Article

Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures

Authors:
  • Raigmore Hospital, Inverness, UK
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION: The American continent is very rich in psychoactive plants and fungi, and many pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures used them for magical, therapeutic and religious purposes. OBJECTIVES: The archaeological, ethno-historical and ethnographic evidence of the use of hallucinogenic substances in Mesoamerica is reviewed. RESULTS: Hallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms were used to induce altered states of consciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank Balché (a mixture of honey and extracts of Lonchocarpus) in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemas and other psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of trance. Olmec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: Psilocybe sp.) and the seeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa), that contain mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acid amide, respectively. The skin of the toad Bufo sp. contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic properties, and was used since the Olmec period. The jimson weed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), water lily (Nymphaea ampla) and Salvia divinorum were used for their psychoactive effects. Fungal stones dating from 3000 BC have been found in ritual contexts in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years. Several chroniclers, mainly Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenth century. CONCLUSIONS: The use of psychoactive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies. Today, local shamans and healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.

... Natural sources of psychedelic indolethylamines, such as psilocybin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-methoxy-DMT), have long been used for ceremonial and medicinal purposes. Traditional preparations from plants (ayahuasca), fungi ('magic mushrooms'; Psilocybe spp.), and animals including certain toads are known to induce trance-like states important in the cultural practices of various peoples, especially those in Mesoamerica (1). Toad skin and parotid gland tissues accumulate a variety of specialized metabolites including toxic guanidine alkaloids, lipophilic alkaloids, poisonous steroids, and hallucinogenic indolethylamines such as DMT, 5-methoxy-DMT, and bufotenin in varying quantities depending on the species (Figs. 1 and S1) (2). ...
... This was followed by extraction with dichloromethane to yield the pure compound (22 mg) after evaporation. Structural assignments: 1 For isolation of 6-fluoro-DMT, the culture medium was thawed, and 10 M sodium hydroxide was added to pH 12. The culture was extracted with ethyl acetate (3 × 300 ml). ...
... The compound was further purified by dissolving in 0.1 M HCl and extracted with dichloromethane, and the aqueous solution was basified to pH 12 with 10 M sodium hydroxide, followed by extraction with dichloromethane to yield the pure compound (34 mg) after evaporation. Structural assignments: 1 For isolation of 2-methyl-DMT, the culture medium was thawed, and 10 M sodium hydroxide was added to pH 12. ...
Article
Full-text available
Psychedelic indolethylamines have emerged as potential medicines to treat several psychiatric pathologies. Natural sources of these compounds include 'magic mushrooms' (Psilocybe spp.), plants used to prepare ahayuasca, and toads. The skin and parotid glands of certain toads accumulate a variety of specialized metabolites including toxic guanidine alkaloids, lipophilic alkaloids, poisonous steroids, and hallucinogenic indolethylamines such as DMT, 5-methoxy-DMT, and bufotenin. The occurrence of psychedelics has contributed to the ceremonial use of toads, particularly among Mesoamerican peoples. Yet, the biosynthesis of psychedelic alkaloids has not been elucidated. Herein we report a novel indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (RmNMT) from cane toad (Rhinella marina). The RmNMT sequence was used to identify a related NMT from the common toad, Bufo bufo. Close homologues from various frog species were inactive, suggesting a role for psychedelic indolethylamine biosynthesis in toads. Enzyme kinetic analyses and comparison with functionally similar enzymes showed that recombinant RmNMT was an effective catalyst and not product inhibited. The substrate promiscuity of RmNMT enabled the bioproduction of a variety of substituted indolethylamines at levels sufficient for purification, pharmacological screening, and metabolic stability assays. Since the therapeutic potential of psychedelics has been linked to activity at serotonergic receptors, we evaluated binding of derivatives at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Primary amines exhibited enhanced affinity at the 5-HT1A receptor compared with tertiary amines. With the exception of 6-substituted derivatives, N,N-dimethylation also protected against catabolism by liver microsomes.
... Relatively more recent use is implied by the discovery of prehistoric 6000 to 8000 year old rock drawings, respectively found in Spain and the Saharan mountains, that depict that ancient peoples had knowledge of the psychoactive effects of psychedelic mushrooms (Samorini, 2019). Moreover, psychoactive mushrooms were used in spiritual rituals by numerous ancient civilizations as far back as 1500 BCE (Carod-Artal, 2015). There exists evidence supporting the regular use, collection, and/ or cultivation of psychedelic mushrooms by different Indigenous civilizations across the globe throughout ancient history. ...
... Those few who eat them in excess are driven to lust. Silly and naughty boys are told that they have eaten 'Teonanácatl'" (Carod-Artal, 2015). These accounts represent early works attempting to attribute traditional knowledge to modern taxonomy. ...
... Several genera of psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin have been documented and include Psilocybe, Panaeolus/Copelandia (Carod-Artal, 2015;Gotvaldová et al., 2022), Inocybe (Gotvaldová et al., 2022;Wieczorek et al., 2015), Pholiotina, Pluteus, Galerina, and Gymnopilus (Gotvaldová et al., 2022) which are largely polyphyletic. Modern attention is largely focused on the genus Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm., which is globally distributed (Carod-Artal, 2015;Guzmán, 2005). ...
Article
Psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin and related tryptamines have long been used for ethnomycological purposes, but emerging evidence points to the potential therapeutic value of these mushrooms to address modern neurological, psychiatric health, and related disorders. As a result, psilocybin containing mushrooms represent a re-emerging frontier for mycological, biochemical, neuroscience, and pharmacology research. This work presents crucial information related to traditional use of psychedelic mushrooms, as well as research trends and knowledge gaps related to their diversity and distribution, technologies for quantification of tryptamines and other tryptophan-derived metabolites, as well as biosynthetic mechanisms for their production within mushrooms. In addition, we explore the current state of knowledge for how psilocybin and related tryptamines are metabolized in humans and their pharmacological effects, including beneficial and hazardous human health implications. Finally, we describe opportunities and challenges for investigating the cultural production of psychedelic mushrooms and metabolic engineering approaches to alter secondary metabolite production through biotechnology approaches integrated with machine learning. Ultimately, this critical review of all aspects related to psychedelic mushrooms represents a roadmap for future research efforts that will pave the way to new applications and refined protocols.
... mushrooms consumption have been known for thousands of years by many pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, and they were used to induce altered states of consciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. 25,26 The L-tryptophan synthesized by TrpB (EC PsiM at the same amine, consuming another molecule of SAM and generating psilocybin. It is important to highlight that the PsiH enzyme is in the oxidized state after the reaction, requiring the action of a specific cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), which uses NADPH to reduce PsiH and regenerate the enzyme for a new catalytic cycle. ...
... 35 PsiK has been expressed in S. cerevisiae and A. nidulans for the synthesis of psilocybin 28,48 and in E. coli for the synthesis of norbaeocystin, psilocybin and 13 other modified 4-OH-tryptamines. 25,37,48,55,56 Phosphorylation reactions are problematic steps for chemical synthesis strategies for many molecules. For the synthesis of psilocybin, PsiK has already been employed in a hybrid synthetic/biocatalytic route where the purified enzyme catalyzed the phosphorylation step of chemically synthesized 4-OH-tryptamine. ...
Article
Full-text available
Tryptamines play diverse roles as neurotransmitters and psychoactive compounds found in various organisms. Psilocybin, a notable tryptamine, has garnered attention for its therapeutic potential in treating mental health disorders like depression and anxiety. Despite its promising applications, current extraction methods for psilocybin are labor‐intensive and economically limiting. We suggest biocatalysis as a sustainable alternative, leveraging enzymes to synthesize psilocybin and other tryptamines efficiently. By elucidating psilocybin biosynthesis pathways, researchers aim to advance synthetic methodologies and industrial applications. This review underscores the transformative potential of biocatalysis in enhancing our understanding of tryptamine biosynthesis and facilitating the production of high‐purity psilocybin and other tryptamines for therapeutic and research use.
... Leary proposed that different levels of consciousness correspond to varying degrees of subjective intensity, with each drug activating a specific level (Leary, 1964). This idea could be said to be, in part, inspired by anthropology and theology work that observed such ideas in ancient religions and cultures (Carod-Artal, 2015;Emboden, 1989;Leary, 1970;Nyberg, 1992;Weil, 1972Weil, /2004. According to Leary, however, it was primarily inspired by his personal use of drugs and observations of others on drugs. ...
... Method-based classification schemes categorize ASC according to their means of induction. Throughout history, human curiosity has given rise to a plethora of reports on how ASCs can be induced (Carod-Artal, 2015;Emboden, 1989;Leary, 1970;Nyberg, 1992;Ruck, 2006;Wasson et al., 1998). In one abstract formulation such methods have been termed consciousness-modifying techniques, with the basic distinction between pharmacological and nonpharmacological inductions. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the conceptual and empirical study of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) induced pharmacologically or otherwise, driven by their potential clinical applications. To draw attention to the rich history of research in this domain, we review prominent classification schemes that have been proposed to introduce systematicity in the scientific study of ASCs. The reviewed ASC classification schemes fall into three groups according to the criteria they use for categorization: (1) based on the nature, variety, and intensity of subjective experiences (state-based), including conceptual descriptions and psychometric assessments, (2) based on the technique of induction (method-based), and (3) descriptions of neurophysiological mechanisms of ASCs (neuro/physio-based). By comparing and extending existing classification schemes, we can enhance efforts to identify neural correlates of consciousness, particularly when examining mechanisms of ASC induction and the resulting subjective experience. Furthermore, an overview of what defining ASC characteristics different authors have proposed can inform future research in the conceptualization and quantification of ASC subjective effects, including the identification of those that might be relevant in clinical research. This review concludes by clustering the concepts from the state-based schemes, which are suggested for classifying ASC experiences. The resulting clusters can inspire future approaches to formulate and quantify the core phenomenology of ASC experiences to assist in basic and clinical research.
