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Quantitative descriptive analysis of Italian polenta produced with different corn cultivars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 92, 412-417
Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture
Abstract
Polenta is a porridge-like dish, generally made by mixing cornmeal with salt water and stirring constantly while cooking over a low heat. It can be eaten plain, straight from the pan, or topped with various foods (cheeses, meat, sausages, fish, etc.). It is most popular in northern Italy but can also be found in Switzerland, Austria, Croatia, Argentina and other countries in Eastern Europe and South America. Despite this diffusion, there are no data concerning the sensory characteristics of this product. A research study was therefore carried out to define the lexicon for a sensory profile of polenta and relationships with corn cultivars.
A lexicon with 13 sensory parameters was defined and validated before references were determined. After panel training, the sensory profiles of 12 autochthonous maize cultivars were defined.
The results of this research highlighted that quantitative descriptive analysis can also be used for the sensory description of polenta, and that the defined lexicon can be used to describe the sensory qualities of polenta for both basic research, such as maize selection, and product development.
... Products derived from dry-milled maize for human consumption, such as flour, grits and shredded maize, are used in gastronomy for preparing regional dishes; this is the case of polenta (Soler & Bernal, 2017), a slowly cooked meal made from yellow maize. It is traditionally cooked in a large copper pot known as "paiolo" in Italian, and it can be served with various kinds of cheese, butter, fish, boletus mushrooms, rapini (broccoli rabe) or other vegetables, as well as with sausages or meat (Zeppa et al., 2011). This dish is very popular in northern Italy, but it can also be found in other countries in Europe and South America (Miele et al., 2018). ...
... Thus, coarse particles from hard-endosperm grains, such as flint, hinder rapid hydration in the presence of heat, and generate low viscosity. This shows a negative correlation between grain hardness and flour viscoelastic properties (Almeida-Dominguez et al., 1997;Zeppa et al., 2011). ...
... On the other hand, some authors mention the importance of particle size distribution obtained after milling in cereals. In this respect, polenta is characterised by a few small particles in its structure, but if there are too many of them, its quality will decrease (Zeppa et al., 2011). Also, in the production of snacks from polenta, a certain variability of particles is required to improve the textural characteristics of the product, as they are too compact when obtained from fine-particle flours, and too spongy when obtained from coarse-particle flours. ...
The objective of this study was to determine the suitability of different soft‐endosperm commercial maize hybrids to obtain polenta of good technological quality. Ten commercial soft‐endosperm hybrids and two open‐pollinated varieties (quality controls) of maize were used. Grain physical characteristics were determined, and polentas from each genotype were obtained. The chemical composition of semolina was determined, and polenta was evaluated in terms of viscoelasticity, cooking characteristics and colour. The semolina yield was between 50.96 to 69.36%. The control genotypes showed the lowest values for peak viscosity, with 3670.5 and 3966.25 cP. Hybrid Next22.6 showed the highest consistency value, while C6006, Col17, Ds507 and Srm566 presented the lowest value of all samples tested. Hybrid N7822 first, followed by Ds507 and Srm553, proved to be suitable for the food industry. The good characteristics of this dish were associated with high pasting temperature and semolina yield, and low consistency and viscosity values.
... The sensory analysis was carried out using as a basis some descriptors published by other authors [6] and then adapted according to previous pilot tests. The selected samples included a typical polenta from flint-grain semolina (C6006), a polenta from the commercial hybrid (AX882), and a polenta with a distinct colour (white) and the highest antioxidant capacity in the bioaccessible digestion fraction (C8008). ...
... These results were mirrored in a preference ranking, with polenta C6006 receiving the highest scores and polenta C8008 receiving the lowest scores in consumer preference tests. According to the descriptors outlined by other authors [6], our research revealed that the parameters in question play a critical role in distinguishing sensory qualities between samples, thus influencing overall preference. ...
The sensory profile of polenta and the connections between technological attributes and varieties of maize have not been extensively studied. Thus, it is necessary to understand the possible effect of its consumption on consumers’ health in terms of postprandial glucose levels and molecules associated with healthy activities. This work aims to study polenta’s technological and sensory properties from different maize genotypes and evaluate their digestibility and the potential contribution of bioactive compounds on health. A commercial hybrid, two open-pollinated varieties, and three inbred lines were used. Grain physical determinations and physical-chemical semolina traits were determined. Polenta’s technological quality was evaluated after simulated cooking. In vitro digestion was performed for polentas, and a sensory evaluation test was conducted. A significant correlation was found between semolina polyphenols and rapidly digestible starch (r = −0.6). Panellists characterised the genotype C6006 as having a good flavour, sandier mouthfeel, and low consistency. Also, the polenta from the hybrid exhibited sensory attributes more closely resembling commercial polenta in terms of maize odour, flavour, and consistency. The higher content of polyphenols presents in semolina affected the digestion of polenta, showing a lower proportion of rapidly digestible starch and a lower amount of bioaccessible protein fraction.
... Historically, Italian maize polenta was obtained from landraces from the different microclimates specific of the several Italian agroecological and agroclimatic areas (62,63). Zeppa et al. (64) reported that quantitative descriptive analysis can be used for sensory description of polenta produced with the simple recipe (maize flour and water), and that the defined lexicon (13 terms: four for odor, three for taste, four for aroma and two for texture) can be used to describe the sensory qualities of polenta produced with 12 Italian maize cultivars. In the first large screening of Italian maize germplasm, 633 landraces were characterized by NIRS for their kernel composition (content of protein, lipid and starch, floating area) and compared to 519 landraces from 20 different countries (65). ...
... Making process (17)(18)(19)24) Food technologies (20-23, 26-30, 58, 59, 94-97, 107, 123, 124, 146) Genetic diversity (16-18, 20, 57-61, 98, 107, 125, 126, 134) Nutrition and health (16, 20, 55, 56, 61, 73, 74, 79, 80, 96-98, 123-126, 134, 169, 170) Quality (20,59,60,146,148,149,153,154,158) Breeding (9,10,16,18,(161)(162)(163)(164)(167)(168)(169)(170)(171)(172)(173)(174)(175) Italian polenta Making process (31,32) Food technologies (33,64,66) Genetic diversity (33, 62-66, 89, 90, 140) Nutrition and health (65, 66, 88-90, 93, 116-118, 139) Western specialties Talo and Gofio Making process (34,40,44) Food technologies (38,(45)(46)(47) Genetic diversity (35)(36)(37) Nutrition and health (41) Eastern specialties and cookies Food technologies (67,83) Genetic diversity (67)(68)(69)(70)(71) Nutrition and health (67-71, 83, 85) of farmers, for which a greater involvement of national and local actors (GO) are needed (54). It is also important to stress that VASO paved the way to promote use and valorization competitions such as the "Best ear of Sousa Valley" in which development of genetic resources and pedagogical tools based on statistical tools were elaborated and made available to farmers (166). ...
