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Dietary administration of a Gracilaria tenuistipitata extract enhances the immune response and resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus and white spot syndrome virus in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei
Abstract
The haemogram, phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (RBs), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, lysozyme activity, and the mitotic index of haematopoietic tissue (HPT) were examined after the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei had been fed diets containing the hot-water extract of Gracilaria tenuistipitata at 0 (control), 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g kg(-1) for 7-35 days. Results indicated that these parameters directly increased with the amount of extract and time, but slightly decreased after 35 days. RBs, SOD activity, and GPx activity reached the highest levels after 14 days, whereas PO and lysozyme activities reached the highest levels after 28 days. In a separate experiment, white shrimp L. vannamei, which had been fed diets containing the extract for 14 days, were challenged with Vibrio alginolyticus at 2 × 10(6) cfu shrimp(-1) and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) at 1 × 10(3) copies shrimp(-1), and then placed in seawater. The survival rate of shrimp fed the extract-containing diets was significantly higher than that of shrimp fed the control diet at 72-144 h post-challenge. We concluded that dietary administration of the G. tenuistipitata extract at ≤1.0 g kg(-1) could enhance the innate immunity within 14 days as evidenced by the increases in immune parameters and mitotic index of HPT in shrimp and their enhanced resistance against V. alginolyticus and WSSV infections. Shrimp fed the extract-containing diets showed a higher and continuous increase in the humoral response indicating its persistent role in innate immunity.
... This shrimp is known for its quick development, high intensification, low protein requirements, strong tolerance to a broad range of water salinities, and other characteristics that fit highly intensive aquaculture [3]. However, issues with declining pond habitats have affected shrimp aquaculture, which has led to an increase in stress-induced disease occurrences, primarily with bacterial and viral etiologies [4]. ...
... In addition, shrimp white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei receiving extracts of G. tenuistipitata at 2.0 g kg − 1 revealed potential protection with higher survival rates against Vibrio harveyi (V. harveyi) infection [71], as well as, against Vibrio alginolyticus or/ and WSSV pathogens [4]. The survival rate was significantly increased in whiteleg shrimp supplemented with Gracilaria corticata extracted diet and exposed to WSSV injection [10]. ...
... The survival rate was significantly increased in whiteleg shrimp supplemented with Gracilaria corticata extracted diet and exposed to WSSV injection [10]. Effectively, bioactive compounds contained in Gracilaria species, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 fatty acids (ɷ-3)), sulfated polysaccharides (e.g., agar and carrageenan, sulphated galactans, and porphyrans), and lectins, have been largely associated with antiviral defenses via competing with WSSV entry to target tissues [4,72,73], giving their ability to boost the innate immunity of shrimp post-WSSV challenge as evidenced by gradual vanishing of white spots in supplemented shrimp exposed to WSSV. It was previously reported that shrimp could resist a wide range of infectious pathogen attacks because immunostimulants swiftly initiate phagocytosis and the generation of ROS [33]. ...
Our work evaluated the possible underlying roles of dietary dried seaweed (Gracilaria verrucosa; GV) on the inherent immune response, antioxidant capacity, immune-related gene expression, and protection of whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) contra white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Three hundred and sixty healthy L. vannamei (15.26 g ± 1.29 g) were graded into four supplemental groups ( Triplicate/group) and fed with diets including 0 (control), 2, 4, and 8 g GV (kg diet) ⁻¹ for 21 days. Following the feeding period, each group of shrimp received an intramuscular WSSV injection (1.4 × 10⁶ copies/ml). Hemolymph and gills samples were collected before and after the challenge with WSSV. Notably, the administration of dietary GV significantly enhanced the innate immune parameters of pacific white shrimp including total hemocyte count (THC), phagocytosis, phenoloxidase activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and lysozyme activity before and after challenge with WSSV. Additionally, dietary supplementation of 4, and 8 g of GV (kg diet)⁻¹ remarkably elevated ACP, AKP, SOD, GPx, and catalase activities along with a decrease in the MDA level in gills of shrimp before and post-WSSV challenge. In response to the GV supplement, significant upregulation of expression of ALF1, CRU1, PEN4, and CTL with downregulation of TRAF6, STAT, TLR1, and NOS genes was recorded in the gills tissue before and post-challenge with WSSV, especially at a dose of 8.0 GV g kg − 1. Dietary inoculated shrimp with GV revealed notably higher survival percentages after being challenged with WSSV. Conclusively, these data indicate that Gracilaria verrucosa can be recommended as a valuable supplemented seaweed to stimulate the innate immunity and enhance the health of Litopenaeus vannamei against viral infection.
... In the present study, the proPO activity of extract-treated shrimp was elevated both before and after WSSV exposure compared to the control. Similar to this, proPO activity in shrimps was enhanced when they were fed an enriched diet containing Cynodon dactylon, Argemone mexicana, Gracilaria tenuistipitata, or Gracilaria corticata as opposed to a control diet to prevent WSSV infection (Balasubramanian et al. 2008b;Sirirustananun et al. 2011;Palanikumar et al. 2018;Houshmand et al. 2022). In addition, the extract of Z. officinale and the component zingerone both had a beneficial influence on the PO activity of L. vannamei when it was tested against bacteria (Chang et al. 2012;Shahraki et al. 2021). ...
... The present study revealed that dietary supplementation with Z. officinale and A. marmelos extracts increased SOD activity in shrimp, resulting in a robust immunological response against WSSV. In accordance with the findings of other studies, such as Balasubramanian et al. (2008b) and Sirirustananun et al. (2011), the dietary extracts of Cynodon dactylon and Gracilaria tenuistipitata increased the SOD activity of shrimps when challenged with WSSV. Similarly, Gynura bicolor extract and Gracilaria corticata extract could enhance the enzymatic activity of SOD against WSSV when shrimp were fed a diet including the extracts (Wu et al. 2015;Afsharnasab et al. 2016). ...
... Wu et al. (2015) showed that WSSV-challenged shrimp fed with diets containing Gynura bicolor extract had a reduced mortality rate. Similarly, dietary extracts from the plants Argemone mexicana, Ceriops tagal, and Gracilaria tenuistipitata were able to minimize the mortality of shrimps when they were exposed to WSSV (Sirirustananun et al. 2011;Sudheer et al. 2012;Palanikumar et al. 2018). It has also been observed that the addition of ginger extract and zingerone to the diet of L. vannamei shrimp increased their resistance to Photobacterium damselae and Vibrio alginolyticus (Chang et al. 2012;Shahraki et al. 2021). ...
This study was conducted to determine the effect of oral administration of Zingiber officinale and Aegle marmelos extracts on the growth performance and immunomodulatory activities of the shrimp Penaeus monodon against white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). A methanol extract of the Z. officinale rhizome and A. marmelos leaf was sprayed into a pellet feed at concentrations of 0% (control), 0.05% (treatment 1), and 0.1% (treatment 2), respectively. Shrimps fed the extract (T1) showed substantial improvements in growth performance and feed utilization efficiency when compared to the control group. Extract-fed shrimp also exhibited an increase in immune-related gene expression in comparison to controls. After 4 weeks of feeding, shrimp were injected with the white spot syndrome virus and observed for another 2 weeks to determine mortality. Compared to shrimp fed the control diet, Z. officinale and A. marmelos extract–fed shrimp displayed a decrease in hemolymph clotting time and an increase in immunological parameters such as total hemocyte count, prophenoloxidase activity, and superoxide dismutase activity both before and after viral challenge. Fourteen days after the WSSV challenge, the cumulative mortality of extract-fed shrimp was considerably lower compared to the mortality of the control group which died shortly after the challenge. Therefore, the Z. officinale and A. marmelos extracts could be used as immunostimulants to enhance the growth and resistance of shrimp against the white spot syndrome virus.
... Junior et al. (2017) reported that L. vannamei fed an ethanolic extract of C. dactylon showed considerably elevated levels of THC and AA, as well as significant variations in PO over time. In addition to terrestrial plants, seaweeds are a possible source of immunostimulants, as studies have demonstrated that crude extracts of seaweeds or chemicals derived from them can boost shrimp innate immunity and make shrimp farming more environmentally friendly (Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Wongprasert et al., 2014;Afsharnasab et al., 2016;Jasmanindar et al., 2018). Gracilaria spp. ...
... are essential red algae with a high mineral and bioactive component content, including alkaloids, glycosides, lectins, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, phytic acid, and tannins (Sangeetha et al., 2014). For instance, the extract of G. tenuistipitata or G. corticata (hot water) with food could increase L. vannamei's resistance to WSSV by boosting immunological markers, such as THC, SOD, RB, PO, LA, and the mitotic index of hematopoietic tissue (Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Houshmand et al., 2022) (Table 2). In a separate investigation, immersing shrimp L. vannamei in saltwater with an aqueous extract of Gracilaria tenuistipitata (600 mg/L) enhanced their resistance and immunological response (THC, PO, RB, SOD, and LA) to WSSV . ...
... For instance, a diet containing extracts of A. Mexicana, C. tagal, and C. dactylon could boost the survival rate of shrimp exposed to WSSV ( Table 2). The extract and powder of G. tenuistipitata and G. corticata reduced mortality or increased survival of L. vannamei when they were fed or immersed in the extract (Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Lin et al., 2011;Afsharnasab et al., 2016) (Table 2). It has been shown that Sargassum spp. ...
Disease outbreaks in shrimp have increased as the global shrimp aquaculture industry has become more intensive. The white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is a highly virulent and lethal infection that causes the most harm to global penaeid shrimp production, with a massive mortality rate of 80 to 100% within 3 to 10 days of the onset of clinical symptoms. As there is no effective treatment for the disease, numerous control or management measures have been implemented to eradicate the virus. Plants can serve as an eco-friendly alternative to antibiotics or as immunostimulants for shrimp against WSSV with significant enhancement of immune parameters. This review focuses on terrestrial and marine plants/algae that can stimulate shrimp immunity against WSSV, screening of plant extracts against WSSV, and various plant forms (powder, crude extract, fraction, and their compounds) that can inhibit WSSV infection in shrimp by increasing their immune response. The Sargassaceae family has been reported as an immunostimulant against WSSV the most frequently, followed by the Gracilariaceae, Poaceae, and Leguminosae families. Further studies are necessary to identify the active compounds and to apply them on a large scale in shrimp aquaculture.
... Shrimp depend only on non-specific (innate) immune processes for resistance against infections; they lack specialized white blood cells (WBCs) involved in antibody production and immunological memory (lymphocytes) [46][47][48]. Medicinal plants can exert immunostimulant effects thanks to compounds that activate immune mechanisms and increase resistance against diseases [49][50][51][52][53]. These plants are administered in their entirety or as parts (leaf, seed or root), as extracts or compounds; with feed additives, as a single extract or as the mixture of extracted compounds, and could even be applied together with prebiotics or other immunostimulants [47,54]. ...
... Besides terrestrial plants, seaweed extracts have been applied as therapeutics and prophylactics to manage fish or shrimp health (Vatsos & Rebours 2014). For instance, the extract of Gracilaria -and Aspargopsis has been used as an alternative to synthetic antibiotics against pathogen attacks, and to develop the immunity of shrimp [50,109,110]. Gracilaria verrucosa and Gracilaria tenuistipitata are presently being used in Taiwan as [47] (continued on next page) the primary red seaweeds for those purposes [111]. ...
... For centuries, medicinal plants have been applied as immunostimulants due to the presene of bioactive molecules that activate white blood cells (WBC) and boost an animal's resistance [30]. Interest in using plant extracts as shrimp immunostimulants has increased over the previous decade [50,51]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that administration in shrimp species of plants or their extracts could improve the immunological parameters, including phagocytic activity (PA), phenoloxidase activity (PO), respiratory burst (RB) activity, clearance efficiency, total haemocyte counts (THC), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, complement activity, lysozyme activity (LA), total protein (globulin and albumin) (TP) and antiprotease activity [49,51,55,109,155,157]. ...
Disease epidemics in shrimp aquaculture increase apace with the development of aquaculture systems throughout the world. The disease caused by Vibrio spp. (vibriosis) is considered the most devastating, which has made it the most feared bacterial disease in the shrimp sector. In aquaculture, several strategies have already been applied to control Vibrio strains, including chemicals, probiotics, antibiotics, natural products from plants, including plant oils; hence, there has been considerable attention for using plants in shrimp aquaculture to provide sustainable, eco-friendly and safe compounds, such as alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids and flavonoids for replacing chemical compounds and antibiotics in current aquaculture. Medicinal plants may also have immunostimulating activity, increase growth and resistance in shrimps. The present paper aims to review the inhibition of Vibrio spp. in shrimp by medicinal plants, using both in vitro or/and in vivo techniques. Several medicinal plants appear capable of inhibiting growth of Vibrio pathogens outside living shrimp or in the body of shrimp, through enhancing growth and immune capacity when shrimps are fed or injected with them. In the current review Gracilaria spp. (Gracilariaceae family) and Sargassum spp. (family Sargassaceae) have been used most for in vitro and in vivo experiments. Among the terrestrial plants, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Psidium guajava, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, and Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae family) had significant activity against Vibrio.
... Various metabolites with diverse bioactive compounds, including antioxidant and antibacterial properties, are synthesized by macro and microalgae (Carvalho et al. 2017;Monteiro et al. 2020) (Fig. 2). Studies conducted by Sirirustananun et al. (2011) and del Rocío Quezada-Rodríguez and Fajer-Ávila (2017) have shown that juvenile fish and shrimp fed diets supplemented with algal extracts at concentrations as low as 0.1% exhibited enhanced lysozyme, phagocytic, complement, respiratory burst activity, and increased plasma protein levels. Additionally, research indicates that brown algal extracts mitigate the release of inflammatory mediators in farm animals (Sweeney et al. 2012;Walsh et al. 2013). ...