... Outside the formal clinical use of psychedelics, facilitated group ceremonies are unique naturalistic settings of psychedelic use with a long history that predates Western use of psychedelics [22,[100][101][102][103]. Psilocybin mushroom and ayahuasca ceremonies, which originate among indigenous and mestizo peoples in Central and South America, both typically involve various elements of ritual such as rhythmic music (potentially including drums, rattles, singing, or chanting), a group format, and a leader of the ceremony (the shaman, guide, or facilitator) [22,[100][101][102][103][104][105]. ...
... Outside the formal clinical use of psychedelics, facilitated group ceremonies are unique naturalistic settings of psychedelic use with a long history that predates Western use of psychedelics [22,[100][101][102][103]. Psilocybin mushroom and ayahuasca ceremonies, which originate among indigenous and mestizo peoples in Central and South America, both typically involve various elements of ritual such as rhythmic music (potentially including drums, rattles, singing, or chanting), a group format, and a leader of the ceremony (the shaman, guide, or facilitator) [22,[100][101][102][103][104][105]. Prospective and cross-sectional observational and survey-based studies from across the world have found a wide variety of immediate and long-term mental health and other psychosocial benefits associated with the ceremonial use of psychedelics, including decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety; decreased negative mood and increased positive mood; decreased posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms; changes in personality such as decreased neuroticism and increased extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; increased social connectedness; and increased quality of life, satisfaction with life, and psychological well-being [19,22,103,[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Studies of psychedelic use in naturalistic and clinical settings have suggested safety and mental health benefits for adults with histories of childhood maltreatment. Acute psychological mechanisms that predict therapeutic benefits in this population, however, have yet to be determined. Two common group settings of naturalistic psychedelic use – organized ceremonies and raves or other electronic dance music events – might facilitate therapeutic psychedelic effects because of the unique psychosocial environments they comprise. This prospective, longitudinal study sought to investigate 2 primary questions: first, whether adults with maltreatment histories planning to use psychedelic drugs with therapeutic intent at ceremonies or raves would see enduring psychological benefits after their experiences; and second, whether subjective dimensions of the acute psychedelic experience would be associated with post-acute psychological benefits. Eighty-five participants completed self-report measures in the month before, within 2 days after, and approximately 2 months after a planned psychedelic experience with therapeutic intent at a ceremony or rave assessing childhood maltreatment history; trauma symptoms, internalized (trait) shame, and connectedness at baseline and follow-up; and various dimensions of the acute subjective psychedelic experience. Mean scores in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, complex PTSD symptoms, trait shame, social connectedness, and general connectedness significantly improved from baseline to 2-month follow-up (d = 0.73-1.12). Longitudinal changes in outcomes significantly correlated with acute subjective effects of the psychedelic experience. These findings have implications regarding both the potential clinical benefit of psychedelic use among adults with childhood maltreatment histories as well as the psychological mechanisms of therapeutic action of psychedelics.
... These amphibians are predominantly found 1 Council for Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, Mo i Rana, Norway 2 Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics Department, Odesa National Medical University, Odesa, Ukraine in subtropical and tropical regions. Depictions of Bufo species can be traced back to ancient civilizations, such as the Mayans and Aztecs, who incorporated them into their artwork (2). ...
... Bufo toads in their parotid glands produce catechol amines (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine), serotonin, bufotenine, bufagenins, bufotoxins, and indolealkylamines (4). So, Bufo species secrets contain several active toxins, including bufotenine (5-OH-DMT) and tryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), which possess hallucinogenic properties (2,9). These compounds contribute to the psychotropic effects associated with the ingestion or exposure to Bufo species (9)(10)(11). ...
Article
Full-text available
Homeopathy, an alternative treatment method based on the principle of “like cures like,” has gained attention in recent years. This paper focuses on Bufo Rana, a homeopathic remedy prepared from the poison of the Bufo toad. We explore the process of potentization and dosage in homeopathy, discussing the various potencies and the influence of Avogadro’s number. Furthermore, we provide an overview of Bufo species, their historical depictions in art, and the toxicological properties of bufotenine, tryptamine, and bufotoxin found in Bufo toads. The clinical consequences of the Bufo species’ venom, including neurological manifestations and cardiac arrhythmias, and the therapeutic use of Bufo Rana in mental and neurological conditions are discussed. We summarize Bufo Rana’s symptoms and therapeutic relationships based on William Boericke’s materia medica. Further research is warranted to investigate the efficacy and safety of Bufo Rana and its role in treating specific conditions.
... Asimismo, se ha discutido que el hipotético consumo de estos hongos por parte de ancestros homínidos, desde el Plioceno (5.3 Ma), habría potenciado aspectos como la interacción y cohesión social y la emergencia de rituales colectivos (Rodríguez-Arce & Winkelman, 2021). Lo que sí ha sido ampliamente documentado es el uso milenario de los Psilocybe para inducir estados alterados de consciencia en contextos religiosos y ceremoniales por parte de civilizaciones precolombinas como las azteca, olmeca, zapoteca y maya (Carod-Artal, 2015;Nichols, 2020). Para los aztecas, por ejemplo, estos hongos representaban "la carne de dios" -"Teonanácatl"-y los consideraban seres sagrados capaces de alterar la percepción de la realidad (Carod-Artal, 2015). ...
... Lo que sí ha sido ampliamente documentado es el uso milenario de los Psilocybe para inducir estados alterados de consciencia en contextos religiosos y ceremoniales por parte de civilizaciones precolombinas como las azteca, olmeca, zapoteca y maya (Carod-Artal, 2015;Nichols, 2020). Para los aztecas, por ejemplo, estos hongos representaban "la carne de dios" -"Teonanácatl"-y los consideraban seres sagrados capaces de alterar la percepción de la realidad (Carod-Artal, 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
La psilocibina es un alcaloide psicodélico producido naturalmente por diversas especies de hongos, especialmente del género Psilocybe, cuyo uso por parte de culturas precolombinas ha sido ampliamente documentado. En la última década, tras años de estigmatización y restricción de uso, se han reactivado las investigaciones sobre las potencialidades terapéuticas de este psicodélico clásico para el tratamiento de múltiples trastornos psiquiátricos, entre ellos el trastorno depresivo mayor. La depresión es un desorden afectivo del estado de ánimo cuya prevalencia mundial se ha incrementado considerablemente en los últimos años y cuyo tratamiento con fármacos convencionales tiene limitada eficacia. Los hallazgos recientes señalan que la psilocibina, en cambio, pueden tener un efecto antidepresivo rápido y sostenido, incluso en individuos con depresión resistente al tratamiento. Aunque aún no se han dilucidado por completo los mecanismos subyacentes a dicho efecto, se ha planteado que estaría mediado por cambios a nivel de neurotransmisión, de plasticidad estructural y funcional y de conectividad de diferentes redes cerebrales. En esta revisión narrativa se presenta una síntesis de la evidencia clínica a favor del efecto antidepresivo de la psilocibina, se exponen algunos mecanismos de acción plausibles que han sido objeto de estudio y se discuten algunos interrogantes y perspectivas del uso del alcaloide en el ámbito clínico.
... Psilocybe mushrooms, commonly referred to as "magic mushrooms," have been used by cultures around the world for thousands of years (Lowe et al., 2021;Nichols, 2020;Van Court et al., 2022). For example, Aztecs used them in healing rituals and religious ceremonies and ancient Hindu texts suggest their use in the ritualistic sacrament "soma" (Carod-Artal, 2015;Johnson et al., 2019;Nichols, 2020). Psilocybin is therefore considered an entheogen due to its use in mystical and religious contexts (Carod-Artal, 2015). ...
... For example, Aztecs used them in healing rituals and religious ceremonies and ancient Hindu texts suggest their use in the ritualistic sacrament "soma" (Carod-Artal, 2015;Johnson et al., 2019;Nichols, 2020). Psilocybin is therefore considered an entheogen due to its use in mystical and religious contexts (Carod-Artal, 2015). While it is clear that psilocybin use spans millennia, its prevalence prior to the 20th century remains unknown (Johnson et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Research on psilocybin has become increasingly popular during the current psychedelic renaissance, which began in the early 1990s. Psilocybin's effects on mental health are promising and there are ongoing efforts to investigate its clinical implementation and its effects on cognition. Aims: The purpose of this study is to report trends in publications, methods, and findings from research examining the effects of psilocybin on cognition and creativity in adults. Methods: We conducted an Open Science Framework preregistered scoping review, guided by the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, on literature pertaining to psilocybin's effects on cognition and creativity. Results/outcomes: In the 42 included studies, psilocybin was primarily administered orally (83%) in a bodyweight-adjusted manner (74%) to healthy participants (90%). Of the few studies that explicitly reported safety outcomes (26%), only one reported serious adverse reactions. During the acute phase post-intake (i.e., minutes to hours), macrodoses tended to impair cognitive performance and creativity, whereas microdoses tended toward creative enhancement. The few macrodosing studies that included post-acute measures (i.e., 1-85 days) reported primarily null but some positive effects. Conclusions/interpretation: This scoping review identified a time-based variation of psilocybin macrodosing effects on cognition and creativity, in which impairment may be observed early post-intake but withdraw over time, and some positive effects may emerge afterward. These findings are limited by methodological concerns and inadequate assessment of long-term effects. We therefore recommend that future psilocybin research be conducted according to existing guidelines and include well-validated measures of cognition and creativity at multiple timepoints.