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the major crops of the world for feed, food, and
industrial uses. It was originated in Central America and introduced into Europe and
other continents after Columbus trips at the end of the 15th century. Due to the large
adaptability of maize, farmers have originated a wide variability of genetic resources
with wide diversity of adaptation, characteristics, and uses. Nowadays, in Europe,
maize is mainly used for feed, but several food specialties were originated during these
five centuries of maize history and became traditional food specialties. This review
summarizes the state of the art of traditional foodstuffs made with maize in Southern,
South-Western and South-Eastern Europe, from an historic evolution to the last research
activities that focus on improving sustainability, quality and safety of food production.
... Historically, Italian maize polenta was obtained from landraces from the different microclimates specific of the several Italian agroecological and agroclimatic areas (62,63). Zeppa et al. (64) reported that quantitative descriptive analysis can be used for sensory description of polenta produced with the simple recipe (maize flour and water), and that the defined lexicon (13 terms: four for odor, three for taste, four for aroma and two for texture) can be used to describe the sensory qualities of polenta produced with 12 Italian maize cultivars. In the first large screening of Italian maize germplasm, 633 landraces were characterized by NIRS for their kernel composition (content of protein, lipid and starch, floating area) and compared to 519 landraces from 20 different countries (65). ...
... Making process (17)(18)(19)24) Food technologies (20-23, 26-30, 58, 59, 94-97, 107, 123, 124, 146) Genetic diversity (16-18, 20, 57-61, 98, 107, 125, 126, 134) Nutrition and health (16, 20, 55, 56, 61, 73, 74, 79, 80, 96-98, 123-126, 134, 169, 170) Quality (20,59,60,146,148,149,153,154,158) Breeding (9,10,16,18,(161)(162)(163)(164)(167)(168)(169)(170)(171)(172)(173)(174)(175) Italian polenta Making process (31,32) Food technologies (33,64,66) Genetic diversity (33, 62-66, 89, 90, 140) Nutrition and health (65, 66, 88-90, 93, 116-118, 139) Western specialties Talo and Gofio Making process (34,40,44) Food technologies (38,(45)(46)(47) Genetic diversity (35)(36)(37) Nutrition and health (41) Eastern specialties and cookies Food technologies (67,83) Genetic diversity (67)(68)(69)(70)(71) Nutrition and health (67-71, 83, 85) of farmers, for which a greater involvement of national and local actors (GO) are needed (54). It is also important to stress that VASO paved the way to promote use and valorization competitions such as the "Best ear of Sousa Valley" in which development of genetic resources and pedagogical tools based on statistical tools were elaborated and made available to farmers (166). ...
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the major crops of the world for feed, food, and industrial uses. It was originated in Central America and introduced into Europe and other continents after Columbus trips at the end of the 15th century. Due to the large adaptability of maize, farmers have originated a wide variability of genetic resources with wide diversity of adaptation, characteristics, and uses. Nowadays, in Europe, maize is mainly used for feed, but several food specialties were originated during these five centuries of maize history and became traditional food specialties. This review summarizes the state of the art of traditional foodstuffs made with maize in Southern, South-Western and South-Eastern Europe, from an historic evolution to the last research activities that focus on improving sustainability, quality and safety of food production.
... Maize is the main cereal grain cultivated throughout the world, because of its yield and versatility (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Crops production 2009; Zeppa et al. 2012). It is used as feed for livestock, as forage, silage and grain, but also as biofuel and for industrial uses. ...
... However, human nutrition, that remains one of the main uses, determined the selection of varieties for producing many locally typical cornmeal such as polenta in Italy, angu in Brazil and mush in the USA. Polenta is a very popular dish in the northern regions of Italy (Zeppa et al. 2012). Different maize varieties and 123 different types of flour milling allowed the production of different kinds of polenta. ...
Different epidemiological and preclinical studies have demonstrated that regular consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods is associated to a reduced risk of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and obesity. However, assigning a health property to anthocyanins or other classes of flavonoids may be limited by the influence of other metabolites of plant-based food consumed in the diet, acting as possible confounding factors. The development of model foods essentially isogenic and nutritionally identical except that in the type and quantity of plant bioactives to be studied represents an important tool in nutritional studies. The extensive knowledge of the regulation of flavonoid pathway in maize can be exploited to obtain 'near-isogenic' model foods, which differ only in the content of specific classes of flavonoids. Being obtainable by breeding strategies, maize model foods can provide functional foods that can be used for both animal feeding studies and human intervention trials for assessing the role of flavonoids or other bioactives in preventing chronic diseases. This review will be focused on recent advances regarding the anthocyanin biosynthesis in maize, the role of anthocyanins from corn in preventing chronic diseases and finally on the breeding activities to produce maize functional foods with increased anthocyanin content.
... In sensory analysis, QDA and PCA are used in combination, which has led to the successful characterisation of the sensorial attributes in a wide range of food products. Previously analysed products include, for example, UHT milk, cheddar cheese, soy proteins, yogurt, and polenta (Puri et al., 2016, Zeppa et al., 2012. In addition, the sensory qualities of roasted malts have previously been analysed successfully using QDA by a number of researchers in order to pursue quality control, benchmark products, and explore roasted product flavour (Coghe et al., 2004, Kim et al., 1998, Murray, 1999. ...
Roasted malts are used in the brewing industry to impart colour and flavour to beers. The diversity of colours and flavours roasted products can provide are dependent upon a variety of factors: roasting time and temperature, initial moisture content, roasting substrate type (i.e. green malt, pale malt, or unmalted barley), and roasting sequence (i.e. stewing, kilning, and/or roasting). The aim of this research was to improve understanding of thermal flavour generation in roasted malt and barley, and thereby improve understanding of roasting process control. In this research, instrumental analysis was employed to positively identify and quantify thermally generated volatile compounds in roasted products, while sensory analysis evaluated the odour activity of identified volatiles, and quantitatively described aroma qualities of roasted products. Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry (GC-O) identified 45 odour active compounds across a range of six commercially available roasted malts. Of these, formation of 20 key compounds were monitored as a function of roasting time and temperature across the three roasting substrate types, using a custom-built laboratory-scale roaster for precise time/temperature control. 3D response surface models were produced showing compound concentrations as a function of roasting time and temperature in each roasted substrate. The roasted product ‘flavour space’ (depicted via principal component analysis (PCA)) visualised formation of 20 compounds over the course of roasting conditions for each roasted substrate, in addition to the six previously examined commercially roasted products. The identification of volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs) by GC-PFPD (Pulsed Flame Photometric Detection) in roasted products presented novel detail of VSCs in roasted products, showing the highest numbers of VSCs in products roasted between 200 °C and 230 °C, however, prolonged roasting times reduced concentrations. Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) of the aroma of selected roasted products identified roasting temperature as the major significant factor in the aroma characteristics of roasted products. This research provides comprehensive understanding of thermal flavour generation in roasted malts and barley by the interdisciplinary approach of combining instrumental and sensorial analysis. Awareness of volatile formation as a function of process conditions has potential to improve process control and product quality for commercial roasting.