... Extracts from the red seaweed Gracilaria tenuistipitata have demonstrated to enhance the immune responses of Penaeus vannamei against White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in shrimp (Sirirustananun et al. 2011). Additionally, the methanolic extract of the red macroalgae Hypnea spinella exhibits potent antiviral activity against WSSV infection in the freshwater crab Paratelphusa hydrodomous (Dinesh et al. 2014). ...
In the aquaculture industry, tilapia farming stands out as one of the most lucrative and rapidly expanding trades. The farming of tilapia has witnessed significant growth due to its high protein content, large size, fast growth, and culinary appeal. However, as aquaculture becomes more intensive, tilapia are increasingly susceptible to emerging infections. Epidemics of tilapia lake virus (TiLV) disease during the summer months have been observed to cause significant mortality in tilapia across various life stages. Seaweed-derived bioactive substances have been extensively studied for their broad antiviral properties. These compounds can enhance the host’s immune responses or directly target and inhibit virus replication before it infects host cells. Highlighting the serious concerns of emerging disease in farmed tilapia, and possibility of exploring novel compounds for disease remediation, the present review explores seaweeds as a valuable source of antiviral agents for the development of innovative vaccines and medications against TiLV. The review highlights future research directions to expedite the development of new disease treatments in tilapia farming.
... newly formed cells are released in the circulatory system to uphold the shrimp's haemocyte and ensure its proper functioning (Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Huang et al., 2020). In crustaceans, haemolymph coagulation is a component of the innate immune functions; it inhibits haemolymph leaking and supports the body's defense against the spread of intruders like bacteria. ...
... The present investigation documented a rise in proPO activity in shrimp subjected to the extract, in comparison to the control group which is consistent with previous research. For instance, The proPO function in shrimps was augmented when they were administered a herbal-supplement diet consisting of Argemone mexicana (Palanikumar et al., 2018), Gracilaria tenuistipitata (Sirirustananun et al., 2011), Cystoseira trinodis (Salehpour et al., 2021), Zingiber officinale and Aegle marmelos (Ghosh et al., 2023) against WSSV infection. The extract's immunostimulant compounds potentially engaged with pattern recognition proteins (PRPs), so initiating the activation of the proPO system, afterwards causing in immunomodulation (Citarasu et al., 2006;Palanikumar et al., 2018). ...
Justicia adhatoda, also known as "Vasaka plant," is employed in Ayurvedic medicine to treat a wide range of human diseases. This study aimed to explore the potential application of Vasaka leaf extract (VLE) as a viable option for enhancing the growth and immune response of Penaeus monodon. Three diets containing varying amounts of Vasaka leaves (0 g [Control], 0.5 g/kg feed [VLE0.5], and 1 g/kg feed [VLE1.0]) were consumed to replicate groups of shrimp in 60 L aquarium tanks for 28 days. The assessment of growth was conducted by the evaluation of many parameters, including weight gain, specific growth rate, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and survival rate. The results of the experiment indicate that there were no statistically significant differences in the growth performance and survival rate of the shrimp across the various experimental groups. The introduction of Vasaka leaf as a dietary supplement resulted in a significant enhancement of shrimp immunity through the upregulation of total haemocyte count, prophenoloxidase activity, and superoxide dismutase activity, accompanied by a concurrent decrease in haemolymph clotting time. These results propose that nutritional supplementation with Vasaka leaf took no negative effect on the growth of P. monodon but did increase its non-specific immune response and can be considered as safe in shrimp culture.
... There are many more candidates like this, such as Pongamia pinnata [146], Ulva intestinalis [147], and Gracilaria tenuistipitata [148]. WSSV is one of the most thoroughly studied aquatic viruses to date, as the major disaster it has brought to shrimp and crabs is one of the problems that fisheries and biologists still have to face. ...
... It should be noted that the antiviral mechanisms of some of these medicinal plants and active pharmaceutical ingredients have not been confirmed, but are merely inferences made by researchers on the basis of past results. Rhus verniciflua Stokes Flavonoids Inducing apoptosis of cells [47] Celosia cristata and Raphanus sativus Extract Inducing gene expression involved in the innate immune response [57] Licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis, GUF) Extract; glycyrrhizin (GL); glycyrrhetinic acid (GLA) Inhibiting the early fusion steps [59] / Curcumin Inhibiting virus entry in cells [61] Olive tree leaf (Olea europaea) (LExt) Extract; oleuropein (Ole) Inactivating virus particles; inhibiting cell-to-cell spread [63] / α-Lipoic acid (LA) Inducing antiviral gene expression; reducing VHSV-induced oxidative stress [65] SVCV / β-Glucose Regulating the innate immune response [76] Herbaspirillum camelliae Selenium Activating IFN-related gene expression [77] Astragalus membranaceus Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) Activating IFN-related gene expression [80] Astragalus membranaceus APS Stimulating the immune response of host; reducing SVCV-induced apoptosis [150] / Palmitic acid (PA) Inhibiting autophagy [81] Psoralea corylifolia Bavachin (BVN) Blocking SVCV-induced apoptosis [84] Bupleurum yinchowense Saikosaponin D (SSD) Reducing SVCV-induced apoptosis [85] Viola philippica Extract Disturbing virus binding, entry, and replication in host cells [129] Glycyrrhiza uralensis (GUF) Extract Impacting the binding of virus particles to cell receptors and the replication of viruses in host cells [130] WSSV Green tea EGCG Inducing gene expression involved in the innate immune response [138,139] Typha angustifolia Naringenin (NAR) Restraining early viral gene replication [140] Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae Hesperidin Improving nonspecific immunity [142] Gardenia jasminoides Extract Blocking viral immediate-early stage gene transcript [143] Gardenia jasminoides Genipin (GN) Attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory; decreasing signal transducer and activator of transcription gene expression [151] Eucommia ulmoides Geniposidic acid (GPA) Restraining early viral gene replication; promoting apoptosis [144] Pongamia pinnata Bis(2-methylheptyl)phthalate Improving nonspecific immunity [146] Gracilaria tenuistipitata Extract Enhancing the innate immunity [148] Kappaphycus alvarezii Carrageenan Improving nonspecific immunity [152] ...
Aquaculture offers a promising source of economic and healthy protein for human consumption, which can improve wellbeing. Viral diseases are the most serious type of diseases affecting aquatic animals and a major obstacle to the development of the aquaculture industry. In the background of antibiotic-free farming, the development and application of antibiotic alternatives has become one of the most important issues in aquaculture. In recent years, many medicinal plants and their active pharmaceutical ingredients have been found to be effective in the treatment and prevention of viral diseases in aquatic animals. Compared with chemical drugs and antibiotics, medicinal plants have fewer side-effects, produce little drug resistance, and exhibit low toxicity to the water environment. Most medicinal plants can effectively improve the growth performance of aquatic animals; thus, they are becoming increasingly valued and widely used in aquaculture. The present review summarizes the promising antiviral activities of medicinal plants and their active pharmaceutical ingredients against aquatic viruses. Furthermore, it also explains their possible mechanisms of action and possible implications in the prevention or treatment of viral diseases in aquaculture. This article could lay the foundation for the future development of harmless drugs for the prevention and control of viral disease outbreaks in aquaculture.
... In the year 1992, the WSSV virus that was first isolated in Taiwan had been reported to cause deaths extensively in crustaceans like crabs and shrimps and also other aquatic animal species (Lo et al. 1996;Hossain et al. 2001). Recently, several studies have reported the activity of various seaweed species against WSSV virus Sirirustananun et al. 2011). The extracts of red seaweed Gracilaria tenuistipitata have been found to increase significantly the immunological activities of the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei against WSSV, and hence, the shrimp mortality was reduced (Sirirustananun et al. 2011). ...
... Recently, several studies have reported the activity of various seaweed species against WSSV virus Sirirustananun et al. 2011). The extracts of red seaweed Gracilaria tenuistipitata have been found to increase significantly the immunological activities of the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei against WSSV, and hence, the shrimp mortality was reduced (Sirirustananun et al. 2011). Similarly, significant antiviral activity has also been reported in freshwater crab Paratelphusa hydrodomous against WSSV infection when treated with the methanolic extract of red macroalga Hypnea spinella (Dinesh et al. 2014). ...
Aquaculture is growing post-haste in recent years particularly in the fish and shrimp production. The rapid growth of aquaculture and increasing demand for fish have led to a rapid development of the fish and shrimp industry, resulting in increased production of both fish and shrimps. As a result, there is a greater risk of disease outbreaks. Mass mortalities in aquaculture are primarily due to infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Among them, viral diseases are the most devastating, causing huge loss in the production of both cultured fish and shellfishes. There are several effective methods of treatment for these disease outbreaks. This review focuses on various methods of controlling the viral pathogens using various treatment methods like use of medicinal plants and seaweed extracts, bioactive compounds from actinomycetes, vaccines, probiotic microbes, chemicals, nanoparticles, and green synthesis of nanoparticles.
... (Hoa et al. 2018) or L. vannamei integrated with G. vermiculophylla (Anaya-Rosas et al. 2019) induced immune responses and enhanced protection against V. parahaemolyticus infection. Moreover, L. vannamei receiving G. tenuistipitata extract (GTE) via injection (Hou and Chen 2005) or immersion (Yeh et al. 2010) coupled with a diet containing GTE (Sirirustananun et al. 2011) resulted in improved resistance to V. alginolyticus and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) challenges. Similarly, L. vannamei fed a diet containing G. verrucosa extract (Jasmanindar et al. 2018), sulphated polysaccharides from G. birdiae (Cantelli et al. 2019), G. lemaneiformis meal (Niu et al. 2019) or Ulva prolifera (Ge et al. 2019b) induced better disease resistance to WSSV. ...
... L. vannamei that received GTE via immersion were shown to stimulate the earlier recovery of immune parameters following a V. alginolyticus challenge and the combined stresses of a V. alginolyticus challenge and temperature change (Yeh et al. 2010). Similarly, L. vannamei shrimp were fed a diet containing GTE, which was observed to elevate protection against V. alginolyticus and WSSV challenges (Sirirustananun et al. 2011). Additionally, P. monodon shrimp fed a diet containing sulphated galactans (SG) isolated from G. fisheri triggered immunostimulatory and antiviral activities that could protect shrimp from WSSV infection since immune parameters including total haemocytes, phenoloxidase activity, superoxide anions and superoxide dismutase were enhanced in shrimp . ...
The integration of seaweeds (extractive, low-footprint species) into aquaculture systems has been considered an alternative approach for the sustainable development of the shrimp industry, which aims to expand in an environmentally friendly way. Two consecutive experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of integrating various densities of black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon post-larvae (PL) and red seaweed Gracilaria tenuistipitata on water quality and shrimp performance in the nursery phase. The first experiment involved a 3 × 4 factorial design with three levels of shrimp density (1000; 2000 and 3000 PL m−3) and four levels of red seaweed density (0, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 kg m−3) randomly allocated in triplicate tanks for 30 days. Shrimp PL (with a mean weight of 0.012 ± 0.002 g and length of 1.12 ± 0.09 cm) and red seaweed were reared in 150 L tanks at a salinity of 15 g L−1. Significant synergistic effects between shrimp and seaweed densities were observed for the NO3− total nitrogen (TN) and PO43− contents, as well as for the survival (p < 0.05) and production of shrimp (p < 0.01). The integration of shrimp and red seaweed significantly decreased the concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in the rearing tanks and greatly enhanced the survival and growth rate of shrimp. In particular, increased stocking density resulted in poorer growth performance but enhanced production. Applying stocking densities of 1000 and 2000 PL m−3 obtained larger shrimp size, while a density of 3000 PL m−3 achieved the highest production output in the integrated system. In the second experiment, which followed the 30-day growth trial, shrimp quality was assessed via an immersion challenge test using pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus (a concentration of 2 × 108 CFU mL−1) on the shrimp groups previously stocked at a density of 3000 PL m−3 and integrated with different quantities of seaweed. After 14 days of challenge, the cumulative mortality in the monoculture system averaged 75.6%, which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in the integrated groups (17.8–31.1%). It is concluded that the integration of P. monodon shrimp and G. tenuistipitata improved tank water quality as well as shrimp survival and growth while also enhancing the antibacterial activity of shrimp against V. parahaemolyticus infection in the nursery phase.
... In high-density farming environments, aquatic animals leave organic waste such as feces and unconsumed feed in the water system and ammonia is produced when proteins in the waste are mineralized (Ren et al., 2015;Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Koul, 2001). Ammonia exists mainly in the form of ionic (NH 4 + ) and non-ionic ammonia (NH 3 ), the latter is the main hazard to aquatic animals (Eddy, 2010;Ip et al., 2001;Liew et al., 2013). ...
... Ammonia exists mainly in the form of ionic (NH 4 + ) and non-ionic ammonia (NH 3 ), the latter is the main hazard to aquatic animals (Eddy, 2010;Ip et al., 2001;Liew et al., 2013). Because of its lipid solubility and lack of charge, NH 3 is more likely to spread to the blood or hemolymph through the cell membrane and affected the survival of organisms (Sirirustananun et al., 2011). Studies have found that high concentration of ammonia nitrogen can downregulate the activity of non-specific immune enzymes in aquatic animals (Farrelly et al., 2015), lead to different degrees damage of organs (Benli et al., 2008;Miron et al., 2008;Li et al., 2014) and decrease feeding rate whereas increase mortality (Rodríguez-Ramos et al., 2008). ...