... Natural sources of psychedelic indolethylamines, such as psilocybin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-methoxy-DMT) have long been used for ceremonial and medicinal purposes. Traditional preparations from plants (ayahuasca), fungi ('magic mushrooms'; Psilocybe spp.), and animals including certain toads are known to induce trance-like states important in the cultural practices of various peoples, especially those in Mesoamerica (Carod-Artal, 2015). Toad skin and parotid gland tissues accumulate a variety of specialized metabolites including toxic guanidine alkaloids, lipophilic alkaloids, poisonous steroids, and hallucinogenic indolethylamines such as DMT, 5-methoxy-DMT, and bufotenin in varying quantities depending on the species (Figure 1, Supplemental Figure 1) (Rodríguez et al., 2017). ...
... The biosynthesis of these toad alkaloids has also not been elucidated, aside from early cursory investigations establishing tryptophan as the entry-point metabolite (Udenfriend et al. 1956). Cane toad is an important ingredient in the mildly intoxicating balché prepared by modern and ancient Mayan peoples (Carod-Artal, 2015) although its status as an invasive pest has prompted more intense investigation over the past two decades (Tingely et al. 2017). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Psychedelic indolethylamines have emerged as potential medicines to treat several psychiatric pathologies. Natural sources of these compounds include ‘magic mushrooms’, plants used to prepare ahayuasca, and toads. Owing to the occurrence of indolethylamines such as N,N -dimethyltryptamine, toad skin and parotid gland preparations have a history of ceremonial use, yet their biosynthesis remains uncharacterized. We report the isolation of an indolethylamine N -methyltransferase (RmNMT) from cane toad ( Rhinella marina ). Unlike functionally similar mammalian and fungal enzymes, the efficiency and promiscuity of RmNMT made it suitable for the bioproduction of new-to-nature indolethylamine derivatives. N,N -Dimethylated indolethylamines showed reduced affinity and engagement at 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors respectively, compared with primary amine equivalents. Despite reduced 5-HT 2A receptor engagement of tertiary amines, only these molecules induced hallucinogenic behavior in mice underscoring the importance of metabolic stability. The discovery of RmNMT facilitated the establishment of a bioproduction platform for the isolation and pharmacological screening of novel indolethylamines.
... In primitive societies, hallucinogenic substances such as cannabis, coca leaves, and opium were commonly used in tribal rituals to achieve altered states of consciousness [8]. For example, the Aztec and Mayan civilizations used hallucinogenic mushrooms in shamanic ceremonies [5]. Similarly, the use of coca leaves by South American Indians to combat harsh natural conditions and fatigue remains a practice today [15]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The paper is described as a psychoactive substance in the literature and has been used historically in practically all civilizations as a narcotic, sedative, recreational, and medicinal substance. One of the things that negatively affects society everywhere is drug addiction. Substance abuse has become a major issue affecting psychosocial, cultural, economic, and societal aspects. Its use has physiological and psychological effects on the individual. The study adopted a quantitative research design. An online quantitative survey was conducted with a simple random technique in order to evaluate the knowledge of the university students in İstanbul about addiction disease. For the questionnaire, the addiction information scale was used. This Istanbul-based study discusses the definition of addiction. It measures university students’ knowledge of the factors that lead to substance use, as well as biases against individuals who use addictive substances, behavioural patterns caused by these prejudices, and methods that should be used to raise awareness among university students as a result of the findings.
... Areca or betel nut have a rich history, deeply intertwined with the cultural and religious practices of these regions and still holds a vital place in socio-cultural practices (1). Tobacco has roots from Mayan-Aztec civilizations and spread globally (2). In India, the smokeless forms of tobacco are oft en AN-tobacco containing Products (ANTP) and 224 million Indians use these AN and ANTP. ...
Article
Background: The addictive potential of areca nut (AN) and tobacco is well-documented, but their combined neurobiological eff ects in AN-containing tobacco products (ANTP) remain obscure. This study employed a three-stage in silico approach to investigate the potential targets and pathways associated with the addictive properties of AN alone and in ANTP. Materials and Methods: Bioactive molecules were retrieved for AN and tobacco, followed by target prediction and pathway enrichment analysis. The identifi ed biomolecules were categorized into AN and ANTP groups. Results: A total of 195 bioactive molecules were identifi ed (38 to AN, 157 to tobacco). Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) details were retrieved. Predicted bioactivity (gene/protein interaction probability ≥80%) was analysed, revealing 13 shared targets between AN and tobacco, 12 exclusive to AN, and 33 exclusive to tobacco. AN and ANTP infl uenced 21 and 27 pathways (FDR ≤ 0.05), respectively, with distinct footprints. Notably, GABAergic and cholinergic synapses, nicotine addiction, calcium signaling, and morphine addiction pathways were diff erentially enriched between AN and ANTP. Discussion: This study highlights the distinct and synergistic neurobiological eff ects of AN and tobacco in ANTP. The identifi ed diff erences in target genes and pathways underscore the need for tailored interventions and cessation strategies for users of AN and ANTP products. Further research is warranted to validate these fi ndings, explore interplay between diverse addiction factors, and develop eff ective prevention and treatment programs.
... Notable among these cultures are the indigenous people of Central America. Mushrooms were and are still used in religious and divinatory contexts, often for healing purposes, to establish communication with the spiritual realm or divine the future (Nichols 2016;Ott and Guzman 1976;Carod-Artal 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
Psychedelics are a group of substances within the heterogeneous class of hallucinogenic drugs. Via binding to the serotonin (5-HT) 2A receptor, psychedelics exert profound alterations in various mental domains, including sensation, cognition, emotions, and self-perception. Psychedelics comprise phenethylamines (e.g., mescaline), tryptamines (e.g., psilocybin), and ergolines (e.g., LSD). These drugs have been used recreationally for decades but have also regained attention as potential treatments for various psychiatric as well as neurological illnesses. While psychedelics are generally considered to be relatively safe from a physiological standpoint, especially when compared to other recreational drugs, they are not without risks. The main safety concerns are lasting psychological adverse reactions such as persisting anxiety, dissociation, or flashbacks. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the pharmacology of classic psychedelics, including their origins, psychological and autonomic effects, interactions, and potential risks and side effects. Furthermore, the origin, dosing, and consumption methods are discussed. It differentiates psychedelics from other psychoactive drugs, such as MDMA and ketamine, and elaborates on their distinct receptor profiles. Overall, this chapter provides an overview of the pharmacological underpinnings necessary for understanding the harms caused by psychedelic drugs.
... The historical consumption of mushrooms by hominins has also been established 7 . Although humans have used magic mushrooms as early as 6000-4500 BC, the first recorded instances of them being used medicinally and ritualistically are in Mesoamerica in the 1500s CE 8,9 . These societies, particularly the Aztecs, viewed mushrooms as sacred, which is highlighted by the fact that the fruiting bodies of mushrooms were seen as "the flesh of the gods" 10,11 . ...
... Psilocybin mushrooms have a long history among indigenous cultures in Central and South America, which have traditionally consumed them in religious ceremonies. 1,2 Archaeological evidence suggests that the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms dates back at least 3000 years. Artifacts such as mushroom stones have been found in ancient Mesoamerican sites. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background The primary psychoactive drug in magic mushrooms, psilocybin, induces profound alterations in consciousness through the 5-HT 2A receptor. This review consolidates current research findings to elucidate the pharmacology, safety profile, and clinical applications of psilocybin. Areas of Uncertainty Despite initial concerns that psilocybin could cause psychosis, contemporary research has demonstrated that psilocybin is generally safe. The most common adverse effects are nausea and headache, yet both tend to be transient. Serious adverse events can generally be avoided in controlled settings such as clinical trials. However, in the largest clinical trial to date, there were a total of 7 reported cases of suicidal ideation, up to 12 weeks after receiving a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin. That being said, all 7 cases did not respond to the treatment. Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may blunt the hallucinogenic qualities of psilocybin, preliminary research suggests that they may enhance its antidepressant effects. Therapeutic Advances In clinical trials, psilocybin has shown promise for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. Initial studies indicated that 42%–57% of patients underwent remission after psilocybin-assisted therapy, which suggests that psilocybin is more effective than existing antidepressant medications. Clinical data have also demonstrated that psilocybin can manage substance use disorders and end-of-life anxiety with clinical outcomes that are sustained for months and sometimes years after 1 or 2 doses. Limitations However, larger Phase II trials with more than 100 depressed participants have shown a much smaller remission rate of 25%–29%, though these studies still observed that psilocybin causes a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. Conclusions Aside from ketamine, psilocybin is the most clinically well-researched psychedelic drug, with trials that have enrolled hundreds of participants and multiple therapeutic applications. Phase III trials will determine whether psilocybin lives up to the promise that it showed in previous clinical trials.
... Psychedelics are an exceptional category of mind-altering substances and has been in use in various cultures as Sacrament. [4,5] In this regard, Jaffe [6] has given a highly revered definition of psychedelics "…The feature that distinguishes the psychedelic agents from other classes of drug is their capacity reliably to induce states of altered perception, thought, and feeling that are not experienced otherwise except in dreams or at times of religious exaltation." ...
... Understanding and respecting the ritual plants of Mexico allows us to appreciate the profound connection between humans and nature. It is essential to approach these plants with reverence, guided by cultural understanding and scientific knowledge, in order to ensure responsible usage and preservation (Carod-Artal 2015;Estrada-Castillón et al. 2020;Feinman and Nicholas 2020). By recognizing the role of ritual plants in Mexico, we honor the diverse tapestry of indigenous cultures and their invaluable contributions to humanity's collective heritage. ...