... These varieties are regularly reproduced in the field and have been subject in recent years of studies on carotenoid content, soluble phenolic content, total antioxidant capacity and resistance to Fusarium attack (Berardo et al., 2009;Bitocchi et al., 2009;Lanzanova et al., 2016;Tafuri et al., 2014;Torri et al., 2015). Sub-groups of this large collection have been evaluated for traits related to the production of polenta, pasta and biscuits (Berardo et al., 2006;Zeppa et al., 2011). Maize (Zea mays L) is constantly attacked by fungal pathogens, and some of them can produce mycotoxins, which are potentially carcinogenic (Castegnaro and McGregor, 1998). ...
White maize varieties were mainly grown in Italy before the advent of hybrids. The characterization of their nutritional quality and safety will help to enhance the biodiversity of traditional materials, and to exploit it for food production. In fact, in recent years attention has been focused on the use of white maize varieties for the preparation of maize-based gluten-free products for celiacs. Moreover it is also known that mycotoxin contamination of maize grain is a global threat to the safety of both human food and feed.
In order to recover the biodiversity of traditionally maize, twenty-one Italian white maize varieties available at CREA Bergamo genebank were cultivated in Bergamo and Cremona in 2016. These genotypes were evaluated for grain chemical composition and agronomic performance; moreover an inoculation trial was carried out to test their resistance/susceptibility to F. verticillioides.
Chemical composition of the grain showed a wide range of variability; the samples from Bergamo accumulated more starch, whereas the plants grown in Cremona showed a higher content of proteins, lipids and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Some varieties (VA86, VA1239 and VA1245) were valuable in both environments for their protein and lipid content, while VA185 showed a good 1000 kernels weight, in addition to interesting values of yield and test weight. Considerable variability was observed in fumonisin contamination. The response to fungal attack was very different in the two environments, the varieties grown in Cremona showed higher number of infected kernels at the inoculum point and higher level of fumonisins compared to the plants grown in Bergamo. Interestingly, some varieties (VA117, VA1213) showed a low fumonisin contamination in both locations.
These genotypes could be potentially suitable for breeding programs with the aim to find new sources of genetic variability to improve the nutritional quality of maize genotypes and their resistance to pathogens.
... These varieties are regularly reproduced in the field and have been subject in recent years of studies on carotenoid content, soluble phenolic content, total antioxidant capacity and resistance to Fusarium attack (Berardo et al., 2009;Bitocchi et al., 2009;Lanzanova et al., 2016;Tafuri et al., 2014;Torri et al., 2015). Sub-groups of this large collection have been evaluated for traits related to the production of polenta, pasta and biscuits (Berardo et al., 2006;Zeppa et al., 2011). Maize (Zea mays L) is constantly attacked by fungal pathogens, and some of them can produce mycotoxins, which are potentially carcinogenic (Castegnaro and McGregor, 1998). ...
... A wide range of traditional grain-based foods have been tested. Italian polenta produced with 12 different corn cultivars during 2 years of testing was studied by Zeppa et al. [80], who defined 13 descriptors for the sensory profile of traditional polenta. Nine cultivars were examined in the first year and seven in the second year. ...
As globalization progresses, consumers are readily exposed to many foods from various cultures. The need for studying specialty and unique food products, sometimes known as traditional, authentic, ethnic, exotic, or artisanal foods, is increasing to accommodate consumers’ growing demands. However, the number of studies conducted on these types of products with good quality sensory testing is limited. In this review, we analyzed and reviewed sensory and consumer research on specialty and unique food products. Various factors such as manufacturing, processing, or preparation methods of the samples influence the characteristics of food products and their acceptability. Sensory descriptive analysis can be used to distinguish characteristics that highlight these differences, and consumer research is used to identify factors that affect acceptability. Familiarity with product attributes contributes to consumer acceptance. When cross-cultural consumer research is conducted to support product market placement and expansion, sensory descriptive analysis should be conducted in parallel to define product characteristics. This allows better prediction of descriptors that influence consumer acceptability, leading to appropriate product modification and successful introduction.
... It is most popular in the north of Italy but it can be also found in other countries in Europe and South America. In literature, there is only one study regarding its characterization (Zeppa et al. 2012), which was carried out to define the lexicon for a sensory profile of polenta and the relationships among sensory properties and maize cultivars. The authors showed that the descriptors chosen were useful to differentiate sensory quality among samples and that the defined lexicon could be used to describe the sensory qualities of polenta obtained by fresh maize flour both for basic research and product development. ...
The aim of this paper was to study, step by step, the effect of ingredients and storage conditions on several properties of both the maize-based dough and the final product, during the new polenta-based snack food developing. Two different maize flours were characterized through water activity determination, particle size analysis, scanning electronic microscopy; then, dough made with different ratio of these were evaluated for mechanical properties and microstructure. According to the preliminary physicochemical characterization of both flour and dough, the final formulation was chosen for the polenta-based snacks. Thus, mechanical and sensory analyses, as well as microstructure determination, were performed on the final product. Results showed that the two maize flours presented different particle size distribution and gelatinization enthalpy, and affected the mechanical properties of intermediate products. The storage conditions dramatically affected the characteristics of the final products. Sensory results demonstrated that breading improves the crispness of external part but keeping creamy the product inside. The chosen approach was useful for understanding that flour particle size and storage are the critical factors that should be considered for this type of snack. The best formulation was made by mixing coarse and fine maize flours and by adding a batter.
... It can have different shapes, sizes and consistencies and can be presented alone or accompanied by different sauces. Until now it has been sensory characterized only by Zeppa et al. (2012) through a classical descriptive analysis. ...
Purpose
– Temporal dominance of sensation (TDS) is a sensory method developed by Pineau et al. (2003) which studies the sequence of dominant sensations of a product during its consumption. TDS is believed to be more appropriate to explain consumer responses than static descriptive analysis due to its temporal element. The purpose of this paper is to define the temporal sensory profile of a new product: polenta stick. In particular, TDS method was used to measure the dominance of sensory attributes in polenta stick samples and dynamic consumer tests were performed in order to verify if the acceptability changed over time during sample consumption.