As one of the main toxic substances in aquaculture water, ammonia causes seriously physiological harm to aquatic animals. In order to investigate the effects of ammonia exposure on the antioxidant defense, immune response, and NF-κB signaling pathway in the Chinese Strip-necked Turtle (Mauremys sinensis), we designed two experimental groups (control and 6.45 mM ammonia), and sampled at 6 h, 24 h, 48 h, re 24 h (recover 24 h), and re 48 h. The results showed that the blood ammonia (BA) content was significantly increased when the turtles were subjected to ammonia, and the activities of cholinesterase (CHE) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in the blood also showed a significant upward trend. The malondialdehyde (MDA) content continuously increased during ammonia exposure, and more than doubled at 48 h compared with the control group. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), catalase (CAT) and their corresponding mRNA expression levels in liver during ammonia exposure were obviously increased when compared to control group, but most decreased to the normal levels at re 48 h. In addition, the mRNA and protein expression levels of NF-E2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) showed similar up-regulation patterns to antioxidase during ammonia exposed periods; whereas Nrf2 negative regulator kelch-like ECH-binding protein 1 (Keap1) showed opposite patterns. Moreover, the mRNA expression levels of heat shock proteins (HSP70, HSP90) significantly elevated upon the exposure of ammonia. Furthermore, ammonia increased the mRNA levels of p50 and p65 at different exposed times. Similarly, the protein expression levels of p50 and p65 also significantly increased at exposed times. The transcription levels of immune cytokines (BAFF and IL-6) were upregulated. In the recovery periods, there was a decline but did not return to normal levels. Taken together, these results indicated that antioxidation, immunity, and NF-κB signaling played a certain protective role for Mauremys sinensis under ammonia exposure. Our results will be helpful to understand the mechanism of aquatic toxicology induced by ammonia in turtles.
... Điều này cho thấy khi bổ sung 1,2%RB thì tôm có khả năng chịu sốc ammonia tốt hơn các nghiệm thức còn lại. Sirirustananun et al. (2011) báo cáo rằng bổ sung chất chiết xuất từ rong câu chỉ G. tenuistipitata với tỉ lệ từ 0,5 đến 2 g/kg thức ăn trong 35 ngày đã giúp gia tăng hệ miễn dịch và sức đề kháng đối với Vibrio alginolyticus và bệnh đốm trắng cho tôm thẻ chân trắng (L. vannamei). ...
Nghiên cứu đánh giá ảnh hưởng của việc bổ sung hỗn hợp ly trích từ rong bún (Enteromorpha intestinalis) vào thức ăn ương hậu ấu trùng tôm sú gồm: Nghiệm thức đối chứng không bổ sung hỗn hợp ly trích (0%) và 4 nghiệm thức còn lại bổ sung hỗn hợp ly trích vào thức ăn với các mức 0,3%, 0,6%, 0,9% và 1,2%. Sau 30 ngày thí nghiệm, kết quả cho thấy bổ sung chất chiết rong bún không ảnh hưởng đến tỉ lệ sống của tôm. Bổ sung 0,6%, 0,9% và 1,2% chất chiết rong bún cho kết quả tốt hơn về tăng trưởng, năng suất và hệ số tiêu tốn thức ăn (p<0,05). Khi gây sốc độ mặn, tôm ở nghiệm thức đối chứng có tỉ lệ chết tích lũy cao hơn so với tôm được bổ sung chất chiết. Khi gây sốc tôm bằng ammonia (40 mg/L), tôm ở nghiệm thức 1,2%RB có tỉ lệ chết tích lũy thấp nhất. Kết quả cho thấy bổ sung hỗn hợp chiết xuất từ rong bún ở mức 1,2% giúp cải thiện tăng trưởng, năng suất, hiệu quả sử dụng thức ăn và chất lượng tôm giống tốt nhất.
... Việc sử dụng rong biển trong hệ thống nuôi kết hợp được đề xuất như một giải pháp phát triển nuôi thủy sản bền vững với môi trường, như là nguồn thức ăn cơ bản và cho việc xử lí nguồn nước do khả năng hấp thu chất dinh dưỡng từ nước thải [22,23]. Ngoài tác dụng xử lý ô nhiễm dinh dưỡng trong các ao nuôi, rong biển còn có khả năng giúp tăng sức đề kháng, chống stress [14] và kích thích tăng trưởng [13] do rong có chứa các hợp chất có hoạt tính sinh học như polysaccharide, sulfated galactans [24]. Rong câu (Gracilaria sp.) được ghi nhận có chứa nhiều hợp chất giúp tăng miễn dịch và có thể thay thế một phần thức ăn công nghiệp trong nuôi tôm thẻ chân trắng [21]. ...
Nghiên cứu được thực hiện nhằm đánh giá ảnh hưởng của hai loài rong khác nhau lên chất lượng nước, sinh trưởng, tỷ lệ sống và năng suất của tôm thẻ chân trắng (Litopenaeus vannamei). Tôm được nuôi trong 60 ngày với 3 nghiệm thức: nghiệm thức 1 (đối chứng) nuôi tôm đơn; nghiệm thức 2 (tôm - rong câu Gracilaria tenuistipitata); nghiệm thức 3 (tôm - rong nho Caulerpa lentillifera). Hai loài rong được nuôi trong bể nuôi tôm với mật độ 2 kg/m3; mật độ tôm là 50 con/m3. Kết quả cho thấy chất lượng nước tốt hơn ở các nghiệm thức 2 và 3 với hàm lượng TAN, NO2-, NO3- và PO43- thấp hơn so với nghiệm thức 1. Nghiệm thức 3 tôm có tỷ lệ sống, năng suất cao hơn so với nghiệm thức 1 nhưng không có sự khác biệt có ý nghĩa thống kê (P > 0,05). Nghiệm thức 2 cho kết quả tốt nhất (có tăng trưởng cao nhất, tỷ lệ sống cao nhất, năng suất tôm cao nhất) và khác biệt có ý nghĩa thống kê (P < 0,05) so với nghiệm thức 1. Rong câu Gracilaria tenuistipitata được khuyến cáo sử dụng trong mô hình nuôi kết hợp với tôm thẻ chân trắng. Từ khóa: Chất lượng nước, nuôi kết hợp, rong câu Gracilaria tenuistipitata, rong nho Caulerpa lentillifera, tôm thẻ chân trắng Litopenaeus vannamei
... Hemocytes (1 × 10 6 cells/ml) were incubated with 0 or 10 mg/mL of the supernatant of FCMB obtained from each fermentation time point for 30 min at room temperature. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phenoloxidase activity (PO) were analyzed following methods described in previous studies [32,33]. ...
... The Pacific white shrimp, also known as Litopenaeus vannamei, has high economic value due to its tasty meat, high nutritional value, fast growth rate, and strong salinity adaptability (1-50‰) (Sirirustananun et al. 2011;Xu et al. 2018;Yang et al. 2022). Salinity is a very important abiotic factor that impacts shrimp metabolism, growth, survival, and osmotic pressure regulation ). ...
The Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) is an economically important aquaculture species worldwide. Antioxidant immune performance is an important indicator of healthy growth and physiology of aquatic organisms. In this study, we compared the antioxidant capacity and immune response between a low salt tolerant hybrid and a normal variety of shrimp (control) cultured at different salinities (1‰, 5‰, and 15‰). At 1‰ salinity, the apoptotic cell numbers, apoptosis rate, and reactive oxygen content of the hybrid group were significantly lower than those of the control group. The hybrid group also had stronger antioxidant enzyme activities (glutathione peroxidase, glutathione transferase, superoxide dismutase, catalase) and higher gene expression levels. In addition, the hybrid group cultured at low salinity (1‰ and 5‰) had significantly higher total hemocyte count, phagocytic rate, and respiratory burst than the control group. Similarly, the hybrid group had higher immune-related enzyme (acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, lysozyme, phenol oxidase) activities and gene expression levels than the control group at low salinity. These results show that the hybrid population had better antioxidant and immune capacity than the normal variety when cultured under low salinity conditions, and they lay the foundation for selection and breeding of low-salt tolerant, high-quality Pacific white shrimp.
... The mechanism of particle removal by phagocytic cells called a respiratory burst involves the release of degradative enzymes into the phagosome (an oxygen-dependent killing mechanism) and the production of ROI (reactive oxygen intermediates) ( Martín et al ., 2012). An increase in a respiratory burst is correlated with an increase in phagocytosis activity and vice versa (Jasmanindar, 2009;Sirirustananun et al ., 2011). During phagocytosis, viral particles are recognized by receptors on the cell surface and are engulfed by cells that re-prepare the cytoskeleton for phagosome formation. ...
The aquaculture field continues to grow from year to year. This is because aquaculture fulfills the world's food needs. Aquaculture intensification continues. As a result of this intensification, the aquaculture environment experienced a decrease in water quality. This led to the rapid growth of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, resulting in a high incidence of disease outbreaks. An alternative solution that has been extensively researched recently is using immunostimulants to increase the non-specific immunity of fish and shrimp, which will help fish and insects prevent disease outbreaks. One of the natural ingredients that have the potential to become an immunostimulant is from the brown algae group. Immunostimulants from brown algae such as Hot-water Extract of Tropical Brown Seaweed, Sargassum cristaefolium, Sargassum glaucescens, Sargassum duplicatum, Sargassum wightii, Sargassum sp. Polysaccharides from seaweed, such as fucoidan extracts from brown algae, can enhance the non-specific immune system in shrimp Litopenaneus vannamei, Penaeus monodon, Fenneropenaeus indicus, and tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. These immunostimulants increase non-specific immunity, such as total hemocyte count, phagocytosis activity, phenoloxidase, phagocytic, respiratory burst, superoxide dismutase, and total plasma protein. Immunostimulants from brown algae can also fight bacterial disease attacks Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Streptococciasis, Streptococcus iniae, and White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) by increasing survival rate and can increase the growth and feed efficiency of cultivated commodities that are not given immunostimulants.
... The mechanism of particle removal by phagocytic cells, called the respiratory burst, involves the release of degradative enzymes into the phagosome (an oxygen-dependent killing mechanism) and the production of ROI (reactive oxygen intermediates) (Rodriguez & Moullac, 2000). An increase in the respiratory burst is correlated with an increase in phagocytosis activity and vice versa (Jasmanindar, 2009;Sirirustananun et al., 2011). During phagocytosis, viral particles are recognized by receptors on the cell surface and are engulfed by cells that reprepare the cytoskeleton for phagosome formation. ...
Vanamei shrimp Litopeneus vannamei is a commodity with high economic value. Shrimp is Indonesia's main export commodity. The high value of sales and production of vanamei shrimp is constrained by the many disease attacks in the vanamei shrimp farming industry. An alternative solution that has been continuously researched for several years to combat shrimp disease is using immunostimulants from natural ingredients. Using natural ingredients for immunostimulants can increase the non-specific immunity of vanamei shrimp to ward off disease and be environmentally friendly. Immunostimulants can be administered orally, by immersion, or by injection. Immunostimulants from natural ingredients such as spirulina platensis, polysaccharides from seaweed such as carrageenan, sodium alginate, and fucoidan, extracts from red seaweed, as well as the use of polysaccharides from the bacterium Nodulisporium sp. KT29, Trichoderma sp. able to increase the non-specific immune system in L. vannamei shrimp. These immunostimulants increase non-specific immunity, such as total hemocyte count, phagocytosis activity, phenoloxidase, phagocytic, respiratory burst, superoxide dismutase, and total plasma protein. Immunostimulants from these natural ingredients can also fight infectious disease attacks.
... The marine fishing and aquaculture of L. vannamei are affected by weather changes and diseases [2]. The deteriorating water environment has seriously affected the shrimp industry due to stress and diseases in recent years [3,4]. Therefore, in the process of shrimp culture, it is very important to develop feed additives to improve the resistance and survival rate of shrimp for better growth and development. ...
Litopenaeus vannamei was divided into seven groups (defined as diets A0–A6) and fed with diets respectively containing 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 g/kg Yarrowia lipolytica (astaxanthin content: 1.5%) and 3 g/kg Haematococcus pluvialis (astaxanthin content: 2%). After an eight-week feeding trial, the results reflected that different levels of Y. lipolytica and H. pluvialis could significantly increase the weight gain rate of L. vannamei (p < 0.05). The condition factor and weight gain rate of group A4 were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05); the HSI significantly decreased with the increase of Y. lipolytica (p < 0.05). The addition of Y. lipolytica to the diet had significant effects on total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), malonaldehyde (MDA) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) (p < 0.05). The total protein and albumin of the A5 and A6 groups were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The GSH-Px activity of the A5 group was the highest and the T-AOC of the A0 group was the lowest. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (I-NOS) increased with the addition of Y. lipolytica (p < 0.05). Y. lipolytica inclusion had no negative effect on physiological and biochemical parameters and some serum immune and antioxidant indexes (p > 0.05). Astaxanthin in Y. lipolytica had an obvious effect on body color. After cooking, the body color of the shrimp deepened with increasing Y. lipolytica content. The red body color of L. vannamei was significantly improved by adding yeasts hydrolysate 2~8 g/kg to the diet. According to the regression analysis between the level of Y. lipolytica added to the diets and the weight gain rates, the optimal level of Y. lipolytica is 4.64 g/kg.
... Owing to the tiny size of larvae and their susceptibility to stress, oral vaccination was considered a better method of immunization in comparison to injection or immersion. And the oral method adopted was bio-encapsulation of bacteria utilizing live Artemia where the recombinant E. coli that possesses and simultaneously expresses the NNV capsid gene was incorporated in a natural feeder diet for fish larvae, which showed complete antigen absorption and subsequent immune response (Sirirustananun et al. 2011). The protective immune response was due to the effective uptake through feed and double layer protection (the cell wall of artemia and artemia cuticle) of the antigen which protects it from the digestive enzymes and effective delivery into the hindgut. ...