Article
Full-text available
Calvo-Díaz DY, Aguilar-Hernández L, Jiménez-Noriega MS, Torres-Montúfar A. 2023. Ritual use of rosa de borracho (Clinopodium macrostemum (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Kuntze, Lamiaceae) in Oaxaca. Biodiversitas 24: 5105-5112. Plants play a vital role in the rich tapestry of Mexican culture, serving as medicine, food, clothing, rituals, and construction. Oaxaca is known for its abundance of bio- and cultural diversity, and as such, is home to numerous versatile and beneficial plant species alongside many traditional cultural festivals, including the famous Guelaguetza at the end of every July. Many plants have deep cultural and spiritual significance, and their traditional uses in ceremonies, rituals, and medicine have been passed down through generations. Here, we have studied the ceremonial use of rosa de borracho, or poleo (Clinopodium macrostemum (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Kuntze), in two communities of Oaxaca: Ocotlán de Morelos and Villa Sola de Vega. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 40 community members to acquire valuable and relevant information about this plant and its importance in these communities. In Villa Sola de Vega, where residents are known as soltecos, the rosa de borracho is an essential element of Soltecan wedding ceremonies, which includes dancing Chilenas (traditional folk music) such as the Jarabe de la Rosa (a dance called syrup of the rose). In this particular dance, the Rosa de Borracho is the show's star, and important guests such as the godparents and cooks are gifted handwoven crowns to wear and bundles of the plant to carry. In Ocotlán, the rosa de borracho is used to adorn baskets and other artifacts for a ceremony called La Llevada del Guajolote, and is also gifted to everyone during the festivities. The same plant is also used on a procession before Christmas and New Year's Eve, wherein pilgrims known as roseros journey to the mountain searching for the plant for use in the day’s celebration. In this study, we have documented and described the ritual use of this plant and its cultural significance to these communities. In conclusion, rosa de borracho carries various symbolic meanings and is often included in sacred offerings to deities or spirits or in ceremonies to adorn altars, decorate ritual spaces, and create intricate floral arrangements, all of which lend it cultural significance in Oaxaca stemming from these ritual practices.
... Psilocybin mushrooms have a long history among indigenous cultures in Central and South America, which have traditionally consumed them in religious ceremonies. 1,2 Archaeological evidence suggests that the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms dates back at least 3000 years. Artifacts such as mushroom stones have been found in ancient Mesoamerican sites. ...
Preprint
Background: The primary psychoactive drug in magic mushrooms, psilocybin induces profound alterations in consciousness through its action at the 5-HT2A receptor. This comprehensive review consolidates current research findings to elucidate the pharmacology, safety profile, and clinical applications of psilocybin.Areas of Uncertainty: Despite initial concerns that psilocybin could cause long-lasting mental health problems such as psychosis, contemporary research has demonstrated that psilocybin is psychologically and physiologically safe. Adverse psychiatric outcomes can generally be avoided in controlled settings such as clinical trials. However, considerations regarding optimal dosing, therapeutic protocols, and integration strategies for psychedelic experiences remain imperative for the responsible clinical implementation of psilocybin-assisted therapy. Therapeutic Advances: In clinical trials, psilocybin has shown promise for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. Initial studies indicated that 42-57% of patients underwent remission after psilocybin-assisted therapy, which suggests that psilocybin is more effective than existing antidepressant medications. However, larger Phase II trials with more than 100 participants have shown a much smaller remission rate of 25-29%, though these studies still observed that psilocybin causes a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. Clinical data has also demonstrated that psilocybin can manage substance use disorders and end-of-life anxiety.Conclusion: Psilocybin is the most clinically well-researched psychedelic drug, with trials that have enrolled hundreds of participants and therapeutic applications that span multiple psychiatric conditions. Phase III trials, which have already commenced, will determine whether psilocybin lives up to the promise that it showed in previous clinical trials.
... 14- 26 Although psychedelic-assisted therapies are being proposed as a new paradigm in psychiatry, psychedelics have an established anthropological history in ritual healing and folk medicine. [27][28][29][30] Traditional entheogenic ceremonies have tended to be shamanic, 28,31-33 have a purgative element, 34 contain visionary elements, [35][36][37][38] may include encounters with entities or spirits, 39,40 and are considered to be effective in the treatment of culture-bound illness syndromes that lack a clear underlying cause and do not respond to other treatments. 31,41 PTSD According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), 42 PTSD involves the presence of recurrent, intrusive, and distressing memories or dreams, dissociative reactions such as flashbacks, and reactions to internal or external cues that resemble aspects of traumatic events experienced. ...
Article
Full-text available
With this editorial, I provide an overview of psychedelic-assisted therapies for military and Veteran communities, with a specific focus on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a well-researched intervention nearing regulatory approval but not otherwise fully explored in the articles in this special edition. I present special safety, efficacy, policy and program considerations to help guide future scientific research and policy development.
... It contains numerous phytochemicals like alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, steroids, and glycosides, responsible for its various biological and pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunemodulatory, antiviral, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and hypoglycemic activities [2]. The whole plant of Nelumbo like roots,rhizome,leaves,flowers,seeds all are utilized in preparing cusines,medicines due to its phytochemical property [3]. [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] are similar works which indicate the ecological benefits of various plants and variations in their growth. ...
Conference Paper
There is a significant problem on the availability for medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases. Nymphaea lotus (Indian Lotus) is one such plant which is primarily available in the indian subcontinent. This paper investigates the analysis of this medicinal plant with the help of a genetic algorithm.
... Prior to clearly classifying and comprehending the molecular mechanisms of many toxic mushrooms, our forefathers began to use toxic mushrooms as tools based on their knowledge at the time. Some of these macrofungi were worshipped and venerated as gods and played important roles in some civilizations due to their psychedelic properties (e.g., Amanita muscaria; psilocybin-producing mushrooms) (Wasson and R.G., 1957.; Crundwell and E., 1987.; Furst and P.T., 2004; Carod-Artal 2015; Guzman, G., 2015) [70][71][72][73][74] . ...
... The use of mushrooms to alter consciousness, invoke healing, and engage in religious and spiritual ceremonies dates back thousands of years with best documented use in Mesoamerican Mayan, Aztec, Olmec, and Zapotec cultures. The Aztecs referred to the Psilocybe mushroom as Teonanácatl, or "flesh of the gods", signifying their use to join the god-realms [14,15]. In the present day, ceremonial use of psilocybin continues among indigenous cultures and others, and at the same time the body of scientific research investigating psilocybin is growing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose of Review This review article summarizes clinically and socially relevant developments over the past five years in the therapeutic use of the classical tryptamine psychedelic substance psilocybin, with respect to the common challenges faced by palliative care patients and their care teams. Psilocybin is available in whole fungal and isolated forms but is not yet approved for therapeutic use in the United States. Using targeted database and gray literature searches, and author recall, key sources were identified, reviewed, and synthesized as to the safety and efficacy of psilocybin in palliative care. Recent Findings Life-threatening or life-limiting illnesses and faced by palliative care patients are comorbid with emotional and spiritual distress. Research and field reports reviewed suggest that psilocybin has significant and in some cases, sustained anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and entheogenic effects with a favorable safety profile. Limitations of the research include the risk for selection bias toward healthy, white, financially privileged individuals, and in general, follow-up timelines too short to appropriately evaluate durability of outcomes in psychospiritual benefits and quality of life. Summary While more research is needed for palliative care populations specifically, reasonable inferences can be made regarding the potential for benefit to palliative care patients from psilocybin’s demonstrated anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and entheogenic effects. However, major legal, ethical and financial barriers to access exist for the general population; obstacles which are likely worsened for geriatric and palliative care patients. Empiric treatment and large-scale controlled trials of psilocybin should be conducted to further investigate the findings of the smaller studies reviewed here across a variety of populations, for a greater understanding of therapeutic benefit and clinically relevant safety criteria, and to support thoughtful legalization and medical access.
... Psychedelics have been used for healing purposes since prehistoric times in some cultures (Carod-Artal, 2015;Guerra-Doce, 2015). However, more widespread use, as well as clinical research on psychedelics in the West, did not start until the mid-20th century, following the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)'s psychoactive properties in 1943 (Hofmann and Ott, 1980), and the isolation and synthesis of psilocybin from 'magic mushrooms' in the following decade (Hofmann et al., 1959). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Growing numbers of people are using psychedelics for personal psychotherapy outside clinical settings, but research on such use is scarce. Aims: This study investigated the patterns of use, self-reported outcomes and outcome predictors of psychedelic 'self-treatment' of mental health conditions or specific worries/concerns in life. Methods: We use data from the Global Drug Survey 2020, a large online survey on drug use collected between November 2019 and February 2020. In all, 3364 respondents reported their self-treatment experiences with lysergic acid diethylamide (N = 1996) or psilocybin mushrooms (N = 1368). The primary outcome of interest was the 17-item self-treatment outcome scale, items reflecting aspects of well-being, psychiatric symptoms, social-emotional skills, and health behaviours. Results: Positive changes were observed across all 17 outcome items, with the strongest benefits on items related to insight and mood. Negative effects were reported by 22.5% of respondents. High intensity of psychedelic experience, seeking advice before treatment, treating with psilocybin mushrooms and treating post-traumatic stress disorder were associated with higher scores on the self-treatment outcome scale after averaging values across all 17 items. Younger age, high intensity of experience and treating with LSD were associated with increased number of negative outcomes. Conclusions: This study brings important insights into self-treatment practices with psychedelics in a large international sample. Outcomes were generally favourable, but negative effects appeared more frequent than in clinical settings. Our findings can help inform safe practices of psychedelic use in the community, and inspire clinical research. Future research can be improved with utilisation of prospective designs and additional predictive variables.