Design/methodology/approach
– Eight polenta sticks, different in terms of storage conditions, cooking procedures and serving temperatures, were analysed by means of TDS with 13 assessors. During two preliminary sessions, the attributes list, constituted by the nine most cited sensations, was generated. Five replications were carried out. In dynamic consumer tests, 50 subjects were asked to give their liking on a seven-category scale for the frozen samples, in different five moments during the evaluation.
Findings
– TDS results showed a significant effect of the experimental conditions on dominant attribute perception of polenta sticks. For the oven-cooked samples, more flavour attributes were perceived as dominant, whereas for the fried samples, the attributes crispness and oiliness overcame with a high panel dominance rate and for a long time. For the chilled samples, crispness had the highest panel dominance rate; whereas for the frozen samples, creaminess was the most dominant attribute. Consumer liking scores did not significantly change over time during consumption for all the samples. The fried samples received the highest liking scores, at both serving temperatures.
Practical implications
– The chosen sensory methods gave the authors important information about the real perception of the products during consumption. A lot of foodstuffs show several sensory properties that appear in different times during evaluation and/or consumption. These properties could affect overall liking so they should be taken into account.
Originality/value
– New dynamic sensory methods were used to characterize a new food product, i.e. polenta-based sticks. The procedure used to evaluate the liking by consumers was completely innovative, whereas the sensory method used to characterize the samples was recently developed. The new food product was developed as an aim of an Italian research project funded by MiSE (Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico) for the valorization of maize flour (MAISFOOD, Industria 2015).
... The effect of maize cultivar on the descriptive sensory properties of a porridge-type maize dish polenta was published by (Zeppa, Bertolino, & Rolle, 2012). Thirteen terms (four for odour, three for taste, four for flavour and two for texture) differentiated sensory qualities among polenta samples. ...
... Corn (Zea mays) is the main cereal grain cultivated throughout the world because of its versatility and wide range of uses. 11 It has many uses, such as cornmeal mush in the United States, polenta in Italy, and angu in Brazil. 12 In addition to providing good nutrition for humans, corn can also be used for livestock feed, silage, forage, and starting material for biofuel production. ...
Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments with health benefits and potential use as food colorants. The objectives were to determine optimum parameters for the extraction of anthocyanins from dried distillers grain with solubles (DDGS). Also to develop a method of anthocyanin extraction from DDGS, quantify and identify them and determine the effect of processing methods and corn cultivars on anthocyanin concentration. DDGS were prepared from purple (PC) and dark (DC) corn and processed using conventional enzymes (C) and granular starch hydrolyzing enzymes (GC). Three independent variables, ethanol concentration (0, 12.5 and 25%), liquid-to-solid ratio (30:1, 40:1, 50:1 mL/g) and extraction temperature (4, 22 and 40 °C), and two dependent variables anthocyanin concentration and a-value (redness) were used. Results showed that dark corn DDGS gave higher anthocyanin concentration than purple corn. GC process showed higher total anthocyanin concentration than conventional method of DDGS production. The maximum anthocyanin concentration was obtained at 12.5% ethanol, 40:1 liquid-to-solid ratio and 22 °C for C-PC [321.0 ± 37.3 µg cyanidin-3 glucoside (C3G) equivalent/g DDGS]. For GC-PC, 25% ethanol, 30:1 liquid-to-solid ratio and 22 °C gave 741.4 ± 12.8 µg C3G equivalent/g DDGS. For GC-DC, 12.5% ethanol, 40:1 liquid-to-solid ratio and 40 °C extraction gave 1573.4 ± 84.0 µg C3G equivalent/g DDGS. LC/MS-MS analysis showed that the major anthocyanins were cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-(6"-malonyl) glucoside and peonidin-3-(6"malonyl) glucoside. In conclusion, anthocyanin extraction from colored corn DDGS can be optimized using 12.5% ethanol, 40:1 mL/g ratio, and 22 °C.
... In America, maize is used to make various Latin products like arepas, hallacas, empanadas and pasabocas, but the main consumption is nixtamalized to produce other products such as tortillas, tamales or snacks (Pineda-Gómez et al. 2012). In some of these foods, hydrothermally treated flours (instant flours) are very useful to simplify the production (less time and energy) (Reyes-Moreno et al. 2003;Zeppa et al. 2012). ...
Relatively little work has been reported about flour changes during microwave irradiation. For this reason, maize flours were treated by microwave radiation at 400 W for 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 min, and their microstructure and physicochemical characteristics (X-ray diffractometry, differential scanning calorimetry and pasting properties) were analysed. Micrographs showed that maize flour treated by microwave radiation displayed less compacted particles and more swollen starch granules. Treated maize flours displayed higher V-type
crystalline structure, indicating amylose-lipid complexes formation.
Additionally, onset and peak temperature and gelatinization enthalpy increased when increasing treatment time of samples. Maize flours subjected to mild treatment (0.5 and 1 min) showed higher peak viscosity and breakdown than native maize flour, and maize samples subjected to severe treatments (2 and 4 min) displayed a lower peak viscosity and breakdown, which reflects an increase in shear stability,
with respect to native maize sample. In general, microwave treatment fostered changes in starch crystallinity and the formation of amylose-lipid complexes affecting the functional properties of flour such as its pasting behaviour and its thermal properties.
Corn (Zea mays L.) is the third most important staple cereal crop after wheat and rice, which is used for human consumption, biofuels, livestock feed and also as raw material in industry. It provides over 20% of total calories in human diet. The sh2 mutant in supersweet corn composites and hybrids leads to enhanced sugar and vitamin B3 content in developing grains and reduction of starch content in mature grains. The deficiency of essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan in maize proteins has been significantly improved with the use of opaque2 (o2) allele leading to the development of quality protein maize (QPM). In this study, the opaque2 allele was pyramided in a sweet corn composite with Shrunken 2 (sh2) allele to develop a sweet and quality protein maize composite with higher content of essential amino acids and vitamins. QPM inbred line VQL-2 was used as the donor parent for o2 allele having higher value of lysine (3.64 ± 0.1 g/100 g), tryptophan (1.91 ± 0.01 g/100 g) and vitamin B3 (1.97 ± 0.02 mg/100 g) and the Punjab sweetcorn-1 as the recurrent parent having higher values of vitamin B1 (0.1 ± 0.01 mg/100 g) and C (6.58 ± 0.82 mg/100 g). The EU-Sweetcorn QP composite was developed through marker-assisted backcross breeding using umc1066 marker linked to o2 mutant and selection of homozygous sh2sh2 plants was done phenotypically at maturity. The EU-Sweetcorn QP composite developed for the first time in India has superior nutritional quality, e.g., high essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan and vitamins B1, B3 and C as estimated using RP-HPLC–PDA.
