevention program. Training specificity appears to affect improvements and should be considered with future program design.
To identify and describe the application of 3 motor learning strategies (verbal instructions, practice, and verbal feedback) within 4 intervention approaches (cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance, neuromotor task training, family-centered functional therapy, and activity-focused motor interventions).
A scoping review of the literature was conducted. Two themes characterizing the application of motor learning strategies within the approaches are identified and described.
Application of a motor learning strategy can be a defining component of the intervention or a means of enhancing generalization and transfer of learning beyond the intervention. Often, insufficient information limits full understanding of strategy application within the approach.
A greater understanding of the application, and perceived nonapplication, of motor learning strategies within intervention approaches has important clinical and research implications.
The Runner Motivation Test, a paired comparison instrument which assessed the relative strength of ten motives shown to be important for running, was administered to 723 experienced American long distance runners. Significant differences in motive strengths were found for both men and women. Significant differences in the strengths of particular motives were also discovered between sexes. Most important was the discovery of a common core of important running motives shared by both sexes. These dedicated men and women who had incorporated regular endurance training into their lifestyles ran primarily for physical fitness (cardiovascular conditioning and weight control), psychological mood control both during and between runs (anxiety reduction and mood elevation), and to enhance self-concept. They ran for health, to feel good, and to feel good about themselves.
Recent research into motivation and achievement behaviour in sport has focused on achievement goal theory. This theory states that two goal orientations manifest themselves in achievement contexts and impact on the motivation process. These two goals have been defined as 'task' and 'ego' goal orientations. This paper traces the development of the Perception of Success Questionnaire as a measure of achievement goals developed specifically for the sport context. The early development of the questionnaire is documented, in which the scale was shortened from the initial 29 to the current 12 question format. We demonstrate that task and ego goals are orthogonal, internal reliabilities for the orientations are high, with strong construct and concurrent validity. We conclude by reporting results from two recent confirmatory factor analyses that were conducted on the Children's and Adult versions of the questionnaire; these results show the Perception of Success Questionnaire to be a reliable and valid instrument to measure achievement goal orientations in sport.
Demographic and psychosocial correlates of activity in domains other than recreational activity have not been well characterized and may be particularly relevant for health promotion efforts aimed at women.
Cross-sectional relationships between recreational, occupational, and household/caregiving physical activity and demographic and psychosocial factors were assessed with a mail survey in a random sample of 2,636 ethnically diverse women members of a large health maintenance organization, ages 20-65. Activity was assessed with a modified Baecke questionnaire that uses categorical responses regarding frequency of domain-specific activities to create four semicontinuous activity indices (sports/exercise, active living, occupational, household/caregiving).
Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the likelihood of being in the highest quartile of the sports/exercise and active-living indices, compared with the other three quartiles, was decreased among older, nonwhite, less well educated, heavier women who had young children at home, lacked motivation to exercise, and perceived external obstacles to exercise behavior. The odds ratios (ORs) ranged from 0.38, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.33-0.45, associated with low motivation, to 0.95, 95% CI 0.93-0.98, associated with increasing body mass index. Social support and confidence in one's ability to continue to exercise, even when faced with other pressures and demands (termed self-efficacy), were associated with increased likelihood of high levels of sports/exercise and active living (OR = 2.34, 95% CI 1. 83-2.98 and OR = 3.96, 95% CI 2.92-5.38, respectively). In contrast, the highest quartile of household/caregiving activity was positively associated with increasing age (OR = 1.28, 95% CI 1.16-1.42), Hispanic ethnicity (OR = 1.58, 95% CI 0.55-1.01), being married (OR = 1.70, 95% CI 1.33-2.18), having young children at home (OR = 6.99, 95% CI 4.33-11), and greater time constraints as a barrier to exercise (OR = 1.55, 95% CI 1.38-1.74) and was negatively associated with employment (OR = 0.38, 95% CI 0.30-0.47). Increased likelihood of the highest quartile of occupational activity was associated with high school education or less (OR = 2.26, 95% CI 1.74-2.94) and current smoking (OR = 1.66, 95% CI 1.23-2.23), while self-efficacy regarding exercise was associated with decreased likelihood (OR = 0. 77, 95% CI 0.61-0.96).
These findings suggest that demographic and psychosocial correlates of physical activity vary by domain and that initiatives to promote physical activity in the population need to take these differences into account.
To test a theoretical model linking developmental coordination disorder (DCD) to reduced physical activity (PA) through the mediating influence of generalized self-efficacy regarding PA.
This was a cross-sectional investigation of students in grades 4 through 8 from 5 elementary schools in the Niagara region of Ontario, Canada (n=590). Motor proficiency was evaluated using the short-form Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. Generalized self-efficacy was assessed using the Children's Self-Perceptions of Adequacy in and Predilection for Physical Activity scale, and PA levels were evaluated using a 61-item Participation Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was used to test the influence of generalized self-efficacy on the relationship between DCD and PA.
In this sample, 7.5% (n=44) of the children met the requirements for probable DCD. The effect of DCD on PA was mediated by generalized self-efficacy. In this model, 28% of the variance in children's PA was predicted by generalized self-efficacy and DCD.
Our results suggest that children with DCD are less likely to be physically active and that generalized self-efficacy can account for a considerable proportion of this relationship. The implications for appropriate interventions to increase PA among children with DCD are discussed.