... Serotonergic ("classic") psychedelics are a broad category of drugs that includes psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT, the psychoactive ingredient of ayahuasca), and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). These psychedelics have been used as therapeutic agents for thousands of years in various cultures (6). Clinical research into psychedelic treatments began in the 1950s; about 40,000 individuals had been studied by the late 1960s when concerns about their safety and their recreational use led to their classification as Schedule 1 narcotics in the US (7). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Current treatment options for major depressive disorder (MDD) have limited efficacy and are associated with adverse effects. Recent studies investigating the antidepressant effect of serotonergic psychedelics—also known as classic psychedelics—have promising preliminary results with large effect sizes. In this context, we conducted a review of the putative neurobiological underpinnings of the mechanism of antidepressant action of these drugs. Methods A narrative review was conducted using PubMed to identify published articles evaluating the antidepressant mechanism of action of serotonergic psychedelics. Results Serotonergic psychedelics have serotonin (5HT)2A agonist or partial agonist effects. Their rapid antidepressant effects may be mediated—in part—by their potent 5HT2A agonism, leading to rapid receptor downregulation. In addition, these psychedelics impact brain derived neurotrophic factor and immunomodulatory responses, both of which may play a role in their antidepressant effect. Several neuroimaging and neurophysiology studies evaluating mechanistic change from a network perspective can help us to further understand their mechanism of action. Some, but not all, data suggest that psychedelics may exert their effects, in part, by disrupting the activity of the default mode network, which is involved in both introspection and self-referential thinking and is over-active in MDD. Conclusion The mechanisms of action underlying the antidepressant effect of serotonergic psychedelics remains an active area of research. Several competing theories are being evaluated and more research is needed to determine which ones are supported by the most robust evidence.
... Psychedelics (from the Greek psyche (mind) and delius (to manifest)) are substances that induce transient states of profoundly altered perception, thought and emotion, and have been used for thousands of years in ceremonial contexts in multiple cultures (Carod-Artal, 2015;Grinspoon and Bakalar, 2018;Sessa, 2005Sessa, , 2007. Their effects are particularly dependent on the context in which they are administered Nichols and Walter, 2021) -when administered in a safe context, a common acute effect is a disruption of ego-boundaries, which results in a blurring of the distinction between self-representation and object-representation, known as 'ego dissolution' (Anderson and Rawnsley, 1954;Cohen and Eisner, 1959;Denber, 2006;Eisner and Cohen, 1958;Klee, 1963;Lewis and Sloane, 1958;Millière, 2017;Nour et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
Ketamine is an N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonist which is increasingly being researched and used as a treatment for depression. In low doses, it can cause a transitory modification in consciousness which was classically labelled as ‘dissociation’. However, ketamine is also commonly classified as an atypical psychedelic and it has been recently reported that ego dissolution experiences during ketamine administration are associated with greater antidepressant response. Neuroimaging studies have highlighted several similarities between the effects of ketamine and those of serotonergic psychedelics in the brain; however, no unified account has been proposed for ketamine’s multi-level effects – from molecular to network and psychological levels. Here, we propose that the fast, albeit transient, antidepressant effects observed after ketamine infusions are mainly driven by its acute modulation of reward circuits and sub-acute increase in neuroplasticity, while its dissociative and psychedelic properties are driven by dose- and context-dependent disruption of large-scale functional networks. Computationally, as nodes of the salience network (SN) represent high-level priors about the body (‘minimal’ self) and nodes of the default-mode network (DMN) represent the highest-level priors about narrative self-experience (‘biographical’ self), we propose that transitory SN desegregation and disintegration accounts for ketamine’s ‘ dissociative’ state, while transitory DMN desegregation and disintegration accounts for ketamine’s ‘ psychedelic’ state. In psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy, a relaxation of the highest-level beliefs with psychotherapeutic support may allow a revision of pathological self-representation models, for which neuroplasticity plays a permissive role. Our account provides a multi-level rationale for using the psychedelic properties of ketamine to increase its long-term benefits.
... Psychedelics constitute a class of drugs with origins in certain plants, animals, and fungi that have a long history of human use. Records indicate that their consumption in ancient cultural rituals-to achieve altered states of consciousness and spiritual insightdate back millennia (Wasson, 1978;Carod-Artal, 2015;Byock, 2018). Their inception into mainstream Western culture followed the introduction of mescaline in the early 1900s and the synthesis of a novel psychedelic, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), in 1938 (Nichols, 2016;Nichols and Walter, 2021) (The psychoactive effects of LSD were not discovered until 5 years later, in 1943). ...
Article
Full-text available
Neuroimaging studies of psychedelics have advanced our understanding of hierarchical brain organization and the mechanisms underlying their subjective and therapeutic effects. The primary mechanism of action of classic psychedelics is binding to serotonergic 5-HT2A receptors. Agonist activity at these receptors leads to neuromodulatory changes in synaptic efficacy that can have a profound effect on hierarchical message-passing in the brain. Here, we review the cognitive and neuroimaging evidence for the effects of psychedelics: in particular, their influence on selfhood and subject-object boundaries—known as ego dissolution—surmised to underwrite their subjective and therapeutic effects. Agonism of 5-HT2A recep-tors, located at the apex of the cortical hierarchy, may have a particularly powerful effect on sentience and consciousness. These effects can endure well after the pharmacological half-life, suggesting that psychedelics may have effects on neural plasticity that may play a role in their therapeutic efficacy. Psychologi-cally, this may be accompanied by a disarming of ego resistance that increases the repertoire of perceptual hypotheses and affords alternate pathways for thought and behavior, including those that undergird selfhood. We consider the interaction between serotonergic neuromodulation and sentience through the lens of hierarchical predictive coding, which speaks to the value of psychedelics in understanding how we make sense of the world and specific predictions about effective connectivity in cortical hierarchies that can be tested using functional neuroimaging. Significance Statement——Classic psychedelics bind to serotonergic 5-HT2A receptors. Their agonist activity at these receptors leads to neuromodulatory changes in synaptic efficacy, resulting in a profound effect on information processing in the brain. Here, we synthesize an abundance of brain imaging research with pharmacological and psychological interpretations informed by the framework of predictive coding. Moreover, predictive coding is suggested to offer more sophisticated interpretations of neuroimaging find-ings by bridging the role between the 5-HT2A receptors and large-scale brain networks.
... Plant-based hallucinogens and dissociative agents have been used within various cultures' medicinal and religious practices for thousands of years (Carod-Artal, 2015;Nichols, 2004). Although hallucinogens were classified as a Schedule I substance in the 1970 U.S. Controlled Substances Act (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018), empirical studies have brought a resurgence of attention to potential risks and benefits related to their use, which have recently resulted in multiple state initiatives to reevaluate their legal status (Ballotpedia, 2020;California Legislative Information, February 17, 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Aims Information on time trends in use of different plant-based hallucinogens is lacking. The current study used nationally representative U.S. data to assess overall and age-specific time trends in the prevalence of lifetime and 12-month use of plant-based hallucinogens and dissociative agents. Methods Participants were respondents aged ≥12 years (N=1,006,051) from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2002-2019. Predictors were continuous years. Outcomes included illicit use of peyote, mescaline, psilocybin, ketamine, salvia, and tryptamine. Sociodemographic variables (gender; age; race/ethnicity; educational level; family income) were modeled as covariates. Trends were estimated overall and by age (12-17, 18-25, 26+). Prevalence differences [PDs] were obtained for each category, along with 95% confidence intervals [CI]. Results Increases in lifetime use were observed for psilocybin (2002-2019 PD=+1.61), tryptamine (2006-2014 PD=+0.55; 2015-2019 PD=+0.44), and ketamine (2006-2014 PD=+0.27; 2015-2019 PD=+0.21). Mescaline use decreased (PD=-0.89). While overall lifetime salvia use increased between 2006-2014 (PD=+1.81), prevalence did not change between 2015-2019. Twelve-month use of tryptamine and ketamine increased between 2006-2014 (PD=+0.14; +0.03, respectively). Twelve-month ketamine use also increased from 2015-2019 (PD=+0.03). By age, participants aged 12-17 and 18-25 showed decreases in use of most types of hallucinogens, but those age 26+ generally showed increases. Conclusions While use of plant-based hallucinogens and dissociative agents remains rare, lifetime use of ketamine, tryptamine, and psilocybin is increasing in adults. Considering these increases alongside concerns about unsupervised use of illicit products whose dose and composition is uncertain, clinicians and policymakers should remain mindful of the rising rates of illicit use in the general population.
Article
Full-text available
Psychedelics have a complex history marked by traditional use among indigenous cultures, early scientific interest, and subsequent prohibition. Despite their classification as controlled substances, recent decades have witnessed a resurgence of research into their therapeutic potential for various mental health conditions. However, most studies have focused on controlled clinical settings, leaving a significant gap in understanding how these substances are used in naturalistic contexts, particularly in Latin America. This study investigates the regular use of macrodoses of psychedelics among Latin American adults. We aimed to characterize the sociodemographic profiles, consumption practices, and subjective effects experienced by individuals who use psychedelics regularly. Data were collected via an online survey from 4,270 participants across several Latin American countries. Results indicated a diverse user base with varied motivations, predominantly psychological and spiritual well-being. The most frequently used substance was psilocybin mushrooms, with significant associations found between demographic variables and specific psychedelics used. The study provides new insights into the naturalistic use of psychedelics in Latin America, highlighting the need for informed, safe, and legal use frameworks.
Article
Full-text available
La dépression est l'un des principaux problèmes de santé publique actuels. Malgré la recherche, il est encore difficile de comprendre tous les mécanismes qui sous-tendent le développement de ce trouble. C'est pourquoi tous les traitements utilisés ne sont pas efficaces, ce qui conduit inévitablement à des formes de dépression résistantes aux traitements. Depuis une vingtaine d'années, la reprise des recherches sur les substances psychédéliques semble prometteuse : en effet, leur pouvoir thérapeutique dans divers troubles mentaux, dont la dépression, a été mis en évidence. L'objectif de cet article est d'étudier l'impact bénéfique de l'expérience mystique induite par la psilocybine sur la dépression, compte tenu de la littérature actuelle. Pour ce faire, une recherche systématique a été menée en utilisant la méthode PRISMA et cinq études ont été prises en compte. Les résultats montrent effectivement le rôle de l'expérience mystique dans la réduction de la dépression. Toutefois des incohérences subsistent dans la définition de certains concepts. Les études futures devraient mieux définir le concept d'expérience mystique et les bienfaits potentiels qui peuvent être appliqués non seulement à la dépression mais aussi à divers troubles.