The prevalence of infectious diseases in the aquaculture industry and a limited number of safe and effective oral vaccines has imposed a challenge not only for fish immunity but also a threat to human health. The availability of fish oral vaccines has expanded recently, but little is known about how well they work and how they affect the immune system. The unsatisfactory efficacy of existing oral vaccinations is partly attributable to the antigen degradation in the adverse gastrointestinal environment of fishes, the highly tolerogenic gut environment, and inferior vaccine formulation. To overcome such challenges in designing: an easier, cost-efficient, and effective vaccination method, several encapsulation methods are being adopted to safeguard antigens from the intestinal atmosphere for their immunogenic functions. Oral vaccination is easily degraded by gastric acids and enzymes before reaching the immunological site; however, this issue can be solved by encapsulating antigens in poly-biodegradable nanoparticles, transgenic designed bacteria, plant systems, and live feeds. To enhance the immunological impact, each antigen delivery method operates at a different level. Utilizing nanotechnology, it has been possible to regulate vaccination parameters, target particular cells, and lower the antigen dosage with potent nanomaterials such as chitosan, poly D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as vaccine carriers. Live feeds such as Artemia salina can be utilized as bio-carrier, owing to their appropriate size and non-filter feed system, through a process called bio-encapsulation. It ensures the protection of antigens over the fish intestine and ensures complete uptake by immune cells in the hindgut for increased immune response. This review comprises recent advances in oral vaccination in aquaculture in terms of an encapsulation approach that can aid in future research.
... In our previous study showed that when M. rosenbergii were fed banana peel extract at 6.0 g kg − 1 , lead to an increase in levels of THCs, DHC, PO activity, and RBs [27]. A similar result was found in L. vannamei fed with Gracilaria tenuistpitata extract-containing diets showed increased HCs, GCs, and THCs, together with increases in mitotic cells and the mitotic index of haematopoietic tissue (HPTs) [59]. This fact suggests that dietary supplemented BBH might also be capable of enhancing THC of prawns with proliferation of haemocytes in HPTs and may promote mobilization of mature GCs, which can result in an increase in THC in prawn at 28 days of feeding trial and then returned to the basal level after 56 days of feeding trial. ...
Banana (Musa acuminata) blossom contains high nutritional value and bioactive compounds. In this study, Macrobrachium rosenbergii were fed with diets containing banana blossom powder (BBP) at 10 and 20 g kg⁻¹, hot-banana blossom (BBH) extract at 10 and 20g kg⁻¹, and the basal diet for 56 days. The growth performance, physiological response and immune parameters were evaluated. The results showed that a significantly higher percentage weight gain (PWG) and percentage length gain (PLG) in prawns fed with BBH diet. The feed efficiency (FE) significantly increased in prawns fed BBP. The prawn fed both BBH and BBP diet showed higher survival rate than control group. The prawn fed with BBH showed a significant increase in total haemocyte count (THC) and different haemocyte count (DHC), whereas phenoloxidase (PO) activity and respiratory bursts (RBs) significant increase in prawns fed both BBP and BBH diet. Furthermore, M. rosenbergii fed with both BBP and BBH diets showed significantly higher phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency against Lactococcus garvieae infection. At the end of the 56 days of feeding trial, the susceptibility of prawns to L. garvieae infection and hypothermal (18 °C) stress were evaluated. The results showed that prawns fed BBH diets had a significantly higher survival rate against L. garvieae than those of fed with the basal diet. Anti-hypothermal stress was observed in prawns fed both BBP and BBH diets showing no significant difference in haemolymph glucose in prawns subjected to 18 °C and 28 °C, whereas the norepinephrine level in haemolymph of prawns fed with BBH diets subjected to 18 °C was significantly lower than in prawns subjected to 28 °C. In summary, we recommend addition of hot-banana blossom extract to the diet of M. rosenbergii at 20 g kg⁻¹ to promote growth performance, improve physiological function, enhance immunity, increase anti-hypothermal stress, and to increase resistance against L. gavieae.
... Previous studies have shown that dietary manipulation can regulate metabolic processes in aquatic animals and enhance their ability to resist stress (Mai et al. 2004;Martins et al. 2012;Zhang et al. 2012;Dawood et al. 2017). Natural feed organisms are rich in a variety of nutrients and active substances, which can be used as nutritional fortifiers in shrimp culture to enhance resistance to stress (Sirirustananun et al. 2011;Xiao et al. 2017). Ampithoe sp. is a type of nutritious natural feed organism that is rich in crude protein (51.2%), crude lipids (5.8%), and essential amino acids (23.4%) (Peng et al. 2015). ...
Ammonia can easily accumulate in water during the culture period, and the accumulated concentrations can reach high levels, which is one of the main stress factors with severely negative effects on the growth and health of cultured shrimp. Dietary manipulation, such as feeding Ampithoe sp. meal, has been proven to be an effective method for reducing the mortality of Litopenaeus vannamei under sublethal ammonia stress and thus improving the ammonia tolerance of the shrimp, but the underlying mechanism needs to be further studied. In this study, L. vannamei with increased ammonia tolerance (PV_T) were obtained by feeding Ampithoe sp. meal, shrimp not fed Ampithoe sp. meal were used as a control (PV_C), and a comprehensive transcriptome analysis of the response of L. vannamei exposed to ammonia-N at the 50% lethal concentration for 96 h was performed. A total of 318,815,732 clean reads, including 170,156,604 and 148,659,128 clean reads from the shrimp in the PV_T and PV_C groups, were obtained. The expression of genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism pathways was upregulated in the PV_T group compared with the PV_C group, which indicated that the shrimp in the PV_T group had a higher energy supply level than those in the PV_C group, and this difference was the main cause of the observed improvement in ammonia tolerance. Additionally, the upregulated expression of genes involved in the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway in the PV_T group was responsible for the observed upregulation of the expression of genes involved in the carbohydrate and lipid metabolism pathways. However, among the GO terms that were significantly enriched in the DEGs identified from the comparison of the PV_T and PV_C groups, only one GO term was related to the immune system process. In conclusion, feeding Ampithoe sp. meal to L. vannamei exposed to sublethal ammonia can enhance the carbohydrate and lipid metabolism pathways to increase the energy supply and thus reduce the mortality of the shrimp.
... The previous study has revealed that Gracilaria tenuistipitata extract could increase the THC of L. vanamei after 14 days (Sirirustananun et al., 2011). It was concluded that dietary administration of the G. tenuistipitata extract could enhance the immunity and support the circulation of haemocytes. ...
This research aimed to optimize the extracting condition of banana peel (BP) and to investigate the effect of organic banana peel extract (BPE) on the immunity of giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). The result demonstrated that the optimum extracting condition of organic BPE was 50% v/v of methanol at 100°C for 10 min. Under this condition, the maximum total phenolic content and extraction yield of 10.44 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per g of dry matter (mg GAE/g DM) and 33% w/v were obtained respectively. The organic BPE could inhibit an aquatic pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila at the minimum inhibitory concentration of 625 µg/disc. The main phytochemicals in organic BPE showed two major biological functions, which are antioxidant and antipathogenic activities. Subsequently, the effects of organic BPE on the immunity of M. rosenbergii were investigated. The results demonstrated that the organic BPE could increase immunity and phagocytic activity and decrease the susceptibility of M. rosenbergii. Moreover, the organic BPE could also increase total as well as differential haematocyte count, decrease the coagulation time and increase the total protein in serum of M. rosenbergii. The phagocytic activity of prawn was enhanced to 82.00% by using an organic BPE at 6 µg/g. At the same time, the cumulative mortality was declined to lower 20% after 6 days of organic BPE injection. In conclusion, organic BPE can be a potential immunostimulant in giant freshwater prawn culture. The utilization of BP in aquaculture can further add the value of BP and reduce organic pollutants.
... The mechanisms by which feed additives have such beneficial effects on shrimp health include stimulating the innate immune system, providing micro/essential nutrients, and maintaining a healthy microbiome. For example, sulphated polysaccharides derived from seaweed (e.g., Gracilaria sp.) and phloroglucinol added to shrimp feeds stimulated several innate immune parameters and led to greater resistance to bacterial and viral agents [196][197][198][199]. Lipopolysaccharides coated on feed pellets were shown to increase shrimp survival following exposure to Vibrio harveyi [200]. ...
Intensification of the shrimp sector, also referred to as vertical expansion, has been predominately driven by consecutive incidences of global disease outbreaks, which have caused enormous economic loss for the main producer countries. A growing segment of the shrimp farming industry has opted to use production systems with higher density, biosecurity, and operating control to mitigate the risks posed by disease. However, successful super-intensive shrimp production is reliant on an advanced understanding of many important biological and economic parameters in the farming system, coupled with effective monitoring, to maintain optimal production. Compared to traditional extensive or semi-intensive systems, super-intensive systems require higher inputs of feed, energy, labor, and supplements. These systems are highly sensitive to the interactions between these different inputs and require that the biological and economical parameters of farming are carefully balanced to ensure success. Advancing nutritional knowledge and tools to support consistent and efficient production of shrimp in these high-cost super-intensive systems is also necessary. Breeding programs developing breeding-lines selected for these challenging super-intensive environments are critical. Understanding synergies between the key areas of production systems, nutrition, and breeding are crucial for super-intensive farming as all three areas coalesce to influence the health of shrimp and commercial farming success. This article reviews current strategies and innovations being used for Litopenaeus vannamei in production systems, nutrition, and breeding, and discusses the synergies across these areas that can support the production of healthy and high-quality shrimp in super-intensive systems. Finally, we briefly discuss some key issues of social license pertinent to the super-intensive shrimp farming industry.
... As shown in Figure 2, shrimp have three types of blood cells, semi-granular, granular, and hyaline cells (Chen et al., 2014). These circulating hemocytes perform a significant function in shrimp innate immune responses, including pattern-recognition, release of antimicrobial peptides, prophenoloxidase (proPO) activation, phagocytosis, encapsulation, and nodule formation (Sirirustananun et al., 2011). ...
Probiotics are increasingly used in aquaculture to protect cultivated organisms from pathogens and improve water quality and feed efficiency. Shrimp are the most commonly cultivated aquaculture species worldwide. In this current review, we will explore the current challenges that impact shrimp aquaculture and summarize how probiotics are utilized to improve production. Probiotics are live microorganisms that are described as friendly bacteria or healthy bacteria supplemented to the shrimp gut through feeds. Probiotics have been demonstrated to increase gastrointestinal stability, secrete antibacterial compounds, compete with pathogens to prevent intestinal adhesion, compete for the nutrients required for pathogen survival and produce antitoxin effects. Probiotics can also modulate the immune system and control the allergic response of the body. Therefore, this review sheds light on the challenges faced in shrimp production as well as the different types of probiotics, their methods of application, their modes of action, their role in improving shrimp production, and their influence on water quality.
... Litopenaeus vannamei, one of the most profitable shrimp species in south China, is very popular with customers because of its delicious flesh and high nutritional value (Sirirustananun et al., 2011). Previous studies demonstrated that both lutein and astaxanthin play essential roles in growth performance, anti-resistance as well as pigmentation of aquatic animals (Kalinowski et al., 2005;Meilisza et al., 2017). ...
An 8-week feeding experiment was conducted to investigate whether diet supplementation of lutein could result in similar growth performance, antioxidant capacity, and immunity of Litopenaeus vannamei when compared to dietary astaxanthin. Juvenile L. vannamei (initial body weight: 0.64 ± 0.04 g) were fed with one of five isonitrogen and isolipids diets with/without lutein or astaxanthin [control group (C); the lutein (L) groups contained 0, 62.5, 75, 87.5 ppm lutein, respectively, the astaxanthin (A) group contained 50 ppm astaxanthin]. Results showed that dietary supplementation of lutein ranging from 62.5 to 75 ppm resulted in similar growth performance (WGR, SGR, FCR, and SR) of L. vannamei compared with the A group (P > 0.05). Apart from that, no statistical difference was observed in antioxidant parameters (hemolymph T-AOC, hemolymph MDA, and RNA expression level of GSH-PX, CAT), anti-inflammatory ability (Relish, Rho, and HSP70) and apoptosis-related gene expression (Caspase3) among lutein treatments ranging from 62.5 to 87.5 ppm and the A group (P > 0.05). These results indicate that a dose of 62.5–75 ppm of lutein was suitable in the diet of L. vannamei for substituting dietary astaxanthin.
... Previous studies concerning the role of algal extracts as immunostimulants reported that fish and shrimp fed the diets supplemented with algal extracts at a concentration as low as 0.1% showed an improvement in innate immune responses, including increased complement and lysozyme activities, and plasma protein (del Rocío Quezada-Rodríguez & Fajer-Ávila, 2017;Sirirustananun et al., 2011). ...
The search for natural immunotherapeutic agents has become increasingly important for fish disease treatment and prophylaxis. The present research explored the effects of macro- and microalgal extracts on zebrafish juvenile growth and immune status. A plant-based diet was used as a control (diet C), and seven other diets were prepared similar to diet C, supplemented with 10 g Kg−1 of each algal extract (Fucus vesiculosus, F; Nannochloropsis gaditana, N; and Ulva rigida, U), or a combination of extracts (diets FN, FU, NU and FNU). A fishmeal-based diet was included as a positive control (diet C+). Diet C+ outperformed the remaining dietary treatments, growth-wise. None of the extracts improved diet C negative effects. However, the inclusion of U. rigida and N. gaditana extracts promoted an immunomodulatory action after 1 week of trial, by upregulating cytokine expression. This effect subsided after 30 days, suggesting tolerance may be developed over time. In contrast, effects on growth-related genes were still observed after 5 weeks of feeding F, N, U and FN diets. Algal extract dietary inclusion did not compromise intestinal integrity. These findings support the potential of algal extracts as functional feed additives during short periods (<30 days) to enhance immunomodulation.