Complex training, a combination of resistance training and plyometrics is growing in popularity, despite limited support for its efficacy. In pre- and early pubertal children, the study of complex training has been limited, and to our knowledge an examination of its effect on anaerobic performance characteristics of the upper and lower body has not been undertaken. Furthermore, the effect of detraining after complex training requires clarification. The physical characteristics (mean+/-s) of the 54 male participants in the present study were as follows: age 12.3 +/- 0.3 years, height 1.57 +/- 0.07 m, body mass 50.3 +/- 11.0 kg. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 33) or control group (n = 21). The training, which was performed three times a week for 12 weeks, included a combination of dynamic constant external resistance and plyometrics. After training, participants completed 12 weeks of detraining. At baseline, after training and after detraining, peak and mean anaerobic power, dynamic strength and athletic performance were assessed. Twenty-six participants completed the training and none reported any training-related injury. Complex training was associated with small increases (< or =5.5%) in peak and mean power during training, followed by decreases of a similar magnitude (< or = -5.9%) during detraining (P < 0.05). No changes or minor, progressive increases (< or =1.5%) were evident in the control group (P > 0.05). In the experimental group, dynamic strength was increased by 24.3 - 71.4% (dependent on muscle group; P < 0.01), whereas growth-related changes in the control group varied from 0 to 4.4% (P > 0.05). For 40-m sprint running, basketball chest pass and vertical jump test performance, the experimental group saw a small improvement (< or =4.0%) after training followed by a decline (< or = -4.4%) towards baseline during detraining (P < 0.05), whereas the control group experienced no change (P > 0.05). In conclusion, in pre- and early pubertal boys, upper and lower body complex training is a time-effective and safe training modality that confers small improvements in anaerobic power and jumping, throwing and sprinting performance, and marked improvements in dynamic strength. However, after detraining, the benefits of complex training are lost at similar rates to other training modalities.
The aim of this study was to determine the precise effect of plyometric training (PT) on vertical jump height in healthy individuals. Meta-analyses of randomised and non-randomised controlled trials that evaluated the effect of PT on four typical vertical jump height tests were carried out: squat jump (SJ); countermovement jump (CMJ); countermovement jump with the arm swing (CMJA); and drop jump (DJ). Studies were identified by computerised and manual searches of the literature. Data on changes in jump height for the plyometric and control groups were extracted and statistically pooled in a meta-analysis, separately for each type of jump. A total of 26 studies yielding 13 data points for SJ, 19 data points for CMJ, 14 data points for CMJA and 7 data points for DJ met the initial inclusion criteria. The pooled estimate of the effect of PT on vertical jump height was 4.7% (95% CI 1.8 to 7.6%), 8.7% (95% CI 7.0 to 10.4%), 7.5% (95% CI 4.2 to 10.8%) and 4.7% (95% CI 0.8 to 8.6%) for the SJ, CMJ, CMJA and DJ, respectively. When expressed in standardised units (ie, effect sizes), the effect of PT on vertical jump height was 0.44 (95% CI 0.15 to 0.72), 0.88 (95% CI 0.64 to 1.11), 0.74 (95% CI 0.47 to 1.02) and 0.62 (95% CI 0.18 to 1.05) for the SJ, CMJ, CMJA and DJ, respectively. PT provides a statistically significant and practically relevant improvement in vertical jump height with the mean effect ranging from 4.7% (SJ and DJ), over 7.5% (CMJA) to 8.7% (CMJ). These results justify the application of PT for the purpose of development of vertical jump performance in healthy individuals.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the motor unit activation of the quadriceps (Q), hamstring (H), and gastrocnemius (G) muscle groups during a variety of plyometric exercises to further understand the nature of these exercises. Twenty-three athletes volunteered to perform randomly ordered plyometric exercises, thought to cover a continuum of intensity levels, including two-foot ankle hops; 15-cm cone hops; tuck, pike, and box jumps; one- and two-leg vertical jump and reach; squat jumps with approximately 30% of their 1RM squat load; and 30- and 61-cm depth jumps. Integrated electromyographic data were analyzed for each exercise using a one-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Results revealed significant main effects for the Q when all subjects are analyzed, as well as for separate analysis of men, women, subjects with vertical jumps greater than 50 cm, and those with vertical jumps less than or equal to 50 cm (p < or = 0.05). Significant main effects were also found for the G muscle group in the analysis of all subjects, as well as for men and subjects with vertical jumps greater than 50 cm (p < or = 0.05). No significant main effects were found for the H muscle group. Pairwise comparisons revealed a variety of differences among plyometric exercises. In some cases, plyometrics previously reported to be of high intensity, such as the depth jump, yielded relatively little motor unit recruitment compared with exercises typically thought to be of low intensity. Results can assist the practitioner in creating plyometric programs based on the nature of the motor unit recruitment.
Trail running going green.
- Berge
Berge, M. Trail running going green. Trailrunner 55: 43–44, 2008
Zur Teilnahmemotivation von Marathon-und Ultramarathonlufern. [Participation motives of marathon-and ultra-marathon runners
- O Stoll
- S Wuerth
- B Ogles
Stoll, O, Wuerth, S, and Ogles, B. Zur Teilnahmemotivation von
Marathon-und Ultramarathonlufern. [Participation motives of
marathon-and ultra-marathon runners] Sportwissenschaft 30:
54–67, 2000.