Article
Full-text available
The potent hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has garnered significant interest in recent years due to its profound effects on consciousness and its therapeutic psychopotential. DMT is an integral (but not exclusive) psychoactive alkaloid in the Amazonian plant-based brew ayahuasca, in which admixture of several β-carboline monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitors potentiate the activity of oral DMT, while possibly contributing in other respects to the complex psychopharmacology of ayahuasca. Irrespective of the route of administration, DMT alters perception, mood, and cognition, presumably through agonism at serotonin (5-HT) 1A/2A/2C receptors in brain, with additional actions at other receptor types possibly contributing to its overall psychoactive effects. Due to rapid first pass metabolism, DMT is nearly inactive orally, but co-administration with β-carbolines or synthetic MAO-A inhibitors (MAOIs) greatly increase its bioavailability and duration of action. The synergistic effects of DMT and MAOIs in ayahuasca or synthetic formulations may promote neuroplasticity, which presumably underlies their promising therapeutic efficacy in clinical trials for neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Advances in neuroimaging techniques are elucidating the neural correlates of DMT-induced altered states of consciousness, revealing alterations in brain activity, functional connectivity, and network dynamics. In this comprehensive narrative review, we present a synthesis of current knowledge on the pharmacology and neuroscience of DMT, β-carbolines, and ayahuasca, which should inform future research aiming to harness their full therapeutic potential. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00018-024-05353-6.
Preprint
Full-text available
Psychedelics have a complex history marked by traditional use among indigenous cultures, early scientific interest, and subsequent prohibition. Despite their classification as controlled substances, recent decades have witnessed a resurgence of research into their therapeutic potential for various mental health conditions. However, most studies have focused on controlled clinical settings, leaving a significant gap in understanding how these substances are used in naturalistic contexts, particularly in Latin America. This study investigates the regular use of macrodoses of psychedelics among Latin American adults. We aimed to characterize the sociodemographic profiles, consumption practices, and subjective effects experienced by individuals who use psychedelics regularly. Data were collected via an online survey from 4,270 participants across several Latin American countries. Results indicated a diverse user base with varied motivations, predominantly psychological and spiritual well-being. The most frequently used substance was psilocybin mushrooms, with significant associations found between demographic variables and specific psychedelics used. The study provides new insights into the naturalistic use of psychedelics in Latin America, highlighting the need for informed, safe, and legal use frameworks.
Article
Full-text available
Los enteógenos han surgido en la investigación clínica como un tratamiento alternativo para la Depresión Resistente al Tratamiento (DRT). Tienen efectos antidepresivos rápidos y duraderos, son ansiolíticos, y mitigan la ideación suicida. Además, inducen emociones positivas y provocan experiencias místicas o espirituales, atributos que pueden contribuir a su eficacia terapéutica, dada la influencia protectora del misticismo y la religiosidad contra la depresión. Esta revisión narrativa tiene como objetivo discutir la evidencia existente sobre la utilización de enteógenos en la DRT, proporcionar una comprensión actualizada del panorama de la investigación y discutir los mecanismos de acción de compuestos como la psilocibina, DMT, LSD, ketamina, esketamina y cannabinoides. La eficacia de los enteógenos en el manejo de la depresión ha sido validada consistentemente en los ensayos clínicos. No obstante, es imperativo reconocer nuestra limitada comprensión de los posibles efectos adversos, especialmente a largo plazo, a pesar de los datos que sustentan su tolerabilidad aguda.
Article
Full-text available
Entheogens, a class of psychoactive substances with profound cultural and religious significance, have been utilized for centuries across diverse traditions for healing, spiritual exploration, and communication with the divine. Their historical usage spans continents, from the pre-Columbian Americas to traditional African practices and Ayurvedic medicine in India. While entheogens offer potential therapeutic benefits, their use entails inherent risks, including physiological and psychological adverse effects. Recent research has increasingly focused on elucidating the mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential of entheogens such as psilocybin, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ayahuasca, ibogaine, and Salvia divinorum. These substances exhibit diverse pharmacological profiles, acting primarily on serotonin receptors and other neurotransmitter systems, resulting in alterations in perception, mood, and cognition. Clinical studies have demonstrated promising results for entheogens in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and, to a lesser extent, pain management and cluster headaches. However, regulatory constraints, limited participant numbers, and ethical considerations hinder comprehensive research. Safety considerations are paramount in administering entheogens, necessitating proper dosing, individual risk assessment, supportive set and setting, and medical supervision. Adherence to rigorous clinical trial standards and transparent methodologies is essential for advancing research and harnessing the therapeutic potential of entheogens. Despite obstacles, continued investigation into entheogens is imperative for unlocking their therapeutic potential and developing safe and effective mental health treatments. Key research avenues include elucidating mechanisms of action, standardizing administration protocols, determining optimal dosages, and assessing long-term effects and associated risks. While cannabis is commonly recognized as an entheogen, it was not encompassed in this review. The authors omitted it due to its unique status, ongoing discourse, and the need for a separate dedicated analysis.
Article
This article underscores the critical role of social workers in harnessing the potential therapeutic benefits of psilocybin for treating major depressive disorder (MDD) and substance use disorder (SUD). Contemporary treatments for MDD often have side effects, and the success rate for SUD treatments remains low. The pervasiveness of MDD, combined with the challenges in treating SUD, highlights a need for innovative treatments. This article provides an overview of the resurgence of literature over the past two decades that illuminates the therapeutic promise of psilocybin for mental health treatment; clinical trials elucidate the efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy in mitigating MDD and demonstrate great promise in reducing SUD symptoms. The long-lasting posttreatment effect emphasizes its potential as a novel treatment modality. Furthermore, psilocybin’s recognition as a “breakthrough therapy” by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the accelerating pace of psychedelic reform bills indicate growing acceptance and interest in its therapeutic capacities. Psilocybin-assisted therapy emerges as a potent treatment option, showcasing remarkable effectiveness even after a single dose. Recommendations and pathways for social workers to be involved in psilocybin-assisted therapy investigation, advocacy, and implementation are provided.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this article is to study the 'sacred' plants’, diverse from those exclusively medicinal but with an unquestionable ethnobotanical value because, added to their healing properties, they develop mystical experiences and altered states of consciousness analogous to the ecstatic trance. _Psychoactive_ plants have played an important role in medicine, religion, _ritual_ life and recreation since ancient times and_ have been_ consumed by many cultures, cults and groups during religious rituals and ceremonies for centuries. Used in indigenous contexts and acting as divine intermediaries, they provide treatment for physical, psychological, spiritual and social symptoms, diagnosis and cure of diseases as well as supernatural experiences focused in religious rituals. First of all it will be interesting to analyze its perspectives on ritual, shamanism and ecstasy techniques, to reexamine the distinction between psychotropic, analgesic, stimulant and visionary substances, its distinguishing characteristics, the latest research on symbolic beliefs and the men's bodily reactions and effects produced by the ingestion. The altered states of consciousness (ASCs), induced by the badly called 'hallucinogenic' plants, include bodily sensations, intuitions, visions, dreams or cognitive impacts with perception of strange sounds that allow to get in touch with the deep psyche. People in this condition could activate emotionally arousing experiences that digging _deep_ to _unearth_ a well of _memories_, to face limitations, response to the basic emotion of fear, and even intensify physical pain to definitively cure it. Altered states of consciousness differ energetically on the dimensions of (a) arousal versus sedation, (b) pleasure versus pain, and (c) expansion versus contraction [1]. We will later provide some background on the different 'entheogenic' plants distinguishing their regional use and finally, by selecting two most ecologically representative species, mandrake and peyote, we will identify both basic characteristics and their long and very complex history. The similarities and differences between the mandrake, an ancestral toxic plant in force since ancient times, usually used in Western culture, and peyote, characteristic of the New World, will show us the strong biological effects produced by their powerful alkaloids in human organisms. The two have a long history of medicinal purposes, while peyote widely used both by drug abusers and by peoples of traditional cultures, stands out as a current psychedelic drug much sought after and consumed by Western intellectuals around 1960. It will be interesting to analyze their true characteristics and the symbolic beliefs that they aroused due to the strange effects that their ingestion produced.
Article
Full-text available
Psychedelic-assisted treatment (PAT) for mental health is in renaissance. Psilocybin and MDMA stand near FDA approval, and US cities and states are decriminalizing or regulating the non-clinical use of psilocybin. However, neither FDA indications nor a regulated use model sufficiently address the complex needs and opportunities for an improved treatment of addiction. When paired with disability and social dispossession, addiction increasingly burdens informal care networks, public safety, and particularly healthcare systems. Stigma and mistreatment alienate people from opportunities for care and multiply the costs of providing care. This dynamic worsens socially determined resource limitations, enforcing stark ethical choices and perpetuating socioeconomic inequities, isolation, mental illness, medical illness, overdose, suicide, and violence. In order for psychedelic treatments to achieve their greatest utility to population health, we must intentionally develop regulatory, clinical, and payment systems supporting clinical research, rigorous safety monitoring, and implementation to address these immense needs and reduce the barriers to engagement for those who now bear the costs, including those who work at the front lines of addiction care. To achieve full fruition, I advocate for a collaborative approach, built from within networks of mutual social support but linked and accountable to public institutions charged with the equitable dissemination of these therapies for the greatest social and health equities. Rather than relegating PAT to the needs of the commercially insured or wellness markets, this is the moment to learn from ancient traditions of ritualized sacramental use, organized around faith in our mutual dependency and accountability, and to capture an opportunity to improve population health and equity. To miss this opportunity is to accept the status quo in the midst of a growing emergency, for lack of moral vision and intention to change our habits.