The research investigates the potential use of maize cobs (or corncobs) from five genotypes, including the B73 inbred line and four locally cultivated landraces from Northern Italy, as substrate for implementing Solid State fermentation processes with four Medicinal Mushrooms (MMs). The corncobs were characterized based on their proximate composition, lignin, phenolics content (both free and bound), and total antioxidant capacity. Among the MMs tested, Pleurotus ostreatus and Ganoderma annularis demonstrated the most robust performance. Their growth was parametrized using Image Analysis technique, and chemical composition of culture samples was characterized compared to that of corncobs alone. In all culture samples, the growth of MMs led to a significant reduction (averaging 40%) in the total phenolics contents compared to that measured in corncobs alone. However, the high content of free phenolics in the cobs negatively impacted the growth of P. ostreatus. The final MM-corncob matrix exhibited reduced levels of free sugars and starch (≤ 2.2% DW, as a sum) and increased levels of proteins (up to 5.9% DW) and soluble dietary fiber (up to 5.0% DW), with a notable trend toward higher levels of β-glucan compared to corncobs alone. This research paves the way for the use of this matrix as an active ingredient to enhance the nutritional value of food preparations.
Studies by the author in experimental archaeology have been dealing with the (re-)production of the ancient Roman meal “puls” since 2012. This porridge puls was mainly prepared with wheat and other grains and it can be considered as the ancient Roman “national dish” par excellence, according to literary evidence. Concerning the recipes, puls is mentioned by the author Cato and especially by a recipe collection attributed to the legendary gourmet and gourmand Apicius. Additionally, puls is also proven by archaeological evidence. Due to the simple preparation, archaeological as well as historical sources, and ethnographic comparisons, it can be assumed that puls was a very common meal in both the civil and military sectors. The experimental archaeological investigations deal with the production process (both in laboratory and field tests), the physical properties of the porridge puls during the cooking process, and an analysis of the sensory characteristics.
M orcela de A rroz ( MA ) is a popular cooked blood and rice sausage produced in the M onchique region, south of P ortugal, whose characteristics are not well known and no data are available about its sensory characteristics. The aim of this study was to build up terminology to develop a quantitative descriptive analysis for MA from M onchique region in comparison with other blood and rice sausages, in order to improve its sensory description.
Practical Applications
This study provides the necessary lexicon to be used in quantitative descriptive analysis of M orcela de A rroz ( MA ), particularly to discriminate the origin of the product. That lexicon will allow the characterization of traditional MA viewing to apply for one of the European Community (EC) special labels certification: P rotected D esignation of O rigin or P rotected G eographical I ndication. The list of selected descriptors and references should help researchers to elucidate about the factors which influence typical appearance, odor, flavor and texture, and also to improve sensory quality control in this type of meat products.
Among the phytonutrients, anthocyanins have been extensively studied because of their antioxidant power, the characteristic supposedly responsible for their capacity for chronic disease prevention. Anthocyanins can also be synthesized in maize even though in Europe the colourless varieties have always been preferred. The aim of this study was to develop and characterize a new polenta variety of maize rich in anthocyanins, bred by a recurrent selection scheme, to increase the antioxidant power of this food. The recurrent selection was based on the anthocyanin content and other specific traits of the kernel. The coloured polenta obtained was analysed by TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) analysis and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging ability, before and after cooking. The results obtained showed that even though cooking reduced the anthocyanin content by about 22%, the remaining anthocyanins exhibited twofolds higher antioxidant capacity, expressed as ARP (antiradical power) using acetone/water extraction buffer in DPPH assay, compared to the colourless control. Furthermore, our data showed that the anthocyanin content did not alter the taste of the coloured polenta.
Lexicons are standardized vocabularies that facilitate communication across diverse audiences. Lexicons undergo two stages (preparation and development). Lexicon preparation includes selecting suitable panelists who are highly trained and capable of describing the product category, selecting samples that represent the entire product space, and developing protocols that panelists systematically follow when creating the lexicon. The development stage includes reviewing protocols before evaluation ensues, generating terms and definitions that describe the products, selecting references that clarify the terms, reviewing examples to further train the panel on important attributes, and finalizing the lexicon. Examples of published lexicons exist for foods, beverages, home care products, personal care products and fragrances. Publishing lexicons is beneficial because it promotes standardization of sensory vocabulary across multiple panels, companies and countries. Ideally, a published lexicon has the complete list of products from which it was developed, all attribute terms, definitions for every attribute and references for every attribute.
Practical Applications
Sensory analysts working with trained descriptive panels need well defined and documented words to consistently and correctly describe products of interest. These lexicons provide a tool for communication within the panel and allow sensory analysts to communicate with product developers, marketing professionals and suppliers. Ultimately the terminology provides a basis for understanding the differences among products in a category and is the basis for designing consumer research questionnaires.
Lexicons are prominent in the sensory literature. Synthesizing these publications and establishing best practices for lexicon development promotes consistency and reproducibility across the field of sensory science. Review of existing lexicons reveals criteria for successful and useful versions. As globalization spreads modern‐day businesses to new locations, consistency in sensory evaluation becomes increasingly important to establish the success of product development.
Background
The traditional internal and external preference mapping methods are based on principal component analysis (PCA). However, parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and Tucker-3 methods could be a better choice. To evaluate the methods, preference maps of sweet corn varieties will be introduced.ResultsA preference map of eight sweet corn varieties was established using PARAFAC and Tucker-3 methods. Instrumental data was also integrated into the maps. The triplot created by the PARAFAC model explains better, how odour is separated from texture or appearance, and the way how separates some varieties from the others.Conclusion
Internal and external preference maps were created using parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and Tucker-3 models employing both sensory (trained panel and consumers) and instrumental parameters simultaneously. Triplots of the applied three-way models have a competitive advantage compared to the traditional biplots of the PCA based external preference maps. The solution of the PARAFAC and Tucker 3 is very similar regarding the interpretation of the first and third factors. The main difference is because of the second factor as it differentiated the attributes better. Consumers, who prefer super sweet varieties (they place great emphasis especially on taste), are much younger and have significantly higher incomes, and buy sweet corn products rarely (once a month). Consumers who consume sweet corn products mainly because of their texture and appearance are significantly older and have higher ratio of men.