... Additionally, plant derived compounds such as sulphated polysaccharides derived from seaweed (e.g. Gracilaria sp.) and phloroglucinol stimulate innate immune parameters and can lead to greater resistance to bacterial and viral agents Kumar et al., 2018;Lim et al., 2020;Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Wongprasert et al., 2014). Lipopolysaccharide from the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria also stimulates the innate immune system of shrimp and when coated on feed pellets was shown to increase shrimp survival following exposure to V. harveyi (see Rungrassamee et al., 2013). ...
Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) caused by pathogenic isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VPAHPND) carrying a plasmid encoding two pir-like toxins, is one of the most serious diseases affecting shrimp aquaculture. This study investigated if the microbial feed ingredient “Novacq™” improves resilience of Penaeus vannamei to VPAHPND infection and mortality. Two independent challenge trials were conducted where shrimp were fed a diet containing Novacq™ or a control diet for either 10 or 15-days (for trial 1 and trial 2 respectively) prior to exposure to VPAHPND. Mortalities were monitored every 3 h over the challenge periods (trial 1–99 h and trial 2–120 h) and foregut samples were collected from individual shrimp at different stages of the disease challenge to compare pirA and pirB toxin expression and V. parahaemolyticus abundance via qPCR. Shrimp fed Novacq™ had higher survival compared to control fed shrimp in both trial 1 and trial 2 with the relative percent survival (RPS) compared to the control 34% and 51% respectively. However, differences in Kaplan Meier survival estimates between the two diet treatments were only significant in trial 2. There was no significant difference in expression of pirA or pirB toxin genes or V. parahaemolyticus abundance between the two diet treatments in either trial, however, both toxin expression and V. parahaemolyticus abundance significantly changed throughout the disease time course. Results of this study along with previous studies of Novacq™ effects on a viral pathogen and other performance traits (i.e. growth), suggests Novacq™ may promote a general resilience phenotype that offers greater protection against both bacterial and viral agents of which the mode of action is still unknown.
... Several studies have reported that seaweed and its compounds have caused positive effects on the health of marine shrimp. Improved growth performance, immunological parameters, resistance to bacteria, viruses, and thermal shock were some of the positive effects observed (Chen et al., 2014;Elizondo-González, 2018;Schleder et al., 2017;Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Suantika et al., 2017;Yudati et al., 2016;). Kotya et al. (2011) observed significant improvements in daily growth rate and survival when K. alvarezii was used as a feed additive for Penaeus monodon. ...
This study evaluated the effect of carrageenan from Kappaphycus alvarezii on the growth and health parameters of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Shrimp (initial weight 4.5 ± 0.5 g) were farmed in 800 L tanks for five weeks, at a density of 30 shrimp tank⁻¹, under controlled temperature (28.5 °C), constant aeration, 100% water exchange four times week⁻¹, and fed four times day⁻¹. Five experimental diets containing 0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% of carrageenan were used and followed a complete randomized design (all in triplicate). After the 5-week feeding trial period, we assessed shrimp growth parameters (survival, feed conversion, total, weekly, and final weight gain) as well as immunological and gut microbiota profiles. A total of 30 shrimp from each feeding treatment were infected with a inoculum of the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), and the resulting cumulative mortality was monitored for 96 h. WSSV infection results showed that shrimp that received carrageenan supplementation had higher survival rates (80%, 75%, 85%, and 70%, respectively, increasing carrageenan, 0.5 to 2%) compared to the control group (45%). No significant differences in weight gain and food conversion were observed among the feeding treatments relative to the control diet. Final weight varied from 8.50 g to 10.30 g, and the food conversion rate from 1.42 to 1.67. Also, no significant differences were found in intestinal microbiota and immunological parameters. Metagenomic analysis showed that adding 0.5% of carrageenan in the diet caused an increase in the relative abundance of an unassigned bacterium (from Rhodobacteraceae family) and bacteria from two other families, Rubritaleaceae and Caldilineaceae, with 1.0% and 1.5% addition levels, respectively. Adding low levels of carrageenan (up to 1.5%) to the feed of the Pacific white shrimp might benefit their microbiota composition as well as their capacity to respond to WSSV infection, without causing any loss in growth performance and health status.
... Thus, a growing interest in the potential of macro-and microalgae and their extracts as functional ingredients in aquafeeds has emerged (Van Hai 2015). For instance, it was shown that juvenile fish and shrimp fed diets supplemented with algal extracts at concentrations as low as 0.1% showed increased lysozyme, phagocytic, complement, and respiratory burst activities, and increased plasma protein (Sirirustananun et al. 2011;del Rocío Quezada-Rodríguez and Fajer-Ávila 2017). Although there are no reports on algal extract impact in intestinal morphology, several authors have reported that the inclusion of whole algae does not negatively affect intestinal morphology (Guerreiro et al. 2019;Passos et al. 2021). ...
Research on immunotherapeutic agents has become a focus for the treatment of fish diseases. The ability of algae to produce secondary metabolites of potential interest as immunotherapeutics has been documented. The present research intended to assess antiviral and antibacterial activities of macro- and microalgae extracts against viral and bacterial pathogens and explore their immunomodulatory potential using zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae as a model organism. The cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of eight methanolic and ethanolic extracts from two macroalgae (Fucus vesiculosus, Ulva rigida) and two microalgae (Nannochloropsis gaditana, Chlorella sp.) were analyzed in established fish cell lines. Six extracts were selected to evaluate antibacterial activity by disk diffusion and growth inhibition assays. The three most promising extracts were characterized in terms of fatty acid composition, incorporated at 1% into a plant-based diet, and evaluated their effect on zebrafish immune response and intestinal morphology in a short-term feeding trial. All extracts exhibited in vitro antiviral activity against viral hemorrhagic septicemia and/or infectious pancreatic necrosis viruses. Methanolic extracts from F. vesiculosus and U. rigida were richer in saturated fatty acids and exhibited in vitro antibacterial action against several bacteria. Most promising results were obtained in vivo with F. vesiculosus methanol extract, which exerted an anti-inflammatory action when incorporated alone into diets and induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, when combined with the other extracts. Moreover, dietary inclusion of the extracts improved intestinal morphology. In summary, the results obtained in this study support the potential of algae as natural sources of bioactive compounds for the aquaculture industry.
... One effort in the prevention of disease is through enhancing the body's defense system against shrimp attack pathogens [6] by using immunostimulants [7] [8]. Shrimp body defense against disease is not only done through feed with a balanced composition but can be accompanied by giving immunostimulants in the feed. ...
... One of the most frequently disease which attacked white shrimp is vibriosis caused by Vibrio harveyi (Widanarni et al., 2012). The most common ways to control the disease are using antibiotics (Defoirdt et al., 2011), SPF juvenile selection (Lightner, 2005), using normal ingredients, and sinbiotics which acts as immunostimulant (Sirirustananun et al., 2011;Zubaidah et al., 2015). The antibiotics application was prohibited nowadays because of the food security issue. ...
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of Nodulisporium sp. KT29 supplementation with various
Vibrio harveyi induction in feed against vibriosis in vannamei white shrimp. The study design included KP (positive
control without supplementation Nodulisporium sp. KT29 and infected with V. harveyi), KN (negative controls
without Nodulisporium sp. KT29 and infected with physiological solution), NT (treatment of supplementation
Nodulisporium sp KT29 20 mL/kg and infected with V. harveyi), NM (treatment of supplementation test
Nodulisporium sp. KT29 induction of V. harveyi dead cell 20 mL/kg and infected V. harveyi), NH (treatment of
supplementation Nodulisporium sp. KT29 induction of V. harveyi live cell 20 mL/kg and infected with V. harveyi).
The study parameters included inhibition zone, resistance, immune responses, and hemolim glucose. The results
showed Nodulisporium sp. KT29 with induction treatment raised antibacterial activity with best treatment of NM
and NH (P
... This can be attributed to the accelerated maturation of haemocyte precursors in the haematopoietic tissue, followed by release of new cells into the circulation system to maintain the haemocyte population and functionality in the shrimp [56]. Similarly, L. vannamei provisioned for 14 days on a diet containing Gracilaria tenuistipitata extract and a minor bupleurum decoction showed higher THCs than control groups [57,58]. ...
This study investigates the effects of Phyllanthus amarus extract (PAE) on immune responses, growth, and resistance to Vibrio alginolyticus in white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). In vitro PAE treatment did not alter the cell viability of haemocytes and significantly enhanced immune parameters such as phenoloxidase (PO) activity, phagocytic activity, and superoxide anion (O2-) production. We conducted two feeding trials to examine the effects of PAE on the growth, disease resistance, and innate immune parameters of white shrimp. In the first in vivo trial, shrimps (4.01 ± 0.03 g) were fed a diet containing 0 g (control), 10 g (PAE10), 20 g (PAE20), or 40 g (PAE40) of PAE per kilogram of feed for 56 days. After the feeding period, the PAE20 group showed a significantly higher weight gain and specific growth rate than shrimp fed the control diet. Furthermore, after challenge with V. alginolyticus, shrimp fed a diet containing PAE showed significantly higher survival than those fed the control diet. The second in vivo trial (28 days) was performed to identify the mechanisms of enhanced immunity in PAE-fed shrimp. Shrimp fed the PAE20 diet generally had the highest total haemocyte count, PO activity, phagocytic activity, and O2- production, followed by the PAE40 and PAE10 groups. Thus, our results suggest that administration of 20 g of PAE per kilogram of feed can enhance immunity, growth, and resistance to V. alginolyticus in white shrimp.
The increased demand for alternative ingredients in farmed aquatic animal feeds is an urgent need to support the unprecedented growth of aquaculture. Macroalgae and macrophytes have long been undervalued as a food source for fishes and invertebrates. The use of aquatic plants as a substitute for fishmeal has the potential to revolutionize aquaculture in meeting the global demand for protein. In contrast to terrestrial plants, the amino acid profile of certain floating macrophytes appears to meet even the lysine and methionine requirements of common cultured tropical fishes. In addition, this potential feed source also appears to be underutilized, particularly with respect to polyunsaturated fatty acids. The use of marine macroalgae as aquafeed ingredients appears to be less successful to date: Chlorophyceae and Rhodophyceae can be used as whole plants, but Phaeophyceae can only be used as extracts. Pretreatment such as fermentation seems to improve utilization, but this needs further investigation. A few papers that have used fermented aquatic plant diets show that digestibility is often, but not always, increased and subsequent growth performance is not adversely affected, if not improved. In general, antinutrients such as phytic acid or tannins are reduced by fermentation. This issue requires much more empirical work. Nevertheless, a high nutritional potential can be attributed to duckweeds and, to a lesser extent, floating ferns. ‘Omics’ studies, including hologenomics or epigenomics, are rare, as are trials to improve gut microbiota through functional diets to better utilize macroalgae and macrophytes. Interesting studies will follow.
Diseases are major constraints to developing large‐scale aquaculture practices in many countries. For decades, synthetic
chemotherapeutic agents have been widely applied both as prophylactics and therapeutics to inhibit and control aquatic disease
outbreaks. However, their use has become more restricted due to the negative impacts they have on the environment, the host
and humans, as well as their limitations in preventing the emergence of antimicrobial‐resistant bacteria. Therefore, there is a
growing interest in the use of medicinal plants and seaweeds as potential alternatives to antibiotics and other synthetic
chemotherapeutics. Medicinal plants and seaweeds can enhance the immune systems of animals, thereby providing protection
against numerous diseases while minimizing the adverse effects associated with synthetic chemotherapeutics. Furthermore, the
advantages of medicinal plants and seaweeds, such as their effectiveness, easy availability and ability to be applied on a large
scale, make them appealing for use in the aquaculture industry. The main goal of this study was to review the existing
knowledge of the effects of medicinal plants and seaweeds, as well as their extracts, on shrimp growth, immune response and
disease resistance against bacterial and viral agents. Moreover, this paper discusses the application of seaweeds in shrimp
culture. We also conducted a literature review to identify gaps in the research and provide recommendations for further
advancement in this field of study. Further studies should focus on evaluating other physiological aspects, such as feed and
mineral utilization, enzyme activities and histological examination
Intensifikasi teknologi budidaya udang vaname memicu timbulnya berbagai jenis penyakit. Salah satu jenis penyakit yang sering ditemukan adalah vibriosis yang disebabkan oleh bakteri Vibrio harveyi. Polikultur udang vaname dan rumput laut (G. verrucosa) diketahui memiliki potensi dalam meningkatkan kelangsungan hidup dan pertumbuhan udang vaname. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis hasil uji tantang udang vaname dengan bakteri V. harveyi yang dipelihara bersama rumput laut (G. verrucosa). Penelitian ini menggunakan rancangan acak lengkap dengan 3 perlakuan dan 3 ulangan. Perlakuan penelitian yakni penggunaan rumput laut dengan jumlah berbeda 400 gram/100 l air (P4), 800 g/100 l air (P8) dan kontrol (K) atau tanpa pemberian rumput laut. Variabel yang diamati berupa laju kematian udang vaname selama 10 hari uji tantang dan relative percent survival (RPS). Injeksi bakteri dilakukan pada segmen ketiga abdomen udang dengan konsentrasi bakteri 106CFU/mL. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kematian udang yang dipelihara tanpa rumput laut terjadi lebih awal dibandingkan dengan udang yang dipelihara dengan rumput laut yakni hari ke-4 dan hari ke-6 pasca infeksi. Kematian udang pada kontrol terus terjadi hingga hari ke-9, sedangkan kematian udang pada P8 hanya terjadi hingga hari ke-8 pasca infeksi. RPS pada semua perlakuan tidak berbeda siginfikan yakni P4 adalah 33.3% dan P8 adalah 41.7%. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa polikultur rumput laut (G. verrucosa) dan udang vaname berpotensi dalam proteksi udang vaname terhadap infeksi bakteri V. harveyi.