Article
Full-text available
The efficacy of psilocybin and other psychedelics as modes of treatment have been demonstrated through clinical trials and other studies in the management of a number of mental illnesses, including some treatment resistant cases. In Psychedelic Assisted Psychotherapy (PAP), psychedelics catalyze or enhance the experience fostered by psychotherapeutic methods. Psychohistoriographic Brief Psychotherapy, conceptualized by the late Professor Frederick Hickling in the 1970′s in Kingston, Jamaica, offers a pathway for exploration in the Jamaican context. Applied to individuals, Psychohistoriographic Brief Therapy (PBT) has already shown success in patients with personality disorders in Jamaica through a process which includes documenting life experiences in a psychohistoriogram. In the De La Haye psilocybin Treatment Protocol (DPTP), micro-doses of crushed, dried psilocybin mushrooms are taken throughout an 8-week outpatient process of documenting the components of the psychohistoriogram, making use of the increased openness and empathy associated with the use of psychedelic agents. These sessions are followed by supervised in-office therapeutic/mystical doses of crushed, dried psilocybin mushrooms in the 9th week. Given the legal status and availability of psilocybin containing products in a few countries like Jamaica, there is a potential role for a regulated psychedelic industry contributing to the body of useful and rigorous clinical research which is needed in this area. Clients could benefit as we venture into this new frontier in psychiatry.
Article
Full-text available
This article assesses the right to privacy as a ground for challenging the constitutionality of the criminalisation of psilocybin mushrooms. In doing so, it discusses the right to privacy as found in section 14 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Constitution). Drawing on Constitutional Court case law, the article argues that the right to privacy is a fundamental right that deserves paramount protection, even in instances where individuals engage in illicit activities within the confines of their personal realm of privacy. Accordingly, the prohibiting laws, notably the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 140 of 1992 and the Medicines and Related Substances Act 101 of 1965, do prima facie limit an individual's right to privacy, and therefore an analysis in terms of section 36 of the Constitution is necessary. A section-36 limitations analysis is accordingly presented, through which it is concluded that the nature and importance of the limited right outweighs the importance and purpose of the criminalisation. This paper argues that the current articles of legislation, which criminalise psilocybin mushrooms, are not justifiable, in that they unjustifiably limit the right to privacy. As such, the criminalisation of psilocybin mushrooms falls short of the standards implemented in section 36 of the Constitution and is concluded to be unconstitutional.
Article
Full-text available
The potential benefits and deficits of the chemical compound psilocybin, particularly when paired with psychotherapeutic interventions, have been increasingly apparent top­ics of interest in social, academic, and scientific circles. The unusual nature of psilocybin poses many questions in Western culture. Three of them, which will be discussed in the following review, are (1) What is psilocybin? (2) What is psilocybin-assisted psychother­apy? and (3) What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy? Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is an innovative treatment that has not had the opportunity to be well-studied; as a result, the topic is currently shrouded in controversy and confusion. However, a recent series of clinical trials and research projects involving psilocybin-assisted interventions have yielded significant and beneficial results; indeed, additional trials are under way. The interventions studied include the treatment of end-of-life anxiety, depression, and existential distress in patients with terminal cancer, tobacco addiction, and treatment-resistant major-depressive disorder. Investigation into the known history, uses, relevance, and therapeutic effects of psilocybin-assisted psy­chotherapy require a careful inquiry, as these interventions are making an unavoidable and profound impact on contemporary American psychological culture as well as society in general. The current review attempts to describe psilocybin’s shamanic roots, known history, legal controversy, psychotherapy, and contemporary neuroscience research.
Article
Background: While psychedelics have been shown to improve psycho-spiritual well-being, the underlying elements of this change are not well-characterized. The NIH-HEALS posits that psycho-social-spiritual change occurs through the factors of Connection, Reflection & Introspection, and Trust & Acceptance. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in NIH-HEALS scores in a cancer population with major depressive disorder undergoing psilocybin-assisted therapy. Methods: In this Phase II, single-center, open label trial, 30 cancer patients with major depressive disorder received a fixed dose of 25 mg of psilocybin. Participants underwent group preparation sessions, simultaneous psilocybin treatment administered in separate rooms, and group integration sessions, along with individual care. The NIH-HEALS, a self-administered, 35-item, measure of psycho-social spiritual healing was completed at baseline and post-treatment at day 1, week 1, week 3, and week 8 following psilocybin therapy. Results: NIH-HEALS scores, representing psycho-social-spiritual wellbeing, improved in response to psilocybin treatment (p < 0.001). All three factors of the NIH-HEALS (Connection, Reflection & Introspection, and Trust & Acceptance) demonstrated positive change by 12.7 %, 7.7 %, and 22.4 %, respectively. These effects were apparent at all study time points and were sustained up to the last study interval at 8 weeks (p < 0.001). Limitations: The study lacks a control group, relies on a self-report measure, and uses a relatively small sample size with limited diversity that restricts generalizability. Conclusions: Findings suggest that psilocybin-assisted therapy facilitates psycho-social-spiritual growth as measured by the NIH-HEALS and its three factors. This supports the factors of Connection, Reflection & Introspection, and Trust & Acceptance as important elements for psycho-social-spiritual healing in cancer patients, and validates the use of the NIH-HEALS within psychedelic research.
Article
Full-text available
The use of plants with psychoactive properties by ancient communities has been confirmed in numerous archaeological studies conducted in almost every place on earth. Many tribes used their own characteristic psychoactive potions and, according to researchers, their use fostered the integration of the members of a given community, facilitated their existence in an occupied area and could be of significant importance for its survival. Around the psychoactive plants and toxic secretions of some species of fauna a conglomerate of myths, cults and the properties attributed to them has developed. Permanent traces of their presence remain in both non-material and material culture. The aim of this article is to present the representations of psychoactive substances in the beliefs of ancient communities, their occurrence in myths, rock or sepulchral art, and to discuss the reasons for their use during rituals. The article presents also the main causes of the diffusion of the use of psychoactive plants from the sacred to the profane sphere.
Article
Full-text available
The hallucinogen psilocybin is a potential novel treatment for treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Our goal is to review current knowledge on psilocybin and its efficacy in TRD. Literature searches were done on PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar, references reviewed in identified articles and other articles found on the website of COMPASS Pathways. Psilocybin treatment consists usually of a single oral administration of 25 mg of psilocybin along with psychological support for 5-8 hours during the ensuing hallucinogenic trip. Common side-effects include headache, nausea, fatigue and insomnia. A systematic review has demonstrated significant antidepressant efficacy in certain groups and a double-blind randomized study found antidepressant efficacy of psilocybin comparable to the SSRI escitalopram. In the phase 2 study of COMPASS Pathways, the psilocybin-COMP360 treatment led to a rapid response and remission as early as three weeks following the treatment for around one third of participants. Recent studies have shown that psilocybin significantly decreases the severity of depressive symptoms and is generally well tolerated. Further research will reveal whether it will be granted a license to treat treatment-resistant depression in the near future. There remains an urgent need for novel treatments for those who do not respond to current antidepressant therapies.
Article
Full-text available
A wide range of fungi and medicinal herbs, rich in hallucinogenic substances and widely used for mystic and medicinal purposes, can give rise to neurotoxic symptoms. We review the toxic syndromes that can arise from the ingestion of hallucinogenic fungi, cacti and plants, together with descriptions of cases of acute poisoning resulting from the use of medicinal herbs and from foodstuffs that are contaminated by mycotoxins. A series of different psychedelic fungi belonging to the Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Stropharia genera contain hallucinogenic alkaloids such as psilocybin. Some of the most notable plants displaying hallucinogenic and sedative properties are Papaver somniferum, Erytroxylum sp. and Cannabis sativa. Infusions of ayahuasca are obtained from the lianas and roots of different plants with psychoactive properties, such as Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which contain alkaloids derived from tryptamine and from the beta carboline harmala. Peyote, a cactus rich in mescaline, and Claviceps purpurea (a fungus rich in LSD) are strong hallucinogens. We also examine ergotism and mycotoxicosis from Arthrinium sp. Poisoning from mycotoxin containing moulds on sugar cane can give rise to encephalopathy and late dystonia. Some of the more noteworthy medicinal plants for which neurological toxicity has been reported are Hypericum perforatum, kava kava (Piper methysticum), Aconitum sp. and Callilepis laureola. Because of the increasingly more widespread consumption of herbs and fungi and their potentially neurotoxic effects, in clinical practice there is a need to be aware of the neurological syndromes deriving from their use.
Article
Peyote, a psychoactive cactus native to the Chihuahuan Desert, has been preserved from excavations at only two archaeological sites: Shumla Caves in the Lower Pecos region of southwest Texas and shelter CM-79 near Cuatro Ciénegas in Coahuila, Mexico. We determined three indistinguishable radiocarbon ages of 5160 ± 45, 5200 ± 35, and 5210 ± 35 14C years BP, yielding a mean age of 5195 ± 20 14C years BP for the three specimens from Shumla Caves. For one of the Cuatro Ciénegas specimens we obtained the first direct radiocarbon date of 835 ± 35 14C years BP. This study demonstrates the use of peyote by inhabitants of the Lower Pecos region of the Chihuahuan Desert about 6000 calendar years ago, and confirms its use by inhabitants of the Cuatro Ciénegas region of the Chihuahuan Desert in Late Prehistoric times. The Shumla Caves' specimens are composed of an aggregate of ground peyote mixed with other plant material, i.e., they appear to be manufactured peyote effigies, and are definitely not intact peyote buttons.