BACKGROUND
Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale (ABT) is a typical Italian vinegar available in two different forms: Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena DOP (ABTM) and Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia DOP (ABTRE). ABT is obtained by alcoholic fermentation and acetic bio-oxidation of cooked grape must and aged at least 12years in wooden casks and is known and sold around the world. Despite this widespread recognition, data on sensory characteristics of these products are very scarce. Therefore a descriptive analysis was conducted to define a lexicon for the ABT sensory profile and to create a simple, stable and reproducible synthetic ABT for training panellists. RESULTSA lexicon of 20 sensory parameters was defined and validated and a synthetic ABT was prepared as standard reference. Simple standards for panellist training were also defined and the sensory profiles of ABTM and ABTRE were obtained. CONCLUSION
The obtained results confirm that descriptive analysis can be used for the sensory characterisation of ABT and that the sensory profiles of ABTM and ABTRE are very different. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that a lexicon and proper standard references are essential for describing the sensory qualities of ABT both for technical purposes and to protect the product from commercial fraud. (c) 2013 Society of Chemical Industry
The various synthetic raw materials used into car cabins are potential sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Consequently, the odors commonly present in the interior of the car could be assigned to these sources, especially in new and parked cars. Sensory analysis remains the obvious tool for evaluation of perceived indoor air quality, despite of the development of new state-of-art chemical analysis. The aim of the current study is to present a sensorial tool, an odor evaluation method for car parts and car cabins. The selection of 13 standards among the 45 basic standards of the Field of Odors, as well as seven “custom” standards, was established. All of these standards are used as a common language to describe the nature of odor in a sensory descriptive analysis approach. The setup of these standards provides us objective and comparative data. Odorous fingerprints from car parts have been found, explaining the dominant odors perceived in car cabins. The experimental setup applied for a particular case indicates that mainly foam parts have the major impact on car cabin smell and present a masking effect on the odor of the other parts.
The use of polymer materials (such as foams, plastics, carpets, etc.), paints and adhesives into the car cabin implies the emission of numerous VOCs in the interior of the vehicle. These compounds are responsible for the “new car smell.” This research provides sensory terms and an odor intensity scale that can be used to describe the ambient smell in the car cabin, but also the odor from car parts or car raw materials. This information is useful to the manufacturers in understanding the odorous characteristics of their car cabins assembly, according to the raw materials used, and also to the car part suppliers, submitted to some requirements in terms of odor's intensity and nature.
A sensory profile was created for 8 fresh tomato cultivars (Cherry-Pachino, Lobato, Rita, Furora, Bravo, ES200, Cherry-Licatese, and Sardegna) and their relationship to consumer preference was evaluated. A panel of 11 trained judges was used to evaluate the sensory profile. Results were processed by Analysis of Variance. Mean scores of sensory attributes (red, green, colour uniformity, fruity aroma, acid, salty, sweet, astringent, fruity flavour, crispy, firm, thick-skinned, juicy and mealy) were then subjected to Principal Component Analysis. In order to.
The objective of this research was to create the list of descriptors that would determine the quality differences between the fresh tomato samples. The samples purchased from local markets were evaluated by a trained panel. The free choice profiling (FCP) method was used for the generation of descriptors. One way of reducing the number of descriptors was performed on the basis of their classification by geometric means (M). Sequential principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out in order to exclude descriptors with low contribution to the total variance. The final list included descriptors of appearance (11), texture (3), odour (2), and taste (2), and their definitions as well. This research confirmed that the multidimensional approach could be used as a good sensory method for developing the sensory profile of fresh tomato.
In this study a sensory profile definition by a trained panel and instrumental measures deter-mination (pH, acidity, reducing sugar content) were carried out on the Sicilian chocolate known as "Modica" that is a niche cacao product spiced (cinnamon, vanilla) so as to obtain the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) branding for such a product. Sensory and instrumental data were also submitted to statistical analysis. The chocolate of Modica has shown a sensory profile differ-ent from other industrial products; in fact it is unique for the presence of sugar crystals and its gritty texture resulting from the manner of its production.
Cereal Chem. 82(3):256–263 Texture of wheat flour tortillas over 15 days at room temperature was evaluated using an expert sensory panel, consumer panels, subjective rollability test, large deformation rheological methods (i.e., bending, extensibility [1-D and 2-D], and puncture tests), and stress relaxation method. Most of the changes in texture occurred during the initial 8 days of storage, while texture of tortillas changed slowly thereafter. Differ-ences in texture between fresh and 1-day-old tortillas were detected by many objective rheological methods but not by either sensory panel. The expert sensory panel observed a rapid decrease in tortilla extensibility and an increase in staleness between 1 and 8 days of storage and smaller changes in sensory scores after 8 days of storage. Most objective rheo-logical parameters changed rapidly between 0 and 5 days, and slowly after 5 days of storage. Significant correlations and factor analysis reveal that changes occurring in flour tortillas during staling are estimated better by subjective rollability, sensory evaluation (expert and consumer panels), and 2-dimensional extensibility test than by other methods. Hence, some rheological methods are useful to estimate sensory properties of flour tortillas.
A trained sensory panel was used to establish terminology for describing the sensory attributes of different cultivars orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) and white-fleshed sweet potato (WFSP). Quantitative descriptive analysis was applied to evaluate the samples in terms of the aroma, texture, flavor and aftertaste attributes. Thirteen attributes were identified. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to identify any factors differentiating between the sweet potato cultivars. The findings indicated that the main differences were, in PC1, the flavor and density and adhesive textural characteristics, and, in PC2, the grainy and firm textural characteristics of the different cultivars. OFSP displayed a more dense and pasty texture, which was most intense in the Resisto cultivar. W119 had a more grainy texture when compared with the other cultivars tested. WFSP was more moist and fibrous. Therefore, OFSP differed in color, was sweeter and displayed flavor characteristics of yellow vegetables (such as butternut and pumpkin) when compared with WFSP.
Although standard sensory evaluation techniques were used in this project, the materials used were sweet potatoes, which are of interest. Sweet potato is a root vegetable, and in this project, a lexicon for the textural properties, as well as a flavor profile of sweet potato, was developed. Such information can be used for sensory evaluation of other root vegetables. The shear force of the sweet potatoes was measured, and the methodology to determine shear forces and its contribution to the overall evaluation of the texture of sweet potatoes is included in the article. Furthermore, white-fleshed sweet potatoes are commonly known, and the flavor of WFSP is compared with that of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes.
Sensory profiles were set up for green, violet and Chinese broccoli cultivars and white, green, pyramidal and purple cauliflower cultivars, which reflect a wide range of products available on the market. A trained panel of ten judges differentiated almost all the samples based on most of the 33 attributes tested. Consumer panel members preferred cauliflower samples with greater sweetness, juiciness and cauliflower flavour. Sweetness, crispness and intensity of broccoli and cauliflower flavour were the most important attributes for broccoli acceptability. More intense bitter, pungent and green/grassy notes reduced acceptability. The calculation of individual response to the product attributes revealed substantial differences between the individual consumers. A large majority of consumers indicated a greater preference for both, broccoli and cauliflower samples which had more sweetness and cauliflower flavour and low intensities of bitter and pungent notes. While sugar content could not be used to predict sweetness, glucosinolate content affected sweetness as well as bitter and pungent notes.