In this study, we investigated the potential immunostimulatory effects of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) peel extract on Macrobrachium rosenbergii, specifically in enhancing immunity and resistance against Lactococcus garvieae. We employed a dietary administration approach to assess the impact of different extract preparations from mangosteen peel, namely mangosteen peel powder (MPP), boiled mangosteen peel powder (MPB), and mangosteen peel extract (MPE). Following the administration of mangosteen peel extract, we evaluated growth performance, innate immune parameters, and disease resistance in the prawns. The results revealed a significant increase in total haemocyte count (THC), differential haemocyte count (DHC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (RBs), as well as phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency against L. garvieae. Based on these findings, we suggest that mangosteen peel extract can be utilized as an immunostimulant for prawns through dietary administration, regulating immune responses and enhancing resistance against pathogens by modulating carbohydrate metabolism.
Aquaculture is an important source of high‐quality protein and plays a crucial role in ensuring global food security. However, viral diseases have caused significant damage to aquaculture production, making it necessary to develop effective measures to treat them. Although drugs are commonly used to treat viral diseases, recent studies have shown that crude extracts of medicinal plants and their active ingredients have potential applications in the treatment of aquatic viral diseases. Furthermore, natural small molecule compounds from herbs could be used as lead compounds to develop more potent anti‐aquatic virus derivatives. As such, there is an urgent need to develop and apply drugs for the treatment of viral disease outbreaks in aquaculture. In this review, we summarize previous studies on the efficacy of different agents used as antiviral drugs in aquaculture, with a focus on their protective effects. Additionally, we highlight the potential of active natural compounds isolated from medicinal plants, which could serve as lead compounds for developing aquatic‐specific drugs. However, the relationship between the structure of a compound and its antiviral activity in aquaculture has not been clearly elucidated, posing a challenge for further drug optimisation. Therefore, this study also analyses the structure–activity relationship of several reported lead compounds and their derivatives in aquaculture, providing a reference for subsequent drug development efforts.
Article type: Full Length Research Paper In order to investigate the resistance of shrimp against white spot disease by Gracilaria corticata algae, 300 Vannamei shrimp in two groups were fed with and without algae extract for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, half of the shrimp of each group were exposed to the white spot virus. After the challenge, during days 0, 3, 9, 18 and 25, the survival rate and immune factors of shrimp were examined. According to the results, survival rate of shrimp fed with algae extract was higher than the shrimp were fed by commercial pellet without the algae extract (positive control) significantly (P<0.05). Immune system enhancement from the first to twenty fifth day and the highest levels of THC, TPP, SOD, POD and PO were observed in group Algae on twenty fifth day of the experiment. This condition was also observed in group AV, but less than group A with a significant difference (P<0.05). Considering the function of algae in stimulating the immune system, it seems that during the culture period, algae supplementation in the diet can be used as a proposed strategy to control white spot disease.
The extract from Theobroma cacao L, pod husk served as the immunostimulant to enhance the immunity and resistance against Lactococcus garvieae of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. In this study, we employed the injection method and dietary administration method to determine the effect of cocoa pod husk (CPH) on M. rosenbergii. The non-specific immune parameters and disease resistance were evaluated after the prawn injected with 1 μg prawn-1 CPH extract (C1), 3 μg prawn-1 CPH extract (C3), and 5 μg prawn-1 CPH extract (C5) for 1, 3, and 7 days. The results showed a significant increase of total haemocyte count (THC), differential haemocyte count (DHC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (RBs), and phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to L. garvieae. The non-specific immune parameters, physiological parameters, and disease resistance and growth performance were evaluated after the prawn fed with 1 g kg-1 CPH extract diet (CD1), 3 g kg-1 CPH extract diet (CD3) and 5 g kg-1 CPH extract diet (CD5). The results showed a significant increase in all immune parameters and showed a significant decrease in physiological parameters. No significant difference was observed in growth performance of prawn fed with the CPH containing diet. Both injection and dietary method showed a significant increase in disease resistance against to L. garvieae. We therefore recommend that CPH extract can be used as a immunostimulant for prawn by dietary administration to regulate immune responses, and carbohydrate metabolism lead to enhance resistance against pathogen.
Nanotechnology is an area of science, engineering, and technology that deals with nanoscale dimensions and tolerances, specifically the manipulation of single atoms and molecules with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Carbon-based nanoparticles, ceramic nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and lipid-based nanoparticles are some of the numerous types of nanoparticles that can be classified on the basis of their size, shape, physical, and chemical properties. Probiotics are live, nonpathogenic bacteria that are given to help maintain microbial balance, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. These probiotics, which can be found in fermented foods and come in the form of capsules, pills, packets, or powders, are made up of lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species, as well as Saccharomyces boulardii yeast. The applications of biosynthesis of nanoparticles from marine sources such as marine plants, marine animals, and marine microbes are discussed in this chapter. Probiotics can be found in a variety of forms, including dietary supplements, medicines, and medical foods. For more effective probiotic therapy for microbiota-related ailments, a greater understanding of the interplay between genetic, microbial, and environmental impacts within individuals is expected.
Disease outbreaks have resulted in significant losses in aquaculture. Antibiotics, although typically effective in treating fish diseases, can accumulate in the environment as antibiotic residues or in fish tissues over time, leading to the growth of antibiotic-resistant strains. Vaccines are often too costly and time-consuming for widespread use in fish farms, and each vaccine is effective only against one form of pathogen. For thousands of years, medicinal plants have been used as immunostimulants. Aquaculture may benefit from the use of medicinal plants as natural and safe compounds as an alternative to antibiotics and immunoprophylactics. Since they are simple to prepare, inexpensive, and have few undesirable effects on animals and the climate, there has been a surge in interest in these plants around the world. Herbs, seaweeds, herbal extract compounds, spices, commercial plant-derived products, and traditional herbs are all sources of medicinal plants. Active compounds such as alkaloid, terpenoid, pigments, polyphenol, quinone, lectin, tannins, essential oils, and polypeptide compounds have been shown to have antimicrobial properties, the ability to promote growth and strengthen the immune system, as well as stimulate appetite and possess antistress properties in fish, and others are effective alternatives to antibiotics, chemicals, and vaccines. They are often used as a source of nutrition for fish.
Recent Advances in Aquaculture Microbial Technology emphasizes various topics on microbiology related technology for aquaculture development and discusses different types of microbiological applications, thus serving as an all-inclusive reference which consolidates microbial technologies adopted in the field. The book covers the history and development of microbial technology in aquaculture as well as aquaculture microbiology, diversity and the role of microbes in aquaculture systems. In addition, it presents the beneficial microbial communities in aquaculture and varying methods employed to study bacterial association in fish, microbes and fish diseases. This resource will help improve research experiments and accomplishments in the area of aqua-culturally relevant microbial technology, making it useful for researchers and scientists in the field.
This study aimed to evaluate the dietary supplementation of various levels
of Bacti-nil®Aqua on growth performance, nutrient utilization, immune response,
antioxidant activities, mortality rate, and chemical composition of the Pacific white
shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Four hundred and eighty L. vannamei fries (3.0 ±
0.002 g) were randomly divided into 4 treatments (T1-T4). T1 represented the
negative control fed on a basal diet, the fries in treatments T2, T3 and T4 were fed
on Bacti-nil®Aqua supplemented diet at three concentrations of 2, 3, and 4g/kg
diet, respectively, for 60 days. The results showed that the morphometrics
measurements (body and antenna length), the growth parameters (BW, BWG,
ADG, and RGR) and the condition factor values were significantly (P < 0.05)
higher in the Bacti-nil®Aqua supplemented treatments than those of the control
group. Moreover, the different Bacti-nil®Aqua supplemented diets had no
significant effect on the survival rate (SR) of L. vannamei. The chemical
composition of the L. vannamei and feed utilization parameters exhibited no
significant differences in DM and ash. The protein content of L.
vannamei increased significantly when fed on Bacti-nil®Aqua, compared to T1. In
contrast, the highest values of lipids were recorded in the control treatment (T1).
Different concentrations of Bacti-nil®Aqua (T2-T4) resulted in a significant
improvement in PER and PPV%, the best FCR, and the highest nonspecific
immune responses (THC, phagocytosis, lysozyme activity, and phenoloxidase
activity), in addition, superoxide dismutase activity compared to the control diet
(T1). Overall, the current study concluded that the highest levels of Bacti-nil®Aqua
(3 and 4g/kg) resulted in improved growth parameters, survival rate, feed
utilization, chemical composition, and nonspecific immune responses of L.
vannamei.
Aquaculture plays an important role in providing foods and healthy diets. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture is defined as the farming of aquatic organisms. There are many kinds of aquaculture, such as fish farming, shrimp farming, mariculture, and seaweed culture. Aquaculture has tended to increase its contribution to global seafood production every year. The rapidly increased production of fed aquaculture has led to an effect on the coastal environment. Recently, the use of seaweed in aquaculture has been increasingly recognized due to its benefits and numerous feedstocks. Several types of seaweed have been used for the feeding and treatment of wastewater from aquaculture practices. Techniques in seaweed aquaculture have developed dramatically in Asia, but there are still numerous challenges to overcome. In this article, we intend to address the roles and applications of seaweed in aquaculture and integrated multitrophic aquaculture systems, as well as perspectives for the future.KeywordsAquafeedBiofilterMarine farmingMultitrophic aquaculture
The present study examined the effects of the hydro-alcoholic extraction of the red seaweed Gracilaria corticata (GCE), as food additive on growth, antioxidant defence and immunity in the goldfish, Carassius auratus . Four experimental treatments in three replications were established and fed the experimental diets for 60 days. The groups were: a control (fish fed only a basal diet), GCE1: fish supplemented with 0.5 % GCE/kg diet, GCE2: fish supplemented with 1 % GCE/kg diet, GCE3: fish supplemented with 1.5 % GCE/kg diet. After feeding period, the antioxidant [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT)] and immune responses were evaluated. Dietary GCE had no effect on growth performance ( P >0.01). The plasma immune responses including alternative complement (ACH 50 ) and lysozyme activities elevated in fish supplemented with 1 % and 1.5 % GCE compared to those fed 0.5 % GCE and basal diet ( P <0.01). The plasma and mucosal immunoglobulin (Ig) significantly elevated in all GCE supplemented fish ( P <0.01). The plasma peroxidase activity significantly increased only in the fish receiving GCE at dietary level of 1.5 % GCE compared to control and those supplemented with 0.5 % and 1 % GCE ( P <0.01). The mucosal lysozyme, protease activity and alkaline phosphatase significantly increased in fish supplemented with 1 % GCE compared to other experimental diets ( P <0.01). The activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx) showed significant increases in fish supplemented with 1 % and 1.5 % GCE ( P <0.01). Furthermore, the expression of the immune-related genes, complement and lysozyme significantly elevated in the treatments of 1 % and 1.5 % GCE compared to other experimental diets ( P <0.01). The results of this study revealed that the use of GCE as a food additive in the diet of goldfish diet can improve the fish immunity without negative impacts on growth.
The sustainable uses of cacao, Theobroma cacao L, pod husk (CPH) produced from cacao bean industry bring environment great benefits. Botanical polysaccharides possessing a variety of physiological functions are therefore referred to as biological response modifiers, and those are also found in CPH. In this study, the weight gain rate (WGR), length gain rate (LGR), feeding efficiency (FE), and survival rate (SR) of shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, fed diets containing CPH pectin at 0 (CON), 1.0 (CPH1), 3.0 (CPH3) and 6.0 (CPH6) g/kg were calculated every 7 days within 56 days of feeding. The non-specific immune parameters, disease resistance, tolerance to hypothermal stress and stress indicators were also evaluated after the shrimp fed with CPH pectin containing diets. Shrimp that were fed with CPH3 after 56 days had higher WGR, LGR, and FE than those in CPH0. The SR significantly increased for shrimp challenged with Vibrio alginolyticus, and subjected to hypothermal (14 °C) stress when they were fed diets containing CPH3 and CPH6, and CPH6 after 14 or 28 days of feeding, respectively. Dietary CPH3 and/or CPH6 showed a significant increase of total hemocyte count (THC), differential hemocyte count (DHC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (RBs), and phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to V. alginolyticus at 14 and/or 28 days. Furthermore, shrimp fed with CPH pectin-contained diets after 14 and 28 days retarded secretion of dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), and decreased the level of glucose and lactate in plasma under cold stress. We therefore recommend that CPH pectin can be used as a physiomodulator for shrimp by dietary administration at 3.0 g/kg for 56 days to promote growth; and at 3.0–6.0 g/kg within an appropriate time frame (28 days) to regulate neuroendocrine and immune responses, and carbohydrate metabolism lead to enhance resistance against pathogen and hypothermal stress.
This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of Haematococcus pluvialis powder on astaxanthin content and isomer composition, antioxidant ability and immunity of Litopenaeus vannamei after short‐term feedings. Experimental diets include a commercial diet (control) and diets containing H. pluvialis powder (HP‐35 and HP‐70, 35 and 70 mg of carotenoids kg⁻¹). After feeding for 15 days, the content of astaxanthin in the muscle, cephalothorax and shell of shrimp increased significantly with increasing addition of H. pluvialis powder (p < 0.05). Dietary addition of H. pluvialis powder significantly increased the activity of total antioxygenic capacity (T‐AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S‐transferase (GST) as well as the relative mRNA levels of immune‐related genes, Toll, MyD88, IMD, Crustin, PO and Lysozyme in hepatopancreas (p < 0.05). The proportion of astaxanthin isomers in different body parts was different, whereas it has no significant difference between same body parts of different groups. This indicated that the accumulation of astaxanthin among body parts may be accompanied with selection and isomerization. In conclusion, feeding with H. pluvialis powder diets containing 35 and 70 mg of carotenoids kg⁻¹ can enhance the carotenoid and astaxanthin content, antioxidant and immune capacity of L. vannamei.