Article
La obra reúne doce libros, que se acabaron de sacar en blanco en mil quinientos sesenta y nueve. Es como una red barredera para sacar a luz todos los vocablos de la lengua mexicana y otros sin romanizar.
Article
Please note that I have uploaded an important update of this topic separately to Academia.edu in 2020: 4P-9: Drink/enema rituals in ancient Maya art. Part one: text (4P-9a) and Part two: figures (4P-9b). There are various enema scenes on classic Maya pottery, which undoubtedly represent rituals and may very well indicate that the ancient Maya took intoxicating enemas in a ritual context. This idea is quite contrary to the traditional view that the ancient Maya were a contemplative people, who did not indulge in ritual ecstasy. The occasional display of vomiting actors would seem to provide a plausible reason why the Maya opted for rectal application. Some scenes present a fair amount of evidence that an alcoholic beverage may have been taken rectally. Anecdotal experimental evidence suggests that an alcoholic liquid may certainly induce or intensify a state of inebriation, when it is administered via the rectal route. Other scenes open up the possibility that tobacco and the water lily or some other flowering plant may have served as an enema ingredient. The phytochemistry and psychopharmacology of tobacco are well documented and there can be little doubt that this herb may produce toxic effects, when it is taken in the form of a clyster. Unfortunately, little is still known about the constituents and pharmacological activity of the water lily. It is sometimes speculated that this plant is hallucinogenic, but experimental confirmation of this view is still awaited.
Article
Tobacco originates in the New World, where its use by the Pre-Columbian Indians was described by Spanish chroniclers. Studying these accounts it appears that a relatively large part of the descriptions, dealing with the use of tobacco by the Aztecs in Mexico, and on the Caribbean Isles, is devoted to the narcotic and hallucinogenic use of tobacco. In Mexico this use was mainly associated with the priesthood. It is concluded that in Pre-Columbian times tobacco possessed mind-altering properties, which were used by the indigenous population.
Article
In reconstructing early uses of psychotogens in Mesoamerica, mushrooms have occupied the attention of botanists and anthropologists almost the exclusion of other plant motifs. Not all the images and literary fragments extant lend themselves to mycological interpretation. Some authors have interpreted the peltate leaves and flower buds of the psychotogen Nymphaea ampla as being green mushrooms and/or stalked sea shells. The context of presentation, information on the water lily in Maya antiquity, and recent information on the chemistry of this white water lily suggest that we must reassess the role of Nymphaea ampla. In a reevaluation of these ancient literary and iconographic sources, it would seem that both mushrooms and water lilies emerge as important ritual psychotogens. While the contextual use of mushrooms is well known, the water lily has been largely ignored. This presentation provides some perspective on both of these important New World narcotics.
Article
The Aztecs in pre-Columbian Mexico used not only a large number of single hallucinogens, they also used some combinations. The present article describes reports of the use of teotlaqualli, an unction prepared from ololiuhqui and picietl, with a large number of additions. The work of the chroniclers of pre-Columbian Mexico served as a source of information. The teotlaqualli was offered to the gods, for whom it served as food. The Aztec priests smeared themselves with this unction, to lose fear and to get the appropriate state of mind to serve the Aztec gods. A few cases are reported in which the Aztec emperor or soldiers were smeared with teotlaqualli. It is suggested that the black color of some Aztec deities, as depicted in the codices, was due to anointment with teotlaqualli. In addition to its use for psychoactive purposes, teotlaqualli was used in medicine under the name teopatli.
Article
It is usually believed that drugs of abuse are smuggled into the United States or are clandestinely produced for illicit distribution. Less well known is that many hallucinogens and dissociative agents can be obtained from plants and fungi growing wild or in gardens. Some of these botanical sources can be located throughout the United States; others have a more narrow distribution. This article reviews plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine, reversible type A monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI), lysergic acid amide, the anticholinergic drugs atropine and scopolamine, or the diterpene salvinorin-A (Salvia divinorum). Also reviewed are mescaline-containing cacti, psilocybin/psilocin-containing mushrooms, and the Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina mushrooms that contain muscimol and ibotenic acid. Dangerous misidentification is most common with the mushrooms, but even a novice forager can quickly learn how to properly identify and prepare for ingestion many of these plants. Moreover, through the ever-expanding dissemination of information via the Internet, this knowledge is being obtained and acted upon by more and more individuals. This general overview includes information on the geographical range, drug content, preparation, intoxication, and the special health risks associated with some of these plants. Information is also offered on the unique issue of when bona fide religions use such plants as sacraments in the United States. In addition to the Native American Church's (NAC) longstanding right to peyote, two religions of Brazilian origin, the Santo Daime and the Uniao do Vegetal (UDV), are seeking legal protection in the United States for their use of sacramental dimethyltryptamine-containing "ayahuasca."
Article
The San Pedro cactus contains the alkaloid mescaline and other derivates of phenethylamine with hallucinogenic properties. This cactus was used throughout history by a number of different pre-Columbine cultures and civilisations that settled in northern Peru. In this article we review the ethno-archaeological and ethno-historical evidence of the ritual use of the San Pedro cactus in the pre-Columbine cultures, and these findings are compared with the information provided by current ethnographical studies. The longer a cactus has been stored, the stronger and the higher its content in mescaline-derived alkaloids will be. Archaeological evidence has been found of the use of San Pedro for magical-religious purposes in the following pre-Columbine cultures: Cupisnique (1500 BC), Chavin (1000 BC), Moche (100-750 AD) and Lambayeque (750-1350 AD). Today's master shamans use San Pedro on altars ('mesas') erected for healing rites in order to treat enchantment and bad luck. The mesa follows a sophisticated ritual: 'levantar' (raise) or sniff tobacco with alcohol, ingest San Pedro, pinpoint the diseases, cleanse the evil and 'florecer' (flourish) the sick person. The mesa rite is performed in the early hours of Tuesdays and Fridays, which are sacred days in the Andean religions. San Pedro is sometimes replaced by an infusion of plants and seeds that contain hallucinogenic components, such as ayahuasca and the 'mishas' (Brugmansia sp.). The ancient tradition of using the San Pedro cactus for healing and hallucinogenic purposes has remained part of the culture in Andean shamanism up to the present day.
Article
Epilepsy was a well-recognized disease in pre-Columbian cultures. However, anthropological studies about epilepsy in native cultures living at the present time are scarce. The objective of this paper was to study native perception and myths about epilepsy, their magic-religious healing rites and ceremonies, and the natural treatments that archaic cultures used. An anthropological fieldwork was performed in Central and South America with Tzeltal Maya (Chiapas, Mexico, 1995), Kamayurá (Matto Grosso, Brazil, 1999) and Uru-Chipaya people (Bolivian Andes, 2004). We collected information from shamans and medicine men about epilepsy beliefs and the use of traditional treatments. Epilepsy is called tub tub ikal by Tzeltal people. It is caused by an attack suffered by the animal spirit who accompanies the person, after a fight between the spirits who serve the forces of good and evil. People with chronic epilepsy are considered witches. Epilepsy is called teawarup by Kamayurá, and is caused by the revenge of the spirit (mama'e) of the armadillo killed by a huntsman. It is treated with two roots, tsimó and wewurú, kneaded and diluted in water. Epilepsy is called tukuri by the Chipaya people, and is originated by a witchcraft that enters into the nose and the head, as a wind. Tukuri is treated with a ritual animal sacrifice called willancha, and by taking several dried insect infusions and bird's blood. These American native cultures have developed a system of orally transmitted knowledge about epilepsy based on magic-religious traditions.
Síndromes neurológicos asociados con el con-sumo de plantas y hongos con componente tóxico (II) Hongos y plantas alucinógenos, micotoxinas y hierbas medicinales
  • Carod
Carod-Artal F. Síndromes neurológicos asociados con el con-sumo de plantas y hongos con componente tóxico (II). Hongos y plantas alucinógenos, micotoxinas y hierbas medicinales. Rev Neurol. 2003;36:951—60.
Alucinógenos y cultura. Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Eco-nómica
  • Pt Furst
Furst PT. Alucinógenos y cultura. Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Eco-nómica; 2002.
Grandeza y decadencia de los mayas. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica
  • Jes Thompson
Thompson JES. Grandeza y decadencia de los mayas. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 1984. 1986;16:213—62.
Relación de las cosas de Yucatán. Madrid: His-toria 16
  • Diego
  • Landa
Diego de Landa. Relación de las cosas de Yucatán. Madrid: His-toria 16; 1985.
Problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias. Madrid: Alianza Editorial
  • Cárdenas Juan De
Juan de Cárdenas. Problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias. Madrid: Alianza Editorial; 1988.
Historia de las Indias de Nueva Españ. México: Edito-rial Porrúa
  • D Durán
Durán D. Historia de las Indias de Nueva Españ. México: Edito-rial Porrúa; 1967.
The Olmec world. Ritual and rulership. Princeton: The Art Museum
  • M Coe
Coe M. The Olmec world. Ritual and rulership. Princeton: The Art Museum, Princeton University; 1996.
Historia de Guatemala o Recor-dación florida
  • Madrid
Madrid: Historia de Guatemala o Recor-dación florida; 1882.
Los mayas. Una civilización milenaria
Grube N, editor. Los mayas. Una civilización milenaria. Colonia: ed. Koneman; 2001.
Alucinógenos y cultura. Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Económica
  • P T Furst
Furst PT. Alucinógenos y cultura. Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 2002.
Historia de Guatemala o Recordación florida. Madrid: Ed. Luis Navarro
  • Francisco
  • Fuentes Y Guzmán
Francisco. Fuentes y Guzmán. Historia de Guatemala o Recordación florida. Madrid: Ed. Luis Navarro; 1882.
Historia natural de Nueva España
  • Hernández Francisco
Hernández Francisco. Historia natural de Nueva España. Obras completas. México: UNAM; 1959.