Accurate determination of tortilla quality is imperative because of the growing market. This calls for quality tests that are replicable. However, current tortilla quality testing relies heavily on subjective tests with unknown reliability. This study aimed to determine the relationship between subjective tortilla quality testing andavailable objective methods, and assess whether the latter can potentially replace the former. Correlation and regression analyses were done using data on subjective opacity and rollability, and objectiveL* value and texture parameters based on 114 wheat samples. Opacity scores and L & values were significantly correlated, but this relationship was affected by evaluator experience; in a controlled setting, experienced evaluators scores were more reliable (SEM = ±0.25 - 3.8, r = 0.96) than less experienced evaluators (SEM = ±0.25 - 7.3, r = 0.92). Tortilla rollability, which approximatesshelf stability, correlated most strongly with the rupture distance from two-dimensional extensibility test (r = 0.77). Subjective rollability at day 16 of storage was predicted by rupture distance (day 0) and work (day 4) (R2 = 0.69). Adding rupture force to the model slightly improves the R2 to 0.72. Objective color and texture parameter measurements have a potential to replace thesubjective tests as primary methods for tortilla quality.
The aim of this study was to develop a sensory profile for cooked gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). A total of 21 sessions (8 preliminary, 7 training and 6 for panel performance evaluation) were carried out on cooked samples from both fresh and frozen fish. During preliminary sessions, sample preparation and experimental conditions were established and 13 sensory attributes selected (3 for odor, 2 for appearance, 3 for flavor and 5 for texture). Data obtained from the panel performance evaluation sessions were analyzed by ANOVA and by principal component analysis (PCA). Significant differences between samples were detected for seven attributes (fresh odor, color, fresh flavor, firmness, chewiness, fibrousness and juiciness). Cooked frozen samples were perceived as having less fresh odor and fresh flavor, and being firmer, chewier, more fibrous and less juicy.
Wheat flour tortillas are the fastest growing segment of the North American baking industry. As this market grows, the search for healthier alternatives to traditional foods also increases. Nutritionally, flour tortillas are rich in carbohydrates that generate a high glycemic index subsequent to ingestion, demonstrating a behaviour similar to white bread. Hence, the formulation of more nutritious tortillas, with higher levels of protein, dietary fiber and antioxidants, appears to be promising. Although the number of publications concerning the nutritional improvement of flour tortillas is limited, attempts utilizing soybean, whole wheat, and triticale flours have been reported. Additionally, as different ingredients are added to traditional formulations, the texture is very likely to be affected, as are the shelf-life and other sensory properties. Among other additives, hydrocolloids have been reported to improve the textural qualities of bakery goods and flour tortillas. They comprise a number of water-soluble polysaccharides with varied chemical structures providing a range of functional properties that make them suitable to this application. This paper discusses the tortilla market, reviews research attempting to develop novel and nutritious products, and discusses the application of hydrocolloids as texture improvers.
Volatile compounds from six hot-air-popped popcorn hybrids, being also classified into three types, were evaluated by a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer (GC/MS). In addition, 68 panelists determined odour quality differences of the popped kernels by an aroma ranking test. Total number of volatiles detected by GC/MS were 195, of which 51 peaks were positively identified, 92 peaks were tentatively identified, and 52 peaks were unidentified. The relationships between quality/quantity of volatiles and sensory results revealed that 2-acetylpyridine was considered to contribute to the overall popped popcorn aroma quality favorably or not adversely. However, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 2-methylpyrazine, ethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine and 3-ethyl-2, 5-dimethylpyrazine were found to be important popcorn volatiles, but to contribute negatively to characteristic popped popcorn odour. Numerous other volatiles such as 2-furfurylthiol (2-furanmethanthiol), pyrrole, 3-(methylthio)propanal (methional), 3-furaldehyde, 4-vinyl-2-methoxyphenol (4-vinylguaiacol), 2-pentylfuran, 2-furanmethanol (furfuryl alcohol), hexanal, 1-pentanol, 2-methyl-5-vinylpyrazine, 2-methoxyphenol (guaiacol), 2-acetylpyrrole and others may be responsible in part of typical popcorn aroma characteristics.
The main objective of this study was to study perception of cheeses by comparing quality scores from expert assessors, descriptive profiling data from selected assessors and consumer responses. Twelve cheeses were evaluated by expert assessors and profiled by selected assessors. Five cheeses were selected for consumer testing and rated for hedonic liking, plus flavor intensity and degree of soft/firm texture. Analysis of variance and multivariate analyses of the data showed that the expert assessors scores for consistency, flavor and overall quality correlated positively with descriptive profiling attributes as mature flavor/odor, firmness, graininess and dryness of the cheeses. Preference mapping showed an even distribution of the consumers in the sensory map, which indicated different sensory segments. Some consumers preferred a firm cheese with a mild, mature flavor and others preferred a doughy cheese with more acid, fermented flavor. The expert assessors represented the preferences of the first group in their scoring procedure.
BACKGROUND: Descriptive analysis is the method most used in sensory analysis for product characterisation. This method is used to identify and quantify different wine sensations and attributes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the vintage on sensory attributes the Albariño wines from Rías Baixas (Galicia, Spain) and characterise the typical sensory profile of Albariño wine.
RESULTS: All descriptors found could be included in six categories: fruity, floral, vegetal, balsamic, lactic and toasted. Significant differences were observed between the aroma descriptors of Albariño wines of different vintages. Apple, apricot, banana, citric, floral, grass, lactic, peach, pear, pineapple, ripe fruit, toasted and tropical fruit were the common descriptors across vintages. Therefore, these attributes may qualitatively be considered as typical descriptors of Albariño wines from Galicia. No significant differences were found for aroma intensity of apricot, grass, ripe fruit and tropical fruit. These descriptors may quantitatively be considered as typical descriptors of Albariño wines. The 2003 and 2005 vintages were the more complex vintages because they displayed a high number of descriptors with ‘adjusted frequencies’ greater than 10%.
CONCLUSION: By using sensory descriptive analysis of commercial wines from four vintages, we obtained a sensory profile of Albariño wine. Fruity, floral and grass defined the aroma of Albariño wines. Copyright
A lexicon for describing the sensory attributes of French bread was developed. A panel of experts generated 187 expressions by a sensory evaluation of 24 bread samples from different bakeries. Of these expressions, 96 terms were selected as candidates for the lexicon. The panelists participated in a sensory evaluation of 14 bread samples according these 96 descriptors in accordance with ISO 11035. A principal component analysis and cluster analysis revealed that the 96 terms could be classified into 23 groups. The lexicon consisting of 23 terms (11 for appearance, five for aroma, one for taste and six for texture) was then made up by selecting a representative term for each cluster and determining a suitable definition and reference. The lexicon was verified against 23 samples prepared under various conditions in the laboratory by a sensory evaluation. The results show that all of the 23 descriptors were useful to differentiate the sensory qualities of French bread samples.