ABSTRAK Intensifikasi teknologi budidaya udang vaname memicu timbulnya berbagai jenis penyakit. Salah satu jenis penyakit yang sering ditemukan adalah vibriosis yang disebabkan oleh bakteri Vibrio harveyi. Polikultur udang vaname dan rumput laut (G. verrucosa) diketahui memiliki potensi dalam meningkatkan kelangsungan hidup dan pertumbuhan udang vaname. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis hasil uji tantang udang vaname dengan bakteri V. harveyi yang dipelihara bersama rumput laut (G. verrucosa). Penelitian ini menggunakan rancangan acak lengkap dengan 3 perlakuan dan 3 ulangan. Perlakuan penelitian yakni penggunaan rumput laut dengan jumlah berbeda 400 gram/100 l air (P4), 800 g/100 l air (P8) dan kontrol (K) atau tanpa pemberian rumput laut. Variabel yang diamati berupa laju kematian udang vaname selama 10 hari uji tantang dan relative percent survival (RPS). Injeksi bakteri dilakukan pada segmen ketiga abdomen udang dengan konsentrasi bakteri 10 6 CFU/mL. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kematian udang yang dipelihara tanpa rumput laut terjadi lebih awal dibandingkan dengan udang yang dipelihara dengan rumput laut yakni hari ke-4 dan hari ke-6 pasca infeksi. Kematian udang pada kontrol terus terjadi hingga hari ke-9, sedangkan kematian udang pada P8 hanya terjadi hingga hari ke-8 pasca infeksi. RPS pada semua perlakuan tidak berbeda siginfikan yakni P4 adalah 33.3% dan P8 adalah 41.7%. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa polikultur rumput laut (G. verrucosa) dan udang vaname berpotensi dalam proteksi udang vaname terhadap infeksi bakteri V. harveyi. ABSTRACT The intensification of vaname shrimp farming technology has triggered various types of diseases. One type of disease that often found is vibriosis caused by Vibrio harveyi bacteria. Vaname shrimp and seaweed (G. verrucosa) polyculture is known has potential in increasing the survival and growth of vaname shrimp. This study aimed to analyze the results of challenge test vaname shrimp with V. harveyi bacteria that were kept in seaweed (G. verrucosa). This research was conducted with complete random design by 3 traetments and 3 repetations. Treatments were using seaweed by different amounts of 400 gram/100 l water (P4), 800 grams/100 liter of water (P8) and control (K) or without the administration of seaweed. The observed variables were the mortality rate of vaname shrimp during 10 days challenge test and relative percent survival (RPS). Bacterial injection was done on the third segment of shrimp abdomen with concentration of 10 6 CFU/mL. Results of this study was showed that the mortality of shrimp kept without seaweed occurred earlier than shrimp kept in seaweed 4 th day and the 6 th day after infection. Shrimp deaths in control continued until 9 th day, while shrimp deaths in P8 only occurred until 8 th day after infection. RPS in all treatments were not significantly different. Treatment P4 was 33.3% and P8 was 41.7%. The results of this study was indicated that polyculture of seaweed (G. verrucosa) and vaname shrimp has potential to protect the shrimp to V. harveyi bacterial infection.
White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei held in 25‰ seawater were injected with TSB-grown Vibrio alginolyticus (1 × 104 cfu shrimp−1), and then transferred to 5, 15, 25 (control) and 35‰. Over 24–96 h, the mortality of V. alginolyticus-injected shrimp held in 5‰ and 15‰ was significantly higher than that of shrimp held in 25‰ and 35‰, and the mortality of V. alginolyticus-injected shrimp held in 5‰ was the highest. Shrimp held in 25‰ and then transferred to 5, 15, 25 (control) and 35‰ were examined for THC (total haemocyte count), phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to V. alginolyticus after 12–72 h. The THC, phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst, SOD activity, phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency decreased significantly for the shrimp held in 5 and 15‰ after 12 h. It is concluded that the shrimp transferred from 25‰ to low salinity levels (5 and 15‰) had reduced immune ability and decreased resistance against V. alginolyticus infection.
Crustaceans have efficient means to defend themselves against most potential pathogens. Their hemocytes are crucial in these immune reactions and are capable of phagocytosis, encapsulation, nodule formation, and mediation of cytotoxicity. Recent progress in the in vitro handling of hemocytes, and the isolation and purification of several of the factors involved in the defense reactions show that the prophenoloxidase activating system (the proPO-system) and associated factors are important mediators of crustacean immunity. The use of purified factors of the proPO-system and separated hemocytes have made it possible to demonstrate in freshwater crayfish two proteins that are directly involved in cellular communication between different hemocytes. One of this proteins, a β-1,3-glucan binding protein present in the plasma, also appears to function as a recognition protein in the arthropod immune system. Another protein, a 76 kD protein derived from the granules of the hemocytes, is multifunctional and mediates hemocyte degranulation, spreading, and attachment. Also the prophenoloxidase itself and the prophenoloxidase activating enzyme, a serine proteinase, have recently been purified. Thus, it is now possible to elucidate the molecular details of the crustacean immune reactions in much more detail.
Outbreaks of a disease causing serious losses among populations of cultured penaeid shrimp, including Penaeus monodon, P. japonicus and P. penicillatus, in Taiwan are characterized by obvious white spots on the carapace, appendages and the inside surface of the body. For this reason, we propose the name 'white spot syndrome' (WSS). Healthy juvenile kuruma shrimp P. japonicus were exposed by immersion to epidermal filtrate from diseased P. japonicus and P. monodon which exhibited marked white spot signs. These experimentally infected shrimp resembled the spontaneously infected ones. Cumulative mortalities reached 100% within 5 to 7 d and were significantly affected by catching and temperature stress. A non-occluded rod-shaped viral particle was found by electron microscopy in the epidermis of both spontaneously and experimentally infected kuruma shrimp. Virions were enveloped, 330 +/- 20 nm in length and 87 +/- 7 nm in diameter. The close resemblance in external signs and viral morphology between spontaneously diseased and experimentally infected shrimp indicated that the rod-shaped virus may be the main causative agent of the disease characterized by white spot syndrome in Taiwan.
In the marine eco system, seaweeds are directly exposed and are susceptible to ambient micro organisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. Seaweed species of kappaphycus (red algae) and padina (brown algae) from the coast of Tamilnadu, India were tested in vitro for their antibacterial activities against different types of bacteria using disc diffusion method. Methanol was used for inhibition of different bacterias such as pseudomonas flouresences, staphylococcus aureus, vibriochloera and proteus mirabilis in the case of red algae. In the study, it is observed that kappaphycus maximum activity against pseudomonas flouresences, staphylococcus aureus and less inhibition on vibriochloera and proteus mirabilis. Benzene, n-hexane, ethylacetate, methanol, chloroform : methanol solvents were used for inhibition of staphylococcus aureus and E-coli. It is noted that chloroform : methonal is the best solution for extracting the effective antibacterial materials from the brown algae species. The chloroform: methanol solvent further used for antibacterial activity against eleven pathogenic bacterias. It is observed from the experiments that the extract residues of algae recorded maximum activity against staphylococcus aureus with an inhibition zone compared to other bacterias. The extract residues of brown algae did not show any effect on the growth of proteus vulgaris and psedudomonoaeruginosa.(Journal of American Science 2009:5(3) 20-25) ( ISSN: 1545-1003)
The present study was designed to determine the effect of dietary β 1-3 glucan (BG) and a megadose of vitamin C on the nutrition (growth and survival, blood glucose, lactate, acylglycerides, cholesterol, hemocyanin [Hc], digestive gland glycogen [DGG]) and the immunological system (blood cells, prophenoloxidase [ProPO]) in Litopenaeus vannamei juveniles. Each treatment was replicated five times. Nutritional condition and immunological response of shrimp were recorded after 40 days of feeding with specific diets and during 48 h after a salinity shock (35–0‰). A significantly greater growth rate was observed in shrimp fed with BG or vitamin C diets than in the control group. Higher blood protein, total blood cells, granular cells, and ProPO activity were recorded in shrimp fed with vitamin C as compared to the remaining treatments. That means that BG was degraded in the digestive gland by β-glucanases to produce energy, permitting the use of more proteins for growth, whereas vitamin C was used to improve animal health, enhancing general metabolism in shrimp. The salinity stress induced a rapid use of reserves, triacylglycerols (TAGs), and cholesterol were reduced in blood and probably used as a source of energy or synthesis in the digestive gland. The increase in digestive gland glycogen 24 h after the salinity shock evidenced the use of these reserves by shrimp fed with all diets. In general, after the salinity, shock blood cells increased in shrimp fed with glucans and decreased in shrimp fed with vitamin C, whereas ProPO decreased in all shrimp after the salinity shock. This could mean that after the salinity, shock shrimp fed with glucans could synthesize cells and ProPO, whereas in shrimp fed with vitamin C, blood cells were just used to respond to the stress. After the salinity shock, an increment in the ProPO/granular cell ratio was observed in shrimp fed with vitamin C, indicating that these shrimp could rapidly increase the components of their immune system. In contrast, a continuous reduction in ProPO/granular cell ratio was observed in shrimp fed with glucans, revealing that with this type of immunostimulant, shrimp drive their immunological equipment to respond continuously to the stress. These results could explain why shrimp fed with immunostimulants presents immunological fatigue in contrast to shrimp fed with additives that improve their nutritional status, like vitamin C.
A lipopolysaccharide- and beta-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP) was isolated and characterized from blood cells (hemocytes) of the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. The LGBP was purified by chromatography on Blue-Sepharose and phenyl-Sepharose, followed by Sephacryl S-200. The LGBP has a molecular mass of 36 kDa and 40 kDa on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reducing and nonreducing conditions, respectively. The calculated mass of LGBP is 39,492 Da, which corresponds to the native size of LGBP; the estimated pI of the mature LGBP is 5.80. LGBP has binding activity to lipopolysaccharides as well as to beta-1,3-glucans such as laminarin and curdlan, but peptidoglycan could not bind to LGBP. Cloning and sequencing of LGBP showed significant homology with several putative Gram-negative bacteria-binding proteins and beta-1, 3-glucanases. Interestingly, LGBP also has a structure and functions similar to those of the coelomic cytolytic factor-1, a lipopolysaccharide- and glucan-binding protein from the earthworm Eisenia foetida. To evaluate the involvement of LGBP in the prophenoloxidase (proPO) activating system, a polyclonal antibody against LGBP was made and used for the inhibition of phenoloxidase (PO) activity triggered by the beta-1,3-glucan laminarin in the hemocyte lysate of crayfish. The PO activity was blocked completely by the anti-LGBP antibody. Moreover, the PO activity could be recovered by the addition of purified LGBP. These results suggest that the 36-kDa LGBP plays a role in the activation of the proPO activating system in crayfish and thus seems to play an important role in the innate immune system of crayfish.
Growth of Vibrio alginolyticus was not affected by TSB medium containing ammonia-N concentration in the range of 0-20 mg l(-1). White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (7-12 g in the intermolt stage) were challenged with V. alginolyticus, which had been incubated for 24 h in the TSB medium containing different concentrations of ammonia-N (0, 1, 5. 10 and 20 mg l(-1)). There was no significant difference in cumulative mortality for shrimp incubated in the TSB medium containing 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20 mg l(-1)ammonia-N after 120 h of challenge. The shrimps were challenged with V. alginolyticus previously incubated in the TSB medium for 24 h, then placed in water containing concentrations of ammonia-N at 0.01 mg l(-1)(control), 1.10, 5.24, 11.10 and 21.60 mg l(-1). Mortality of shrimp in 5.24, 11.10 and 21.60 mg l(-1)was significantly higher than those in the control solution (0.01 mg l(-1)) after 48-168 h. Shrimps which had been exposed to control, 1.10, 5.24, 11.10 and 21.60 mg l(-1)ammonia-N for 7 days were examined for THC (total haemocyte count), granular cells, hyaline cells, phenoloxidase activity, release of superoxide anion, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to V. alginolyticus. No significant difference in THC, hyaline cells and granular cells were observed among shrimps at different ammonia-N concentrations. Phenoloxidase activity however, decreased when the shrimps were exposed to 5.24 mg l(-1)ammonia-N and greater after 7 days. The release of superoxide anion increased significantly, whereas SOD activity decreased significantly at 21.60 mg l(-1)ammonia-N. With shrimps exposed to 11.21 and 21.22 mg l(-1)ammonia-N for 7 days, phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to V. alginolyticus significantly decreased. It is therefore suggested that ammonia in water caused a depression in the immune response and an increase in mortality of L. vannamei from the V. alginolyticus infection.
The molting cycle of Penaeus vannamei juveniles was characterized by distinct and predictable changes in the setae of pleopods. The molt pattern was diecdysic with a relatively short intermolt period (40%) and a long proecdysial period (>53%). The levels of both total protein and ecdysteroids increased in the hemolymph during proecdysis, whereas the level of hemolymph glucose was low at metecdysis and proecdysis and maximal during anecdysis. As revealed by SDS-PAGE, the relative concentrations of two polypeptides (32 kD; 175 kD) changed during the molting cycle.