Selecting and defining descriptors is a critical step in a descriptive sensory analysis. A well-developed lexicon helps sensory researchers to conduct a precise sensory analysis. Fine-quality French bread has a good appearance, aroma, flavor and texture; therefore, French bread needs to be evaluated for all these factors. The lexicon for French bread developed in this study proved useful in the precise descriptive analysis of French bread found in Japan, with potential applications to the description of French bread in other countries. The lexicon will contribute to the development of products that match consumer acceptability, and also be useful in basic research.
A procedure for the sensory analysis of vinegar, which provides reproducible results and minimizes the standard deviation of attributes, was developed. A new tasting protocol was proposed that leads to low dispersions of panelists' answers. The list of attributes that describe vinegars was extended to a total of 13, the importance (or discriminant utility) of which was analyzed by using Partial Least Squares Regression related techniques. The attributes selected showed a good between-run reproducibility as was shown by the Discriminant Partial Least Squares Regression analysis on replications. The proposed methodology proved to be useful for tasting very different types of wine vinegars (i.e., sherry and red and white wine vinegars).
As the vinegar market is now making products from different raw materials, we believed that it would be interesting to improve sensory analysis. The European Union (EU) regulates the sensory analysis of oil but not of vinegar. Our manuscript describes a tasting protocol that aims to provide more reproducible results, proposes a broader vocabulary for describing vinegars and uses statistical tools to verify the reliability of new attributes.
Computer vision is playing an increasingly important role in automated visual food inspection. However, quality control in tortilla production is still performed by human operators which may lead to misclassification due to their subjectivity and fatigue. In order to reduce the need for human operators and therefore misclassification, we developed a computer vision framework to automatically classify the quality of corn tortillas according to five hedonic sub-classes given by a sensorial panel. The proposed framework analyzed 750 corn tortillas obtained from 15 different Mexican commercial stores which were either small, medium or large in size. More than 2300 geometric and color features were extracted from 1500 images capturing both sides of the 750 tortillas. After implementing a feature selection algorithm, in which the most relevant features were selected for the classification of the five sub-classes, only 64 features were required to design a classifier based on support vector machines. Cross-validation yielded a performance of 95% in the classification of the five hedonic sub-classes. Additionally, using only 10 of the selected features and a simple statistical classifier, it was possible to determine the origin of the tortillas with a performance of 96%. We believe that the proposed framework opens up new possibilities in the field of automated visual inspection of tortillas.
A cost-effective, faster and efficient way of screening wheat samples suitable for tortilla production is needed. This research aimed to develop prediction models for tortilla quality (diameter, specific volume, color and texture parameters) using grain, flour and dough properties of 16 wheat flours. Another set of 18 samples was used to validate the models. The prediction models were developed using stepwise multiple regression. Dough rheological tests had higher correlations with tortilla quality than grain and flour chemical tests. Mixograph mixing time and dough resistance to extension (from extensibility test using a texture analyzer) were correlated best with tortilla quality, particularly tortilla diameter (r = −0.87 and −0.86 respectively, P < 0.01). Insoluble polymeric proteins (IPP) and gluten index were significantly correlated with tortilla diameter (r = −0.70 and −0.67 respectively, P < 0.01) and specific volume (r = −0.73, P < 0.01). Tortilla diameter was the quality parameter best explained (R2 = 0.86) by the prediction models using mixing time and dough resistance to extension. Rheological parameters such as rupture distance and maximum force were also successfully predicted. These prediction models, developed from linear equations, will be an easy and fast tool for breeders to advance or eliminate wheat lines specifically bred for tortilla production.
The first genetically modified (GM) maize lines were approved for trading in Brazil after December 2007 and they were T25, MON810, Bt11, NK603 and GA21. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was employed to monitor the presence of Bt11 and nested PCR was used to detect the presence of Bt176 in 81 maize-derived products (maize flour, corn meal, maize flour flakes and polenta) that were sold in Brazilian market from 2005 to 2007, before the release of GM maize in Brazil.
The PCR detection limit for Bt11 was 10 g kg(-1) and for nested PCR of Bt176 it was 1 g kg(-1). All Brazilian samples analyzed showed no positive signal for these GM maize events.
Bt11 and Bt176 GM maize lines were not detected by specific PCR in 81 maize-derived food samples sold in Brazil from 2005 to 2007, before the commercial release of GM maize in Brazil. These Brazilian food industries were in compliance with the rules stipulated by the current legislation with respect to consumer requirements about GMO labeling.
Knowledge of the association between cooking properties and endosperm hardness may help nutritionist and processors to select raw materials for preparing maize based food products, particularly those eaten as cooked dispersions. Seven commercial maize cultivars differing in hardness were selected to evaluate endosperm hardness on the kernels and some characteristics such as composition and hydration and cooking properties on the grits obtained from those maizes. Results show that the differences in endosperm hardness (directly related to grits protein content) can explain the differences in swelling and amylographic consistencies values. Cultivars with the hardest endosperm show the lowest values at high temperature. They also show the lowest amylographic consistencies. On the other hand softer endosperms present the highest swelling power and the highest amylographic consistencies. These differences are attributed to the restriction for starch swelling caused by the protein matrix. Endosperm hardness measurements and swelling power at 95 degrees C, can be useful to select cultivars that are going to be used to prepare maize based foods like atoles, polenta, etc.
Widely consumed by populations of all socioeconomic classes worldwide, corn is one of the few food sources of lutein and zeaxanthin. However, data on these carotenoids in processed corn and corn as eaten are lacking. Thus, the major carotenoids in the principal brands of processed corn (canned corn, corn meal, corn flour, corn flake) and in typical corn dishes (farofa, boiled corn, pamonha, curau, fried and boiled polenta) were determined. There was marked variation between processed products and between brands of the same product, but variation between lots of the same brand was small. Canned corn had the highest zeaxanthin (11.91 to 18.06 microg/g), beta-cryptoxanthin (2.32 to 3.77 microg/g), and beta-carotene (1.79 to 2.75 microg/g) contents. The corn flake breakfast cereal had the second highest amount of zeaxanthin (9.08 to 12.77 microg/g). Corn meal had the highest lutein (4.02 to 7.62 microg/g) level and also had good zeaxanthin content (6.13 to 11.39 microg/g), but drastic reduction of all carotenoids, especially zeaxanthin, occurred when it was toasted to farofa. Boiled corn also had lower carotenoid levels compared to the raw corn. The wide variations in carotenoid concentrations appeared to be due mainly to varietal differences in the carotenoid composition of raw materials and to losses during processing and preparation for consumption.
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