The aim of this study was to determine the influence of dietary glucan and vitamin C, alone and in combination, on the cellular and humoral immune responses of rainbow trout. After 4 weeks of adaptation on a control diet containing glucan at 0ppm and vitamin C at 150ppm, four groups of rainbow trout were fed the experimental diets containing vitamin C at 150 and 1000ppm plus a fixed amount of glucan, or no glucan for 2 weeks. The fish were then switched back to the control diet. Non-specific immunity was investigated at the end of the two-week experimental feeding period, and then again 4 weeks later. Macrophage activities such as oxidative burst and pinocytosis were determined along with complement activation and lysozyme levels. The specific immune response was evaluated as: (1) proliferation of lymphocytes induced by mitogen and (2) the antibody response after vaccination against enteric redmouth disease. Fish were vaccinated at the end of the 2-week experimental feeding period and antibody titres were determined every second week for the 16 following weeks. The results of this trial showed a significant effect of dietary vitamin C but not glucan on the non-specific immune response of rainbow trout such as increased oxidative burst, pino-cytosis and lysozyme activity. Dietary treatments had no effect on alternative pathway of complement activation. A significant enhancing effect of dietary beta-1,3/1,6 yeast glucan was observed on concanavalin A-induced proliferation of lymphocytes and the antibody response after vaccination against enteric redmouth disease. When considering the antibody titres at the peak time, glucan or vitamin C significantly enhanced the response. This was also observed on serum complement levels measured at the same time. Results from this trial helped to establish the beneficial effect of a dietary combination of glucan and vitamin C on the immune response of rainbow trout, as well as to evaluate the specific effect of each substance.
Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) larvae were first cultivated for 1 month in the same pond and then at postlarval 43 were transferred into three different culture ponds (E2, E4, and W4). Vibrio spp. from the pond water and shrimp hepatopancreas were isolated and identified using thiosulfate-citrate-bile salt-sucrose (TCBS) agar and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) analysis. For the initial 60 days after transfer, the composition of the Vibrio community in the pond water remained fairly diverse, but subsequently decreases in species diversity were observed in all three ponds, suggesting that the culture system was under some kind of stress. However, no clear relationship between this reduction in species diversity, and the subsequent occurrence of disease to the changes in total viable and Vibrio counts were observed. Although the Vibrio community in pond E4 remained relatively diverse, in water samples taken from E2 and W4 between Day 73 and 89, the dominant species according to FAME were Vibrio cholerae and, apparently, Vibrio furnissii/Aeromonas spp., respectively. By Day 95, at which time all the shrimps, including those in pond E4, were dead, the microbial communities in all these ponds appeared to be dominated by Aeromonas spp. and V. furnissii. When thirty-eight of these Aeromonas spp. and V. furnissii isolates were randomly selected and re-identified using Biolog GN plates, the majority of them (58%) were reassigned either to Vibrio parahaemolyticus or the Vibrio harveyi/Vibrio carchariae group. Vibrios were only detected once in the hepatopancreas of shrimp from pond E2. In W4 shrimp, more than 104 CFU of vibrios/g were detected in samples taken on Day 62 and thereafter. The average weight of shrimp collected on Day 89 from ponds W4 and E2 was 4.91 and 7.96 g, respectively, which suggests that the presence of a large number of vibrios in the hepatopancreas may be associated with growth retardation in shrimps. The Biolog system identified 53.3% of the vibrios isolated from the hepatopancreas of shrimps collected from pond W4 on Day 62, as V. harveyi and 20% as V. parahaemolyticus. One month later, immediately before mass mortality of the shrimp, Biolog results suggested that the W4 hepatopancreatic Vibrio communities were dominated by V. parahaemolyticus.
A lipopolysaccharide- and β-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP) was isolated and characterized from blood cells (hemocytes)
of the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. The LGBP was purified by chromatography on Blue-Sepharose and phenyl-Sepharose, followed by Sephacryl S-200. The LGBP has
a molecular mass of 36 kDa and 40 kDa on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reducing and nonreducing conditions,
respectively. The calculated mass of LGBP is 39,492 Da, which corresponds to the native size of LGBP; the estimated pI of
the mature LGBP is 5.80. LGBP has binding activity to lipopolysaccharides as well as to β-1,3-glucans such as laminarin and
curdlan, but peptidoglycan could not bind to LGBP. Cloning and sequencing of LGBP showed significant homology with several
putative Gram-negative bacteria-binding proteins and β-1,3-glucanases. Interestingly, LGBP also has a structure and functions
similar to those of the coelomic cytolytic factor-1, a lipopolysaccharide- and glucan-binding protein from the earthworm Eisenia foetida. To evaluate the involvement of LGBP in the prophenoloxidase (proPO) activating system, a polyclonal antibody against LGBP
was made and used for the inhibition of phenoloxidase (PO) activity triggered by the β-1,3-glucan laminarin in the hemocyte
lysate of crayfish. The PO activity was blocked completely by the anti-LGBP antibody. Moreover, the PO activity could be recovered
by the addition of purified LGBP. These results suggest that the 36-kDa LGBP plays a role in the activation of the proPO activating
system in crayfish and thus seems to play an important role in the innate immune system of crayfish.
A massive ephtic of vibriosis, named “sindroma gaviota” (or sea gull syndrome = SGS) by local shrimp fanners, began in November 1989 and continued through May 1990 in nursery and grow-out ponds in a number of shrimp farms located in the Gulf of Guaynquil near Cunyaquil, Ecuador. The level of cumulative mortalities ranged from slight in some ponds to more than 90% in others. Examination of affected shrimp, Penaeus vannamei Boone, led to the isolation of several closely related Vibrio species. The predominant species were identified as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and V. alginolyticus using the API-NFT system. Several of the strains exhibited a transient luminescence and some were positive for urease, an unusual trait for these species. Comparisons of the antimicrobial sensitivity patterns between farm and hatchery isolates from 1989–1990 and hatchery isolates from 1987–1989 indicate that the 1989–1990 pond isolates were not of hatchery origin. The epizootic coincided with the second year of a severe drought in Ecuador. Thus, the discharge of fresh water by the Guayas River was reduced and salinities and relative nutrient concentrations were elevated in the Gulf of Guaynquil. These environmental conditions were ideal for the increased growth of the causative vibrios in the estuarine waters and are believed to be factors that contributed to the 1989–1990 SGS epizootic.
This paper reports on the feasibility of utilizing the abundant marine alga Rhizoclonium as a substitute for wood fiber, based on studies on its morphology and chemical composition. The alga appears as wood fiber-like
filaments consisting of tubular end-to-end connections of individual cells. In the population studied, each cell averaged
82 μm long, 76 μm wide and had cell wall 7.4 μm thick. The composition was 15.9% ash, 9.72% extractable by 90% acetone, 9.43%
extractable by alcohol-benzene, 3.8% acid insoluble fraction, 17.8% pentosan, 36.3% 1% NaOH soluble fraction and 57.4% carbohydrate.
The composition of its carbohydrates is similar to that of wood fiber. After hydrolysis, reduction, and acetylation of the
sugars, and GC-MS analysis the components showed glucose (65.8%), xylose (19.8%), galactose (12.5%) and mannose (1.3%). There
were high contents of cold- and hot-water extractables, 31.1% and 34.6%, respectively. These consisted of xylose, galactose
and glucose. The crystallinity index (CI%) of its holocellulose was as high as 86.5%, close to the 90.5% value of wood fiber.
The 1091 cm-1 peak intensity increased with reaction cycles, suggesting decreasing absorptivity and increasing crystallinity. This corresponds
to terrestrial plant fibers. Taken together, these features suggest that Rhizoclonium has good potential as a raw material for pulp.
There are five different viruses which are currently being studied for their impact on commercial farming of the black tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) in Thailand. Some of these viruses cause disease in other penaeid shrimp species and even other crustacean species. Some occur not only in cultivated shrimp in other Asian countries, but also in those from Australia and the western hemisphere. In descending order from greatest to least economic impact on the Thai shrimp industry, the five viruses are: white-spot baculovirus, yellow-head virus, hepatopancreatic parvo-like virus, infectious hypodermal and hematopoeitic necrosis virus and monodon baculovirus. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent work on these viruses and to suggest future directions of research that may be useful in the effort to develop a sustainable shrimp industry.
The question as to how the immune defence of an invertebrate animal is initiated and coordinated has largely been unanswered. This short review focuses on recent discoveries about crayfish hemolymph proteins, which may play roles in cell adhesion events leading to initiation of phagocytosis and encapsulation. Focus will also be made on anti-oxidative enzymes that may participate in the production of reactive oxygen compounds used in the destruction of engulfed or encapsulated parasites. Peroxinectin is stored in semi-granular and granular hemocytes and released concomitant with activation of prophenoloxidase (proPO). It is a cell adhesion protein, enhancing phagocytosis and encapsulation and triggers degranulation. It is also a peroxidase, belonging to the same protein family as mammalian myeloperoxidase. Peroxinectin binds a 90-kDa peripheral cell surface superoxide dismutase (SOD) of crayfish blood cells. Integrins are transmembrane proteins present on crayfish hemocytes and commonly known to be acting as cell adhesion receptors in many events. After its release and activation, peroxinectin may opsonize foreign surfaces where it is recognized by integrins on the hemocyte. This can be a starting point for phagocytosis or encapsulation. Peroxinectin and extracellular SOD (EC-SOD) may then cooperate during a respiratory burst to destroy an ingested or encapsulated parasite.
The total haemocyte count (THC), phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst and phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to Vibrio alginolyticus were examined when the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei were injected with different types (type I to type V) of carrageenan at 6 µg g− 1 shrimp. Results showed that the THC, phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst, and phagocytic activity against V. alginolyticus were significantly higher in shrimp that received any type of carrageenan after 24 h. Results also showed that the THC and PO activity maintained significantly higher in shrimp that received type IV carrageenan as compared to those that received other types of carrageenan after 96 h. In a separate experiment, L. vannamei which had been injected with different types of carrageenan after 3 h were challenged with V. alginolyticus at 7.34 × 106 cfu shrimp− 1, and placed in seawater. The survival of shrimp that received type IV carrageenan was significantly higher than that of shrimp that received type I, II, III and V carrageenan, and shrimp that received saline as well as the control shrimp after 120 h. It was concluded that L. vannamei that received type IV carrageenan (λ-carrageenan) exhibited higher immune ability of L. vannamei as well as resistance against V. alginolyticus infection.
Shrimp farming constitutes an important source of revenue and employment in many developing countries. However, infectious diseases have affected the profitability of the shrimp industry. For this reason, disease prevention is a priority and shrimp immunology has become a prime area of research. In such a perspective, studies into the value of cellular and humoral parameters as indicators of shrimp condition are being carried out, with the intention of developing criteria for sanitary surveys, immunomodulation studies and selection programs for shrimp with high resistance to pathogens. Several quantitative, fast and easy procedures are being adapted to evaluate the expression of the immune response of shrimp. In regard to cellular parameters, the hemogram and two cellular mechanisms, the radical oxygen intermediates (ROIs) generated during postphagocytic events and phenoloxidase (PO) activity have been considered as potential markers. Concerning humoral parameters, the antibacterial activity of plasma and the concentration of plasma proteins can be considered as criteria of health status. Information is presented about the immunological tools used to evaluate these health markers and the results concerning the clinical significance of response modifications.
Significant amounts of marine macroalgal (seaweed) polysaccharides are used in food, pharmaceuticals and other products for human consumption. Thus, the global seaweed polysaccharide industry operates in a highly regulated environment. Genetic manipulation of macroalgae to alter composition or growth characteristics may lead to products that do not fall within the current regulations: research that is readily translatable to industrial application is generally restricted to seaweed cultivation and processing and new applications of the approved polysaccharides. There is a great need, however, for research into the genome structure and metabolic pathways of commercially important marine macroalgae. This precompetitive research may not be immediately applicable to the seaweed polysaccharide industry but is critical for sustaining future commercial growth.
A spectrophotometric nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction assay was used to demonstrate the production of superoxide anions (O2−) by haemocytes of the white shrimp Penaeus vannamei. It was found that haemocytes, without receiving an experimental stimulant, showed a rather high background activity. Therefore, optimal parameters (number of haemocytes, type of incubation medium, type and concentration of stimulants) were first established, in order to obtain a reliable and reproducible quantitative assay. With this optimized assay, and using specific inhibitors, it was shown that it is indeed the production of O2− that was measured. Activities varied strongly among individual shrimp specimens. Live bacteria, among these Vibrio strains, induced O2− production in the haemocytes, in a dose-dependent manner. Whereas Vibrio anguillarum and a probiotic strain of V. alginolyticus evoked clear reactions, a pathogenic strain of V. harveyi failed to elicit O2− production in the haemocytes. It is discussed that this may explain this strain's capability of evading the host's oxidative microbicidal activity, which would be a virulence factor in these bacteria. Heat-killed bacteria hardly induced NBT reduction in the cells. The fungicide propiconazole or Tilt®, found as a pollutant in the aquatic environment where the shrimp are reared, was tested for its effect on NBT reduction by the haemocytes. In haemocytes that did not receive an experimental stimulant, Tilt® induced the reduction of NBT in a dose-dependent manner. In experimentally stimulated haemocytes, however, Tilt® strongly reduced the reaction upon the stimulant PMA. Probable explanations for these seemingly controversial effects of Tilt® are discussed, as are possible consequences of this sort of pollutants for shrimp aquaculture. This easy to perform and relatively cheap and simple quantitative assay for measuring the activity of an oxidative microbicidal mechanism in shrimp haemocytes, appears quite reliable and may therefore prove to be a valuable tool for monitoring shrimp health and immunologic status.
Simple sugars, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and their derivatives, including the methyl ethers with free or potentially free reducing groups, give an orange-yellow color when treated with phenol and concentrated sulfuric acid. The reaction is sensitive and the color is stable. By use of this phenol-sulfuric acid reaction, a method has been developed to determine submicro amounts of sugars and related substances. In conjunction with paper partition chromatography the method is useful for the determination of the composition of polysaccharides and their methyl derivatives.
Office of Naval Research. Contract N8onr-520/III. Project NR-083-012
White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei which had been immersed in seawater (35 per thousand) containing the hot-water extract of Gracilaria tenuistipitata at 0 (control), 400, and 6